EDPY 402 Jan. 13, 2010

Transcription

1 EDPY 402 Jan. 13, EDPY 402 and PSYC Power point: kcook 3. Tonight overview of chpt. 1 Controversies in Child Development Theories of Child Development 4. Ghost in your genes - DVD

2 Controversies in Child Development P A G E S Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, First Canadian Edition Spencer A. Rathus & Christina M. Rinaldi Chapter 1

3 The Nature Nurture Controversy To what extent is human behaviour the results of Nature heredity Nurture environment Orientation toward nature Cognitive-development theory Biological theorists Orientation toward nurture Learning theories Contemporary view of both nature and nurture

4 The Continuity Discontinuity Controversy Do developmental changes occur continuously (gradually)? discontinuously (major qualitative leaps)? Orientation toward continuity Maturational theories Orientation toward discontinuity Stage theories (Freud, Piaget)

5 The Active Passive Controversy For learning to occur do educators need to motivate passive learners, or encourage active learners to explore? Bronfenbrenner (1977) views children as both active and passive Bandura s reciprocal determinism mutual influences of people and the environment

6 Theories of Child Development P A G E S Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, First Canadian Edition Spencer A. Rathus & Christina M. Rinaldi Chapter 1

7 What are theories? Related sets of statements about events Include descriptive terms and concepts Based on certain assumptions Allow explanations and predictions Wide range of applicability Influence events being studied Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, First Canadian Edition Spencer A. Rathus & Christina M. Rinaldi Chapter 1

8 Developmental Theories The Psychoanalytic Perspective Psychosexual Development-Freud Psychosocial Development-Erikson The Learning Perspective Behavioral: Watson, Pavlov, Skinner Social Cognitive Theories: Bandura The Cognitive Perspective Piaget- Cognitive Development theory Information-processing theory The Biological Perspective Darwin, Lorenz, Tinbergen The Ecological Perspective Brofenbrenner The Sociocultural Perspective Vygotsky

9 The Psychoanalytic Perspective View children (and adults) involved in conflict Freud: internal drive and urges in child internalize external demands and rules internal conflict begins between child s drive and urges & outside world Erickson- series of life crisis to resolve Stage theories distinct periods of development

10 Freud s Theory of Psychosexual Development Sigmund Freud ( ) Levels of awareness Conscious level Preconscious level Unconscious level Parts of personality Id Ego Superego 5 distinct stages of psychosexual development Freud, 1914 Quantity of gratification at each stage (Too little/too much) Fixated at that stage

11 Stages of Psychosexual Theory of Development Oral Stage (1 st year) Sucking and biting Early weaning or breast-fed too long Fixation: nail-biting, smoking, biting wit Anal Stage (1-3 yrs.) Control and elimination of waste Excessive strict or permissive toilet training Fixation: anal-retentive (neatness); anal-expulsion (sloppiness) Phallic Stage (3-6 yrs.) Parent-child conflict over masturbation View same sex parent as rival Latency Stage (6-12 yrs.) Sexual feelings remain unconscious Genital Stage (Adolescence) Begins at adolescence- biological changes Desire sexual gratification through intercourse with member of other sex Interest in any other sexual gratification indicates fixation at an earlier stage of development

12 Evaluation of Psychosexual Theory of Development Major contribution to 20 th century thought Comprehensive theory of childhood Stimulated attachment theory, gender roles, moral development Stimulated attachment theory, gender roles, moral development Influenced parents, child-care workers and educators Don t push toileting, sensitive to emotional reasons for misbehavior Based on patients (women) who were emotionally troubled Little empirical data Placed too much emphasis on instincts and unconscious motives

13 Erikson s Theory of Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson ( ) modified and expanded Freud s theory successful resolution of life crises sense of identity Differences from psychosexual development focus on development of self-identity; social adjustment Social relationships more NB. than sexual/aggressive urges includes conscious and purposeful acts in development extended stages to eight; throughout adulthood- named after life crisis

14 Stages of Psychosocial Development Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 1 year) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 to 3 years) Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 years) Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 years) Identity vs. Role Diffusion (adolescence) Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood) Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood) Ego Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood)

15 Evaluation of Psychosocial Development Influenced child rearing, early childhood education & therapy with children, & adolescent identity crisis Highly appealing emphasize choice and minimize urges portray people as prosocial and giving Unified view of life span development Some empirical support Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, First Canadian Edition Spencer A. Rathus & Christina M. Rinaldi Chapter 1

16 The Learning Perspective: Behavioural & Social Cognition Theories Learning theory used in everyday life Mechanical learning by association Conditioning Intentional learning Rote and trial-and-error learning Observational learning

17 Behaviourism John B. Watson- founder (Ivan Pavlov, Thorndike, B.F. Skinner) Only address observable behaviour Contributions to behaviourism Classical Conditioning Watson (right), 1984 Operant Conditioning Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed and my own specified world to bring them up in and I ll guarantee to train them to become any type of specialist I might suggest- doctor, lawyer, merchant chief, and, yes, even a beggar and thief irregardless of their talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and the race of their ancestors (Watson, 1924, p. 82)

18 Classical Conditioning Learning by Association Unconditioned = Unlearned Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) elicits Unconditioned Response (UCR) Introduction of a Neutral Stimulus (NS) Repeated association of neutral Stimulus and UCS Conditioned = Learned Conditioned Stimulus (CS) elicits Conditioned Response (CR) E.g.. Pavlov s Salivating Dogs Food (UCS) elicits Salivation (UCR) Clinking of food trays (NS) Clinking of food trays (NS) prior to Food (UCS) Clinking of food trays (CS) elicits Salivation (CR)

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20 Application of classical conditioning with children Figure 1.1 Schematic Representation of Classical Conditioning

21 Operant Conditioning Learn to operate on environment because of the effects of behaviour Behaviour occurs and then a stimulus is introduced that will encourage the repetition of the behaviour B. F. Skinner Reinforcement Any stimulus that increases the frequency of the behaviour they follow I was not a lab rat -Deborah Skinner, The Guardian, Mar. 12, 2004

22 Principles of Operant conditioning Positive reinforcers Something applied that increases the frequency of the behaviour Negative reinforcers Something removed that increases the frequency of the behaviour Extinction Operant behaviour is no longer shown after repeated performance of the behaviour without reinforcement

23 Figure 1.2 Positive versus Negative Reinforcers

24 Punishment Aversive events that decrease the behaviour they follow Usually undesirable for learning Does not suggest an alternative, acceptable form of behaviour Tends to suppress undesirable behaviour only under certain conditions Punished children may withdraw from the situation Can create anger and hostility May generalize too far May be imitated as a way of problem solving or coping with stress

25 Application of Operant Conditioning Shaping Teaching complex behaviours Socialization of children Parent and child Child and child Teacher and child 2 NB. Principles Avoid punishment where possible Be consistent so undesirable behaviour is not reinforced

26 Social Cognitive Theory (social learning theory) Acquire basic know-how through observational learning Learning alters child s mental representation of environment and influences belief in ability to change the environment Child is an active learner- without being reinforced Intentional observation of models for imitation Albert Bandura Canadian born social learning theorist learning not mechanical but cognition plays a role

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28 Evaluation of Learning Theories Meets the goals of describe, explain and predict aspects of children s behaviour Principles abundant in education and clinical application Unclear if learning is only mechanical Underestimates role of biological-maturation factors

29 The Cognitive Perspective Focus on children s mental processes How children perceive and mentally represent the world Jean Piaget ( ) Cognitive-developmental theory Information-processing theory

30 Piaget s Cognitive-Developmental Theory Working with Binet on IQ tests for children, Piaget became interested in children s incorrect answers Piaget s work was not widely read until mid 1950 s difficult to understand introduced when behaviourism and psychoanalysis were popular Piaget s view of children as little scientists

31 Piaget s Basic Concepts Scheme pattern of action involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge Adaptation interaction between child and the environment Assimilation Respond to new object or event according to existing schemes Accommodation Adjust scheme to a new object or event Equilibration Process of restoring equilibrium after a period of accommodation

32 Piaget s Stages of Cognitive-Development Four major stages Sensorimotor (birth - 2 years) Preoperational (2-7 years) Concrete Operational (7-12 years) Formal Operational (12 years and older) Stages are universal Development is based on children s interactions with their environments Influential in many educational settings

33 Evaluation of Cognitive-Development Theory Provided a view different from behaviourism & psychoanalysis Provided strong theoretical foundation for sequences of cognitive development Piaget may have underestimated children s abilities by age Cognitive growth may be more gradual than Piaget s distinct stages

34 Information-Processing Theory Influenced by the concepts of computer science Process of encoding information (input) Storage of information (long-term memory) Retrieval of information (short-term memory) Manipulation of information to solve problems (output) Software (mental processes) Hardware (brain) Consider limitations of child Short-term memory Ability to multi-task Applications in education Sequence of steps- acquire information, commit it to memory & retrieve it to solve problems

35 Figure 12.4 The Structure of Memory

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37 The Biological Perspective Pertains to aspects of physical development Gains in height and weight Development of nervous system Developments connected with hormones, heredity Psychological & social developments rooted in biological structures/processes Ethology (biologically oriented theory) Evolution of humans within the animal kingdom Influence by Charles Darwin, Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen Involves instinctive behaviour patterns Inborn fixed action patterns (FAPs)- prewired Evaluation Recognize human behaviour not as mechanical as lower animals Assume instinctive behaviours can be modified through learning

38 The Ecological Perspective Ecological Systems Theory Branch of biology- explains development through interactions between children and the settings in which they live Urie Bronfenbrenner Reciprocal interactions focus on interactions between parent and child (bidirectional) Five Embedded Systems Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem

39 Figure 1.4 The Contexts of Human Development

40 The Sociocultural Perspective View children as social beings who are influenced by the cultures in which they live Lev Vygotsky s ( ) sociocultural theory Transmission of information & cognitive skills generation to generation Child s interactions with more knowledgeable peers and adults organizes learning experiences Child adapts to social/cultural interactions

41 Vygotsky s Sociocultural Theory Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) range of tasks child can perform with help of someone more skilled use of conversations, external and internal, to guide the learning Scaffolding Adult provides problem-solving methods until child can perform independently May also be used by child with peers Awareness of diversity among children Ethnicity Understanding of children s family values and cultural expectations Must understand context to understand child Gender- aspect of human diversity Understanding of gender-role expectations

42 Genetics The branch of biology that studies heredity Heredity- the transmission of traits & characteristics from parent to child by means of genes Genes- basic unit of heredity, composed of DNA strands (hold code for developing organism)- Genotype Phenotype= Genes + Environment Influence of genes & environment studies through kinship, twin & adoption studies Nature- Nurture or Interaction? What about the epigenome? Ghost in your Genes - DVD