Chapter 5 IPv4 Addresses
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1 Chapter 5 IPv4 Addresses مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 1 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
2 INTRODUCTION مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 2 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
3 An IP address is a 32-bit address. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 3 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
4 The IP addresses are unique. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 4 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
5 RULE:.. addr1.. If a protocol uses N bits to addr15 define addr2an.. address,.. the.. address space is 2 N because each bit addr41 can have addr226 two addr31.. different values (0 and.. 1) and N bits can have 2 N values. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 5 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
6 The address space of IPv4 is 2 32 or 4,294,967,296. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 6 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
7 Binary Notation مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 7 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
8 Dotted-decimal notation مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 8 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
9 Hexadecimal Notation D EA 0x75951DEA مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 9 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
10 The binary, decimal, and hexadecimal number systems are reviewed in Appendix B. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 10 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
11 Example 1 Change the following IP address from binary notation to dotted-decimal notation Solution مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 11 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
12 Example 2 Change the following IP address from dotted-decimal notation to binary notation Solution مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 12 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
13 Example 3 Find the error, if any, in the following IP address: Solution There are no leading zeroes in dotted-decimal notation (045). مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 13 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
14 Example 3 (continued) Find the error, if any, in the following IP address: Solution In dotted-decimal notation, each number is less than or equal to 255; 301 is outside this range. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 14 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
15 Example 4 Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to hexadecimal notation Solution 0X810B0BEF or 810B0BEF 16 مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 15 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
16 CLASSFUL ADDRESSING مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 16 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
17 Occupation of the address space مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 17 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
18 In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes: A, B, C, D, and E. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 18 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
19 Occupation of the address space مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 19 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
20 Finding the class in binary notation مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 20 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
21 Finding the address class مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 21 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
22 Example 5 How can we prove that we have 2,147,483,648 addresses in class A? Solution In class A, only 1 bit defines the class. The remaining 31 bits are available for the address. With 31 bits, we can have 2 31 or 2,147,483,648 addresses. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 22 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
23 Example 6 Find the class of the address: Solution The first bit is 0. This is a class A address. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 23 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
24 Example 6 (Continued) Find the class of the address: Solution The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C address. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 24 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
25 Finding the class in decimal notation مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 25 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
26 Example 7 Find the class of the address: Solution The first byte is 227 (between 224 and 239); the class is D. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 26 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
27 Example 7 (Continued) Find the class of the address: Solution The first byte is 193 (between 192 and 223); the class is C. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 27 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
28 Example 8 In Example 4 we showed that class A has 2 31 (2,147,483,648) addresses. How can we prove this same fact using dotted-decimal notation? Solution The addresses in class A range from to We notice that we are dealing with base 256 numbers here. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 28 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
29 Solution (Continued) Each byte in the notation has a weight. The weights are as follows: 256 3, 256 2, 256 1, Last address: = 2,147,483,647 First address: = 0 If we subtract the first from the last and add 1, we get 2,147,483,648. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 29 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
30 Netid and hostid مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 30 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
31 Blocks in class A مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 31 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
32 Blocks in class A مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 32 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
33 Millions of class A addresses are wasted. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 33 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
34 Blocks in class B مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 34 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
35 Blocks in class B مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 35 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
36 Many class B addresses are wasted. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 36 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
37 Blocks in class C مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 37 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
38 Blocks in class C مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 38 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
39 The number of addresses in a class C block is smaller than the needs of most organizations. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 39 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
40 Class D addresses are used for multicasting; there is only one block in this class. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 40 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
41 Single block in class D مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 41 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
42 Single block in class E مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 42 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
43 Network Addresses The network address is the first address. The network address defines the network to the rest of the Internet. Given the network address, we can find the class of the address, the block, and the range of the addresses in the block مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 43 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
44 In classful addressing, the network address (the first address in the block) is the one that is assigned to the organization. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 44 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
45 Two-level addressing in classful addressing مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 45 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
46 Two-level addressing in classful addressing مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 46 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
47 Example 9 Given the network address , find the class, the block, and the range of the addresses. Solution The class is A because the first byte is between 0 and 127. The block has a netid of 73. The addresses range from to مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 47 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
48 مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 48 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
49 Example 10 Given the network address , find the class, the block, and the range of the addresses. Solution The class is B because the first byte is between 128 and 191. The block has a netid of The addresses range from to مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 49 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
50 مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 50 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
51 Example 11 Given the network address , find the class, the block, and the range of the addresses. Solution The class is C because the first byte is between 192 and 223. The block has a netid of The addresses range from to مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 51 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
52 مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 52 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
53 Sample internet مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 53 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
54 Network address مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 54 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
55 Mask A mask is a 32-bit binary number that gives the first address in the block (the network address) when bitwise ANDed with an address in the block. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 55 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
56 Masking concept مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 56 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
57 AND operation مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 57 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
58 Network mask مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 58 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
59 Finding a network address مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 59 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
60 Example 12 Given the address and the default class A mask, find the beginning address (network address). Solution The default mask is , which means that only the first byte is preserved and the other 3 bytes are set to 0s. The network address is مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 60 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
61 Example 13 Given the address and the default class B mask, find the beginning address (network address). Solution The default mask is , which means that the first 2 bytes are preserved and the other 2 bytes are set to 0s. The network address is مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 61 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
62 Example 14 Given the address and the class C default mask, find the beginning address (network address). Solution The default mask is , which means that the first 3 bytes are preserved and the last byte is set to 0. The network address is مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 62 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
63 We must not apply the default mask of one class to an address belonging to another class. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 63 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
64 OTHER ISSUES مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 64 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
65 Subnetting/Supernetting and Classless Addressing مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 65 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
66 Three Level Addressing: SUBNETTING مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 66 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
67 IP addresses are designed with two levels of hierarchy. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 67 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
68 A network with two levels of hierarchy (not subnetted) مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 68 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
69 A network with two levels of hierarchy (not subnetted) مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 69 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
70 Hierarchy concept in a telephone number مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 70 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
71 Addresses in a network with and without subnetting مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 71 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
72 A network with three levels of hierarchy (subnetted) مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 72 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
73 Network mask and subnet mask مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 73 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
74 Default mask and subnet mask مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 74 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
75 Finding the Subnet Address Given an IP address, we can find the subnet address the same way we found the network address in the previous chapter. We apply the mask to the address. We can do this in two ways: straight or short-cut. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 75 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
76 Straight Method In the straight method, we use binary notation for both the address and the mask and then apply the AND operation to find the subnet address. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 76 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
77 Example 1 What is the subnetwork address if the destination address is and the subnet mask is ? مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 77 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
78 Solution The subnetwork address is مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 78 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
79 Short-Cut Method ** If the byte in the mask is 255, copy the byte in the address. ** If the byte in the mask is 0, replace the byte in the address with 0. ** If the byte in the mask is neither 255 nor 0, we write the mask and the address in binary and apply the AND operation. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 79 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
80 Example 2 What is the subnetwork address if the destination address is and the mask is ? Solution See Figure next slide مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 80 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
81 Example 2 مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 81 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
82 Comparison of a default mask and a subnet mask مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 82 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
83 The number of subnets must be a power of 2. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 83 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
84 Example 3 A company is granted the site address (class C). The company needs six subnets. Design the subnets. Solution The number of 1s in the default mask is 24 (class C). مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 84 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
85 Solution (Continued) The company needs six subnets. This number 6 is not a power of 2. The next number that is a power of 2 is 8 (2 3 ). We need 3 more 1s in the subnet mask. The total number of 1s in the subnet mask is 27 (24 + 3). The total number of 0s is 5 (32-27). The mask is مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 85 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
86 Solution (Continued) or The number of subnets is 8. The number of addresses in each subnet is 2 5 (5 is the number of 0s) or 32. See next slide مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 86 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
87 Example 3 مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 87 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
88 Example 4 A company is granted the site address (class B). The company needs 1000 subnets. Design the subnets. Solution The number of 1s in the default mask is 16 (class B). مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 88 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
89 Solution (Continued) The company needs 1000 subnets. This number is not a power of 2. The next number that is a power of 2 is 1024 (2 10 ). We need 10 more 1s in the subnet mask. The total number of 1s in the subnet mask is 26 ( ). The total number of 0s is 6 (32-26). مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 89 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
90 Solution (Continued) The mask is or The number of subnets is The number of addresses in each subnet is 2 6 (6 is the number of 0s) or 64. See next slide مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 90 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
91 Example 4 مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 91 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
92 Variable-length subnetting مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 92 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
93 SUPERNETTING مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 93 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
94 A supernetwork مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 94 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
95 Rules: ** The number of blocks must be a power of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, 16,...). ** The blocks must be contiguous in the address space (no gaps between the blocks). ** The third byte of the first address in the superblock must be evenly divisible by the number of blocks. In other words, if the number of blocks is N, the third byte must be divisible by N. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 95 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
96 Example 5 A company needs 600 addresses. Which of the following set of class C blocks can be used to form a supernet for this company? مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 96 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
97 Solution 1: No, there are only three blocks. 2: No, the blocks are not contiguous. 3: No, 31 in the first block is not divisible by 4. 4: Yes, all three requirements are fulfilled. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 97 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
98 In subnetting, we need the first address of the subnet and the subnet mask to define the range of addresses. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 98 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
99 In supernetting, we need the first address of the supernet and the supernet mask to define the range of addresses. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 99 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
100 Comparison of subnet, default, and supernet masks مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 100 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
101 Example 6 We need to make a supernetwork out of 16 class C blocks. What is the supernet mask? Solution We need 16 blocks. For 16 blocks we need to change four 1s to 0s in the default mask. So the mask is or مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 101 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
102 Example 7 A supernet has a first address of and a supernet mask of A router receives three packets with the following destination addresses: Which packet belongs to the supernet? مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 102 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
103 Solution We apply the supernet mask to see if we can find the beginning address AND AND AND Only the first address belongs to this supernet. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 103 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
104 Example 8 A supernet has a first address of and a supernet mask of How many blocks are in this supernet and what is the range of addresses? Solution The supernet has 21 1s. The default mask has 24 1s. Since the difference is 3, there are 2 3 or 8 blocks in this supernet. The blocks are to The first address is The last address is مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 104 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
105 CLASSLESS ADDRESSING مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 105 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
106 Variable-length blocks مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 106 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
107 Number of Addresses in a Block There is only one condition on the number of addresses in a block; it must be a power of 2 (2, 4, 8,...). A household may be given a block of 2 addresses. A small business may be given 16 addresses. A large organization may be given 1024 addresses. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 107 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
108 Beginning Address The beginning address must be evenly divisible by the number of addresses. For example, if a block contains 4 addresses, the beginning address must be divisible by 4. If the block has less than 256 addresses, we need to check only the rightmost byte. If it has less than 65,536 addresses, we need to check only the two rightmost bytes, and so on. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 108 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
109 Example 9 Which of the following can be the beginning address of a block that contains 16 addresses? Solution The address is eligible because 32 is divisible by 16. The address is eligible because 80 is divisible by 16. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 109 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
110 Example 10 Which of the following can be the beginning address of a block that contains 1024 addresses? Solution To be divisible by 1024, the rightmost byte of an address should be 0 and the second rightmost byte must be divisible by 4. Only the address meets this condition. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 110 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
111 Figure 5-14 Slash notation مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 111 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
112 Slash notation is also called CIDR notation. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 112 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
113 Slash notation مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 113 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
114 Example 11 A small organization is given a block with the beginning address and the prefix length /29 (in slash notation). What is the range of the block? Solution The beginning address is To find the last address we keep the first 29 bits and change the last 3 bits to 1s. Beginning: Ending : There are only 8 addresses in this block. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 114 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
115 Example 12 We can find the range of addresses in Example 11 by another method. We can argue that the length of the suffix is or 3. So there are 2 3 = 8 addresses in this block. If the first address is , the last address is ( = 31). مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 115 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
116 A block in classes A, B, and C can easily be represented in slash notation as A.B.C.D/ n where n is either 8 (class A), 16 (class B), or 24 (class C). مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 116 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
117 Example 13 What is the network address if one of the addresses is /27? Solution The prefix length is 27, which means that we must keep the first 27 bits as is and change the remaining bits (5) to 0s. The 5 bits affect only the last byte. The last byte is Changing the last 5 bits to 0s, we get or 64. The network address is /27. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 117 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
118 Example 14 An organization is granted the block /26. The organization needs to have four subnets. What are the subnet addresses and the range of addresses for each subnet? Solution The suffix length is 6. This means the total number of addresses in the block is 64 (2 6 ). If we create four subnets, each subnet will have 16 addresses. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 118 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
119 Solution (Continued) Let us first find the subnet prefix (subnet mask). We need four subnets, which means we need to add two more 1s to the site prefix. The subnet prefix is then /28. Subnet 1: /28 to /28. Subnet 2 : /28 to /28. Subnet 3: /28 to /28. Subnet 4: /28 to /28. See next slide مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 119 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
120 Example 14 مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 120 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
121 Example 15 An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with /16. The ISP needs to distribute these addresses to three groups of customers as follows: 1. The first group has 64 customers; each needs 256 addresses. 2. The second group has 128 customers; each needs 128 addresses. 3. The third group has 128 customers; each needs 64 addresses. Design the subblocks and give the slash notation for each subblock. Find out how many addresses are still available after these allocations. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 121 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
122 Solution: first step مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 122 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
123 Solution: second step مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 123 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
124 Solution Group 1 For this group, each customer needs 256 addresses. This means the suffix length is 8 (2 8 = 256). The prefix length is then 32-8 = : / /24 02: / / : / /24 Total = = 16,384 مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 124 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
125 Solution (Continued) Group 2 For this group, each customer needs 128 addresses. This means the suffix length is 7 (2 7 = 128). The prefix length is then 32-7 = 25. The addresses are: 001: / /25 002: / /25 003: / /25 Total = = 16,384 مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 125 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
126 Solution (Continued) Group 3 For this group, each customer needs 64 addresses. This means the suffix length is 6 (2 6 = 64). The prefix length is then 32-6 = : / /26 002: / /26 128: / /26 Total = = 8,192 مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 126 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
127 Solution (Continued) Number of granted addresses: 65,536 Number of allocated addresses: 40,960 Number of available addresses: 24,576 مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 127 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
128 Special addresses مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 128 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
129 All zero address مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 129 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
130 All ones address: limited broadcast address مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 130 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
131 Example of limited broadcast address مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 131 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
132 Direct broadcast address مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 132 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
133 Example of direct broadcast address مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 133 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
134 Network addresses مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 134 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
135 Example of this host on this address مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 135 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
136 Example of specific host on this network مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 136 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
137 Loopback address مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 137 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
138 مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 138 TCP/IP Protocol Suite Example of loopback address
139 مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 139 TCP/IP Protocol Suite Multihomed devices
140 Private Addresses A number of blocks in each class are assigned for private use. They are not recognized globally. These blocks are depicted in Table 4.4 مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 140 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
141 Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses Unicast communication is one-to-one. Multicast communication is one-to-many. Broadcast communication is one-to-all. مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 141 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
142 Network Address Translation (NAT) مترجم : دکتر محمد حسین یغمایی 142 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
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