The Plasma Universe Theory

Transcription

1 The Plasma Universe Theory Duncan Bartlett 1. Abstract: The Big Bang theory has long been accepted as the correct theory for the birth and evolution of the universe. However, over the decades, observations have contradicted the Big Bang theory, causing cosmologists to modify it and add new concepts to explain these observations. It is possible that these attempts have gone so far that they are covering up for the fact that the theory simply is not correct. An increasing number of scientists are at odds with adding to and modifying the original theories, arguing that rectifying a theory with unobserved and unproved ideas, such as dark matter and dark energy, is not scientifically acceptable. Several other theories have been put forward that offer alternative explanations for either specific phenomena or for the beginning of the universe in general. The Plasma Universe theory offers an alternative explanation for the universe s origin and evolution. The basis is that electromagnetic forces are as important as gravitational forces on galactic and universal scales, and play a large part in the formation and distribution of galaxies. While the theory is not perfect and fails to offer explanations for several important observations, such as the apparent expansion of the universe, it does offer a convincing explanation for phenomena such as the galaxy rotation problem, possibly eliminating the need for dark matter. In this article, the above concepts are reviewed and discussed. Emphasis is given to the wide ranging importance of plasmas in space. Page 1

2 Contents: 1. Abstract 2. Introduction 3. Basic Physics - Doppler Shift 4. Galaxy Rotation Problem 5. Overview of the Big Bang Theory - History - Description - Dark Matter - Galaxy Rotation - Contradictions with Observations 6. Overview of The Plasma Universe Theory - History - Description - Galaxy Formation and Rotation - Detection - Problems 7. Modified Newtonian Dynamics 8. Conclusion 9. References Page 2

3 2. Introduction: In 1929, Edwin Hubble observed that different galaxies are receding from the Earth at speeds that are proportional to their distance from us. When this observation was coupled with the Cosmological Principle that when the universe is viewed on a large enough scale there is no preferred direction or point, it appears to suggest that the universe is expanding [Kau99]. This allowed two different theories about the beginning of the universe. In Fred Hoyle s Steady State theory, new matter was created in the universe as galaxies moved away from each other. The other theory, put forward by George Gamow, is the Big Bang theory, proposing an expanding universe that started with the explosion of a singularity-like particle. For a while these two theories had fairly even support from the scientific community, but as more detailed observations were taken, especially the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation, it became clear to most that the Big Bang theory was more likely to be true and today it is generally accepted as the correct theory for the beginning of the universe [Sil01]. In the Big Bang theory, we extrapolate backwards from the present state of the universe and assume that at some point all the matter in the universe was brought together into a place of immense temperature and density. General relativity predicts this point is a singularity, which is what we think is at the centre of a black hole. Scientists have calculated, by observing the movement of supernovae, an approximate age of the universe of 13.7 billion years (1.37x10 10 years) and theorise that at the beginning of time the singularity exploded, sending matter flying out into the expanding space. The distribution of matter was generally uniform, but there were areas that were slightly denser and it was these areas that attracted more matter to them, forming galaxies, stars, planets and other universal objects. However, as more detailed observations of the universe were taken, it was found that the Big Bang theory was unable to completely explain them all. One such problem was that when the amount of matter in a galaxy was calculated, it appeared to be insufficient to explain the gravity required to keep the galaxy together. In order to explain such discrepancies, the Big Bang theory was refined to include the existence of Dark Matter that would make up 90% of the matter in the universe. However, no observations of this dark matter have been made and no laboratory experiments have been able to recreate this matter or prove its existence. Some scientists have become dissatisfied by such ad hoc additions and refinements to the Big Bang theory in order to rectify conflicts with observations being made and have begun to investigate other possible explanations for the beginning of the universe [Ler91]. Page 3

4 3. Basic Physics: Doppler Shift The Doppler Shift was first defined through the study of sound waves where, as the source of sound waves moves closer to you (or alternatively, you move closer to the source) at speed, the frequency or wavelength of the sound appears to decrease. This is because, even though the source is emitting sound at a constant frequency, because it is moving towards the observer then he is receiving the waves more often. Therefore, even though the emitted frequency is not changing, the wavelength is getting smaller and the frequency the observer receives appears to be changing. The frequency for the Doppler shift of the frequency of sound waves appears below: F = F o V ( V + Vs ) Where F is the apparent frequency, F o is the actual frequency, V is the speed of the sound waves and V s is the speed of the source with respect to the medium [Hal01]. Astronomers observe the spectral lines emitted by various elements hydrogen, for example in universal observations. To do this, they observe the spectral lines given by burning an element such as hydrogen in a laboratory, and then they observe a distant object such as a star. The light emitted from a star (and observed by us as a spectral line) undergoes Doppler shifts due to the extremely high speeds at which the objects are moving away from us. The wavelength of the light we see appears to be shifted towards the red end of the spectrum if the source is moving away from us (Red shift) or towards the blue end if it is moving towards us (Blue shift). Page 4

5 Figure 1 [Wiki] Red Shift of Spectral Lines In a star, hydrogen is burnt producing the same spectral line. However, it will be red or blue shifted due to the motion of the star itself and from this, we can calculate the object s speed. Figure 1 shows the absorption spectra obtained from the sun on the left. As the sun is close to us and is not moving away from us (apart from motion due to the action of our orbit) the results we get are close to those of a stationary object. The spectrum on the right is from a distant galaxy. The shift in wavelength is obvious when the two are compared side by side. In astronomy, it is customary to refer to the relative change in wavelength (λ), and to use a dimensionless constant (z) to represent this. λobserved λ z = λ emitted emitted Using this principle, we can observe distant objects and tell whether they are moving towards us or away from us, and at what speed. Page 5

6 In a galaxy, the objects within it are spinning around the galactic core. By measuring the Doppler shift of objects within the galaxy, we can tell the speed at which they are moving on one side of the galaxy they will be moving towards us and will be blue shifted, on the other side they will be red shifted as they rotate away from us. Due to the fact that the objects we observe are almost always moving away from us (and at great speeds) we do not see an actual blue shift, only a relative blue shift on one side of the rotating body. In fact, we see a red shift on both sides, but one side s shift will be greater than the other. By calculating the speed at which the object as a whole is moving, we can correct for this. By taking measurements of the spectral lines from objects at different distances from the galactic core, we can plot a curve of the rotational speed of the galactic disc at different distances from the core [Per92]. Page 6

7 4. Galaxy Rotation Problem: As mentioned in the previous section, we are able to measure the rotational curve of distant galaxies by measuring the Doppler shift of objects at different distances from the centre of the galaxy we are observing. Newtonian physics gives us rotational velocity by equating the equation for gravitational force to the acceleration and assuming that most of the mass is within the radius of the orbit. GMm mv 2 F = =. 2 r r 2 GMm mv = 2 r r 2 1 v r 1 v r Where F is the force, G = Gravitational constant, M = mass of the central body, m = mass of the orbiting body, v = velocity and r = radius. The graph we obtain should show us that rotational velocity drops off by the inverse root of the distance from the centre. When we look at galaxies, the observations tell us that this does not happen; this is known as the galaxy rotational problem. Instead, we see that the speed of the objects within a galaxy is constant across a large range of radii. This seems to imply that either Newtonian physics does not apply for some reason, or that there is some other mechanism at work. Observations of the Hα spectral line in spiral galaxies indicate that the velocity at the centre appears to follow the trend predicted by Newtonian physics. However, as we observe objects further out along the spiral arms, the velocity changes linearly. Then, at the ends of the arms, a few kiloparsecs from the centre, the curve flattens out where the velocity becomes constant (figure 2, rotational velocity of galaxy NGC2742). At present, the general consensus is that the only force that needs to be considered on galactic and universal scales is gravity. In order for this idea to reconcile with what we observe in the rotational velocity of galaxies, we need to find an alternative solution to simple Newtonian physics. Page 7

8 Figure 2 [Ctu] plot of rotational velocity against distance from centre of a galaxy Page 8

9 5. Overview of the Big Bang Theory: History: The Big Bang theory was developed from the observations made of receding spiral galaxies and from Einstein s theory of general relativity. In 1927, Georges Lemaître calculated that the universe began from what he called a primeval atom in what would later come to be known as the Big Bang. In 1929, Edwin Hubble discovered, through observation, that galaxies are moving away from Earth in every direction, and at speeds proportional to their distance from Earth. This became known as Hubble s law and allowed for two possible theories about the universe. The first was Lemaître s Big Bang theory. The second was proposed by Fred Hoyle, and was called the Steady State Model where new matter was being created as galaxies moved away from each other, meaning the universe would look the same at any point in it and at all times. In 1965 the discovery of Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) showed that the universe evolved from a hot, dense state. Due to this discovery, the Big Bang theory has been generally recognised as the best theory to explain the beginning and evolution of the universe [Sil01]. Description: The Big Bang theory predicts that all the matter in the universe was once contained within a region of space that is infinitely small and dense, a singularity. Then, around 14 billion years ago, it exploded, sending matter out into the expanding universe. As the universe expanded, it cooled, and over billions of years, patches of the universe with a higher density of matter exerted a gravitational attraction on the matter around them. These clumps of matter eventually formed galaxies, stars, planets and the other universal objects. The Big Bang has three main pieces of observational evidence that back it up. These are: Hubble Law Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) Abundance of light elements. The Hubble Law is based on observational evidence showing that all observable objects are on average moving away from us at velocities proportional to their distance, and is represented through the equation: v= H od Where v = velocity, d = distance from Earth and H o = Hubble constant ( 7 km/s/mpc). The CMB is interpreted as the leftover radiation from the Big Bang, composed of photons emitted during initial production of protons and electrons, after the universe had cooled below 3000K and atoms and electrons were able to bond. Page 9

10 When the CMB was observed, it was shown to be isotropic (no preferred direction or region) and corresponded to a black-body spectrum for the universe at around a temperature of 2.725K. The Big Bang theory can be used to predict the amounts of helium-3, -4, deuterium and lithium-7 as ratios to the amount of hydrogen. The ratios predicted, with respect to the amount of hydrogen are: 0.25 for helium-4, about 10-3 for deuterium, about 10-4 for helium-3 and about 10-9 for lithium-7 [Ler91]. These values compare well with the calculated values for light element abundance except for Lithium-7 and Helium-4. The scientists behind these calculations maintain that this is because the uncertainties in the abundance of these two elements are the least understood at this time. Scientists take this as strong evidence for the Big Bang theory [Sil01]. Dark Matter: If galaxies formed from small fluctuations in the otherwise smooth matter distribution of the early universe, then these fluctuations would show up in the CMB as a variation of 5 or 6 parts per thousand. However, in the 1970 s observers calculated these variations to be no more than one part in a thousand [Ler91]. Cosmologists theorised that there was too little matter in the universe. The thinking behind this was that the less matter existed, the smaller the fluctuations in the matter density that would eventually grow into galaxies. In fact, in order for galaxies to have formed as predicted by the Big Bang theory, there needed to be around a hundred times more matter in the universe than we had calculated. However, if the universe contained this much matter then its gravity would have been sufficient to halt the expansion of the universe. In order for the Big Bang theory to be reconciled with observations, some form of matter must make up the 90% that we cannot see. This is what is called dark matter. In order for this dark matter to not contradict the Big Bang s predictions for the density of helium, deuterium and lithium in the universe then it had to be a new kind of particle, previously unknown and not understood. It is assumed to be non-baryonic (meaning it is not composed of baryons protons and neutrons) and does not interact with light. The only way we are able to detect its presence is through its apparent interaction with gravity. Galaxy Rotation In order to solve the galaxy rotation problem, scientists theorised that visible matter is not the main source of matter within a galaxy. Scientists hypothesised that a region of dark matter in a halo shape surrounds the visible disc of stars and planets. The substantial amount of mass at a large distance from the centre would provide the correct influence on the matter within a galaxy to create the observed rotational velocities. Other solutions include the idea that we have an incomplete understanding of gravity, and it needs to be reconciled with quantum physics in order to fully explain the gravity rotational problem, where the strength of gravity deviates from the inverse square law over large distances. Page 10

11 Contradictions with Observations: Age of the Universe: One prediction of the Big Bang theory is that the universe would be homogeneous and the matter in the universe would be smooth. However, through simple observation we can tell that the universe is not smooth. The standard theory is that there were tiny imperfections in the early universe, clumps of matter that slowly attracted more matter towards themselves. These clumps grew, eventually becoming stars and galaxies. The bigger the clump of matter, the longer it would have taken to form. For instance, stars would take millions of years and galaxies would take billions. Clusters would take longer and super clusters of galaxies would take longer even than that. This is a problem as the current calculated age of the universe is only billion (1-2x10 10 ) years and this, according to some scientists, is just not enough time for super clusters to form [Ler91]. Dark Matter: Part of the evidence for dark matter came through the movement of galaxy clusters. We can measure the movement of galaxies through observations of Doppler shifted spectral lines. If, as was assumed, the galaxies are held together by gravity then we should be able to calculate the mass from Newton s law of gravity. Observers found that there seemed to be more mass in galaxy clusters than that visible in the galaxies that made them. It was assumed that this was dark matter [Sil01]. However, in 1984 astronomers looked again at the data for these clusters and realised there were points where error could occur. A galaxy between us and the cluster could appear to be part of the cluster and moving towards us, and a galaxy past the cluster could appear to be moving away. If these had been included in the calculations, they would drive up the apparent mass of the cluster. Also, galaxies that had been caught in the gravity of larger ones and had been then thrown out of the cluster could also be included in the measurement of the clusters mass even though they were no longer bound by the cluster s gravity. Scientists who went back and ran new simulations, after discarding the galaxies now considered not to be part of the cluster, found that the movement was appropriate for the amount of mass we could observe. If this is correct, there is no room for the dark matter as it would cause the galaxies to move in a different manner from that which we observe. Page 11

12 6. Overview of the Plasma Universe Theory: History: Hannes Alfven was a Swedish Nobel Laureate who put forward several theories that introduced plasma physics to try to explain phenomena such as the Aurora Borealis. He continued to expand his theories to cover larger areas and phenomena on larger scales. Although most of the theories were initially met with scepticism, some, including ideas about plasma effects on the scale of the solar system, were eventually proved to be correct by orbiting observatories. In 1962, he and a small group of supporters proposed a theory that used plasma physics on a universal scale, which served as an alternative to the Big Bang [Ler91]. Description In physics, a plasma is referred to as a fourth state of matter, one in which at least one electron has been stripped from the atoms of the material that form the plasma, creating an ionised gas. This makes it electrically conductive and therefore makes it able to interact strongly with magnetic fields. Plasma typically takes the form of a gas or ion beam. Alfven s theory predicts a universe that has no beginning but is infinitely old and infinitely large. The basic points of the theory are: The universe is nearly all plasma, so electromagnetic forces that move through the plasma are equal in importance to gravity. The theory assumes that the universe is constantly evolving around us. One of the main underpinnings of the theory is that it is based on scientific principles that can be tested in a laboratory. This is in direct contrast to the Big Bang theory that has elements such as dark matter and dark energy that seem to be impossible to recreate or study in a laboratory. Galaxy Formation and Rotation: The Plasma Universe theory on galaxy formation and rotation follows from a basic understanding of how electric and magnetic forces behave in plasma on a small scale, as tested in a laboratory [Bat92]. In laboratory experiments on plasma, it can be shown that electrical currents form filaments moving through the plasma which tend to exert an attraction on other filaments. This attraction is caused by the electrical currents movement through the plasma inducing a circular magnetic field [Per92]. When the filaments pinch together, they tend to twist, forming a vortex. This twisting filament causes matter and energy to be concentrated together in a manner that is both more effective and faster than if it was caused by gravity alone. This pinching effect would cause the interstellar plasma to become clumpy naturally, solving one of the problems faced by cosmologists who believe that the universe was perfectly homogenous once and somehow became inhomogeneous by the time we observe the universe today [Gotz06]. Page 12

13 Gravitational instabilities along the filaments cause matter to clump at these points and their interaction with the magnetic field causes them to spin, generating electric forces as in a disk generator, with currents moving towards the centre. This process causes a new set of spiral filaments to form within it, inducing smaller objects to coalesce out of the disks matter. As the threads within the disk move together, the velocity increases, increasing the forces on the threads. This in turn pulls them together faster, again increasing the velocity. [Ler91] This seemed to portray fairly accurately the creation of a galaxy and the subsequent formation of stars and planets within it. However, the theory was largely ignored until Anthony Peratt used equipment at the Maxwell Laboratory in San Diego to produce powerful electric fields in plasma. The currents formed into vortex filaments as predicted and, using computer simulations, he was able to model filaments on a much larger scale. These appeared to form galaxy-like structures (figure 3) and even showed intense radiation bursts coming from the core. [Per92] Again, these theories were ignored in general until deep space observations by the Very Large Array telescope showed giant filaments at the core of our galaxy. It had already been noted in the observations of galaxy locations (By Tully, Fischer et al) that they seemed to be strung along threads moving throughout the universe. Alfven, Peratt and their supporters theory appears to give a clear explanation for why this is, using concepts already fairly well understood. If the computer models compiled by Peratt are accurate, then the forces governing the rotation of the galaxy will mainly be electromagnetic forces. Peratt has simulated the rotational velocity of galaxies created in this fashion and found them to have a flat rotation curve, which matches our observations of galaxy rotational velocities. Page 13

14 Figure 3 [Per92] Peratt s simulations of plasma filaments show galaxy-like structures Detection In order to detect magnetic fields that flow through an interstellar plasma, we need to rely on observations made from ground or space-based observatories. Most of the fields we wish to observe are of the microgauss scale, spread over a huge area. We have several methods available to us to detect these fields, and some are detailed below. Optical Polarisation: Paramagnetic dust grains that are spread throughout the space between stars in galaxies tend to orientate themselves perpendicular to magnetic field lines. By observing many hundreds of different stars we can see regular features of the magnetic field in our own galaxy. However, the strength and uniformity of the field is not able to be determined accurately because there is not enough known about the dimensions of the dust particles, nor their magnetic properties [Per92]. Page 14

15 Zeeman splitting of radio lines: In some atoms, there are several electronic configurations with the same energy so that transitions between them give a single line. When spectral lines are emitted from an atom within a magnetic field, the field interacts differently with electrons with different quantum numbers. This splits the spectral lines by up to 2.8Hz/µG for neutral hydrogen and 3.3Hz/µG for the OH line. In weaker fields, the line is not split completely, only broadened. This can still allow us to obtain information about the magnetic field we are viewing. This process is analogous to the Stark effect, where spectral lines are split due to the presence of an electric field [Per92]. Faraday Rotation: One method of measuring galactic magnetic field strength is through the observation of galaxy clusters. These clusters gather huge clouds of interstellar dust that can make up to 10 times the stellar mass of the galaxies in the cluster. The dust has nonrelativistic speeds but high density compared to the empty space outside the cluster. This gas cloud will, if it is permeated by a magnetic field, perform Faraday rotation on a background radio source. This means it will rotate the polarisation plane of the emission in proportion to the intensity of the magnetic field. 2 B= Rλ Where B is the magnetic flux density, λ is the wavelength of the light and R is the rotation measure, given by R = d nebl 0 Where B l is the line-of-sight component of the magnetic field and n e is the typical density of non-relativistic, intergalactic gas. Because the gas cloud is hot, but not relativistic, it emits Bremsstrahlung X-rays that can be detected from orbital satellites such as Chandra. These measurements allow us to calculate the thermal electron density and, coupled with the Faraday rotation, allow us to obtain a measurement of B, the strength of the field [Kron02]. Synchrotron Radiation: When attempting to detect magnetic fields in interstellar space, by far the most reliable method is by observing synchrotron radiation [Bi92]. Synchrotron radiation is caused when electrons moving at relativistic velocities interact with a magnetic field. When a negatively charged electron moves close enough to the magnetic field line, the field line exerts a force perpendicular to the electron s direction of motion. This causes the electron to spiral around the field line as it moves forward, causing it to move in a helical motion. When an object moves in a circle, it has to change its velocity in order to perform the action and it therefore loses energy. In an electron, the energy lost is emitted in the form of photons. dl Page 15

16 The radiation emitted has a characteristic spectrum that is continuous and the intensity decreases with frequency beyond a certain critical frequency (figure 4). Figure 4 [SRS06] Synchrotron spectrum The emissions of synchrotron radiation are found in different frequencies depending on the electron s energy and the strength of the magnetic field. Objects such as the sun and certain nebulae emit synchrotron radiation in the radio frequency spectrum while others emit at X-ray frequencies. By observing objects determined to be emitting due to synchrotron radiation (from their energy spectrum), we can calculate the concentration and energy spectrum of the electrons at the source and hence the magnetic field strength. Synchrotron radiation can therefore be used to detect the presence of strong magnetic fields throughout the universe, from stars to galaxies to supernovae. In theory we can detect emissions as low as 10MHz using ground based radio telescopes, before incoming signals are absorbed or scattered by the ionosphere [Kron02]. Page 16

17 Problems The Plasma Universe theory, while proposing several new ideas that seem to be more favourable than those proposed by the Big Bang theory, does not explain several other phenomena. Supporters of the theory (such as Eric Lerner) claim that this is partly because the theory is largely ignored by cosmologists and so it has not received as much attention and hence not as much research has been done into it. The biggest problem is that it does not provide a reason for the major observation behind the Big Bang theory the expansion of the universe. In a universe that is infinitely old and continuously evolving, there is no reason why all objects we observe would be moving away from us. This also means that we have no explanation for why we observe the red shift of light from interstellar objects. There are plasma effects that cause photons to be scattered, but these tend to be too small and irregular to explain the effects we observe. The Plasma Universe theory also has to provide an explanation for the CMB that has been assumed to be the remnants of the radiation emitted in the Big Bang. Plasma theorists claim that the CMB is actually the radiation emitted by the stellar nucleosynthesis of hydrogen in the early formation of galaxies. It has also been proposed that, if the universe is filled with magnetic fields moving through plasmas, then the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation could have been generated by the synchrotron radiation. The magnetic field lines in plasma filaments emit at radio frequencies due to synchrotron radiation and, by Kirchoff s law, anything that emits at a frequency is able to absorb at that frequency. So, over time, the filaments could absorb photons and re-emit them in a random direction, eventually giving the effect of smoothing the CMB. Page 17

18 7. Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND): I have provided two possible explanations to the galaxy rotation problem. The first, put forward by advocates of the Big Bang theory, is appropriate in a universe where only gravity is worth considering on large scales as the magnetic and electric fields are too weak to have an effect. Plasma cosmologists disagree with this assumption and so I have stated their opinion and solution to the problem. Another possible explanation for the galaxy rotation problem is that Newton s second law, Force = Mass x Acceleration (F=MA), is incomplete and does not account for particles that move much slower than those we see on Earth. This modified law only becomes relevant when the total acceleration of a body becomes lower than a certain constant. For this theory, x if x<<1 F = ma becomes F a m a a = µ where µ(x) = 1 if x>>1 and µ(x) = 0 GMm By equating this to F = (Where G = the Gravitational Constant, M is the mass 2 r of one object, m the mass of the object orbiting it and r = the radius between the objects) we see that velocities of a star in a circular orbit, far from the centre are constant and do not depend on r, the distance from the centre. A problem with this theory is that it could never be tested on Earth or even in the solar system due to the sun s overwhelming gravitational effects [Wiki]. This theory has also been generally ignored by supporters of dark matter, partly because it failed to comply with laws of relativity. However, recent developments have managed to reconcile this difference and answer many of the sceptic s arguments [Shi06]. Page 18

19 8. Conclusion The theory that the universe is governed by electromagnetic forces to the same extent as gravity is a bold statement that challenges many of the previously accepted concepts regarding the universe s creation and evolution. Understandably, the idea that the universe did not begin with the Big Bang has met with sizeable opposition from many people who have spent their professional lives working to improve their understanding of the Big Bang model of the universe. It seems that Plasma Theory works well to explain phenomena on the scale of the solar system such as solar flares - and some of the ideas for the wider universe are extremely interesting and, if correct, could eliminate the need for dark matter. I believe that there is room for both theories to be at least partially correct. There is no need for poorly understood concepts such as dark matter to be introduced when a simpler explanation works just as well and is able to be independently tested in a laboratory. The fact that the plasma theory is based on concepts that can be recreated in a laboratory is one of its biggest strengths. It allows the theory to be tested and researched in a way that is impossible with dark matter which is, by its nature, almost impossible to detect. However, just because plasma theory has applications on the scale of galaxies does not mean that it can be applicable to the overall beginning of the universe. It seems that the plasma scientists who support these theories have extrapolated them to a larger scale without any real evidence for needing to do so. They can be incorporated into the Big Bang theory as a more simple method of explaining universal phenomena. A key challenge for the Plasma Theory is the lack of knowledge of galactic and intergalactic magnetic fields, but this is an area where new discoveries are being made. In the coming decades, it is possible that observational evidence will emerge that proves the Plasma Theory to be correct. Page 19

20 9. References: E. Lerner [Bi92] J. Binney, Dark matter vs. Electromagnetism Nature 360, 624 (1992) [Bat92] W. Battaner et al, Magnetic field as and alternative explanation for the rotation curves of galaxies, Nature 360, (1992) [Ctu] [Dum06] Belle Dumé, Theorists claim dark energy does not exist, Physics Web (2006) [Gotz06] Gotz Paschmann, Breaking through the lines, Nature 439, 144 (2006) [Hal01] D. Halliday, R. Resnick, J. Walker, Fundamentals of Physics, Sixth Edition, Wiley, USA, (2001) [Kau99] W. Kaufmann & R. Freedman, Universe Fifth Edition, Freeman, USA (1999) [Kron02] P. Kronberg. Intergalactic Magnetic Fields, Physics Today (2002) [Ler91] E. Lerner, The Big Bang Never Happened, Times Books, UK (1991) [Pag97] Nucleosynthesis and Chemical Evolution of Galaxies, Cambridge University Press, UK (1997) [Per92] A. L. Peratt, Physics of the Plasma Universe, Springer-Verlag, New York, (1992) [Sil01] Joseph Silk, The Big Bang Third Edition, Freeman Publishers UK (2001) [Shi06] David Shiga, The Long Arms of the Law, New Scientist, P52 (April 2006) [Srs06] Synchrotron Radiation Source [Wiki] Page 20