Resources Invested in Education

Transcription

1 Resoures Invested in Eduation This hapter examines the alloation of human, material and finanial resoures throughout shool systems and the amount of time dediated to instrution and learning. Resoure alloation is also disussed as it relates to shool loation, the soio-eonomi profile of shools, programme orientation, eduation level, and whether a shool is publi or private. The hapter also analyses hanges sine 2003 in the level of resoures devoted to eduation and how those resoures are alloated. What Makes Shools Suessful? Resoures, Poliies and Praties Volume IV OECD

2 Resoures Invested In Eduation This hapter examines the alloation of resoures to shool systems. Human, material and finanial resoures are examined in this hapter as well as the amount of time dediated to instrution and learning as shown in Figure IV.3.1. Although researh on shool effets has generally shown a modest relationship between eduational resoures and student learning (Fuller, 1987; Greenwald, Hedges and Laine, 1996; Buhmann and Hannum, 2001; Rivkin, Hanushek and Kain, 2005; Murillo and Román, 2011; Hægeland, Raaum and Salvanes, 2012; Nioletti and Rabe, 2012), a basi set of resoures is ruial for providing students with the opportunity to learn. This hapter fouses not only on the average level of resoures available in eah shool system, but also on how shool resoures are alloated aross shools within systems. Given that some researh shows that alloating additional finanial resoures to disadvantaged shools redues the ahievement gap between disadvantaged and other shools (Lamb, Teese and Helme, 2005; Henry, Fortner and Thompson, 2010), resoure alloation has impliations for equity in a shool system and, as suh, is an important onsideration for poliy makers. Figure IV.3.1 Resoures invested in eduation as overed in PISA 2012 Spending on eduation Human resoures Material resoures Time resoures What the data tell us In Luxembourg, Jordan,, Turkey and Shanghai-China, more than three in ten students are in shools whose prinipals reported that a lak of qualified mathematis teahers hinders to some extent or a lot the shools apaity to provide instrution (the OECD average is fewer than two in ten students attend suh shools). On average aross OECD ountries, students who are in soio-eonomially disadvantaged shools tend to be in lasses with four students fewer than students in advantaged shools; but disadvantaged shools tend to be more likely to suffer from teaher shortages, and shortages or inadequay of eduational materials and physial infrastrutures than advantaged shools. Trends between 2003 and 2012 reveal a redution in the student-teaher ratio, an inrease in lassroom instrution time dediated to mathematis, and a redution in the time students spend doing mathematis homework. These hanges are seen aross different types of shools and among both advantaged and disadvantaged students. Fifteen-year-old students in 2012 were more likely than 15-year-olds in 2003 to have attended at least one year of pre-primary eduation, but many of the students who did not attend were disadvantaged the students who ould benefit from pre-primary eduation the most. 94 OECD 2013 What Makes Shools Suessful? Resoures, Poliies and Praties Volume IV

3 Resoures Invested In Eduation In this hapter, resoure alloation aross shools is examined by omparing human, material and time resoures alloated to shools aording to various shool features, suh as shool loation, the soio-eonomi profile of shools, programme orientation, eduation level, and shool type (see also Box IV.3.1). The hapter also analyses how the overall resoure level and resoure alloation aross shools have hanged sine PISA Chapter 1 shows that most of the relationship between shool resoures and performane is also related to shools soioeonomi intake. In other words, the quality and quantity of shool resoures an play an important role in mediating the impat of students soio-eonomi status on performane. Finanial resoures Expenditure on eduation Chapter 1 shows that improvements in performane require poliies and praties that address more than spending on eduation, partiularly among high-inome ountries and eonomies. High-performing systems tend to prioritise higher salaries for teahers. Poliy makers must onstantly balane expenditure on eduation with expenditure for many other publi servies. Yet despite the ompeting demands for resoures, expenditure on eduation has inreased over the past few years. Between 2001 and 2010, expenditure per primary, seondary and post-seondary non-tertiary student 1 has inreased 40%, on average aross OECD ountries with data available for both 2001 and 2010 (Table IV.3.1). Finanial resoures an be alloated to salaries paid to teahers, administrators and support staff; maintenane or onstrution osts of buildings and infrastruture; and operational osts, suh as transportation and meals for students. Total expenditure by eduational institutions per student from the age of 6 to 15 2 exeeds USD (PPP-orreted dollars) in Luxembourg, Switzerland, Norway, Austria, the Unites States and Denmark. In Luxembourg, umulative expenditure per students exeeds USD In ontrast, in Turkey, Mexio and the partner ountries Viet Nam, Jordan, Peru,, Malaysia, Uruguay, Colombia, Tunisia and Montenegro, umulative expenditure per student over this age period is less than USD (Table IV.3.1). As expeted, spending on eduation and per apita GDP are highly orrelated (r = 0.95 aross OECD ountries and r = 0.94 aross all partiipating ountries and eonomies in PISA 2012). Shool systems with greater total expenditure on eduation tend to be those with higher levels of per apita GDP (Tables IV.3.1 and IV.3.2). Teahers salaries Teahers salaries represent the largest single ost in expenditure on eduation (OECD, 2013). Shool systems differ not only in how muh they pay teahers but in the struture of their pay sales. Lower seondary teahers salaries 3 in OECD ountries are 124% of per apita GDP, orreted for differenes in purhasing power parities. Relative to their ountry s national inome, lower seondary teahers in, Mexio, Germany, Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, Ireland, New Zealand, Canada and the partner ountries Jordan, Malaysia, Tunisia, Colombia and Montenegro earn the most. In these ountries, annual earnings for lower seondary teahers are between 150% and 215% of per apita GDP. By ontrast, annual earnings for lower seondary teahers are 70% or less of per apita GDP in the Slovak Republi, Estonia, Hungary and the partner ountries Romania, Indonesia and Latvia. Upper seondary teahers salaries in OECD ountries are 129% of per apita GDP. In Germany, Turkey,, Portugal, Spain and the partner ountries and eonomies Hong Kong China, Jordan, Malaysia, Tunisia and Colombia, upper seondary teahers salaries are between 160% and 223% of per apita GDP. By ontrast, in the Slovak Republi, Estonia and the partner ountries Romania, Indonesia and Latvia, they are between 44% and % of per apita GDP (Table IV.3.3). In all shool systems, teahers salaries rise during the ourse of a areer, although the rate of hange differs greatly. In and the partner ountries and eonomies Shanghai-China, Malaysia, Jordan, Singapore and Romania, salaries at the top of the sale are 2.5 times higher than starting salaries 4 and it takes between 20 and 40 years to reah the top salary. In Shanghai-China, this ratio is partiularly high: the salary at the top of the sale is 4.5 times greater than the starting salary for lower seondary teahers, and it is 5.6 times greater for upper seondary teahers. By ontrast, in Denmark, Ieland, Norway, Slovenia,,, Germany, the Slovak Republi, the Czeh Republi, Spain and the partner ountries Peru, Montenegro and Croatia, teahers salaries at the top of the sale is at most 1.4 times higher than starting salaries (Table IV.3.3). What Makes Shools Suessful? Resoures, Poliies and Praties Volume IV OECD

4 Resoures Invested In Eduation Figure IV.3.2 Expenditure on eduation and teahers salaries Cumulative expenditure by eduational institutions per student aged 6 to 15 Lower seondary teahers salaries (after 15 years of experiene/minimum training) relative to per apita GDP Upper seondary teahers salaries (after 15 years of experiene/minimum training) relative to per apita GDP 200 Countries and eonomies with per apita GDP over USD Countries and eonomies with per apita GDP less than USD Cumulative expenditure per student (in thousand USD, PPPs) Teahers salaries relative to GDP/apita (%) 0 0 Germany Portugal Spain Netherlands New Zealand Ireland Canada Denmark Japan Qatar Belgium United Kingdom Singapore Slovenia Luxembourg Australia Greee Austria Maao-China Frane Poland United States Israel Norway Czeh Republi Ieland Hungary Estonia Slovak Republi Jordan Malaysia Tunisia Turkey Mexio Colombia Montenegro Chile Croatia Shanghai-China Lithuania Bulgaria Peru Argentina Uruguay Latvia Indonesia Romania Notes: Teahers salaries in Belgium are the average teahers salaries of the Frenh and Flemish ommunities of Belgium. Teahers salaries in the United Kingdom are the average teahers salaries in England and Sotland. Countries and eonomies are ranked in desending order of teahers salaries (average of lower and upper seondary teahers salaries). Soure: OECD, PISA 2012 Database, Tables IV.3.1, IV.3.2 and IV Higher salaries an help shool systems to attrat the best andidates to the teahing profession, and they signal that teahers are regarded and treated as professionals. But paying teahers well is only part of the equation: shool systems must also nurture and retain the best of their teahers. The next setion examines these aspets more in detail. Human resoures Aording to results desribed in Chapter 1, shools that suffer from greater levels of teaher shortage tend to have lower sores in PISA. Teahers are an essential resoure for learning: the quality of a shool system annot exeed the quality of its teahers. Teahers interat with students daily and help students aquire the knowledge that they are expeted to have by the time they leave shool. Thus, attrating, developing and retaining effetive teahers is a priority for publi poliy, although the poliies related to teahers differ widely aross ountries (OECD, 2005). The type and quality of the training they reeive, as well as the requirements to enter and progress through the teahing profession, have signifiant onsequenes on the quality of the teahing fore. Pre-servie teaher training Competitive examinations are required to enter pre-servie teaher training (for publi primary and seondary eduation) in Australia,, Germany, Greee, Hungary, Ireland, Israel,, Mexio and Turkey and the partner ountries and eonomies Bulgaria, Colombia, Croatia, Indonesia, Lithuania, Maao-China, Romania, Shanghai-China, Chinese Taipei, the United Arab Emirates and Viet Nam (Table IV.3.4). In Austria, ompetitive examinations are required only 96 OECD 2013 What Makes Shools Suessful? Resoures, Poliies and Praties Volume IV

5 Resoures Invested In Eduation for teaher training in primary eduation. Pre-servie teaher training is longest in Germany, where teaher pre-servie training for primary teahers lasts 5.5 years, between 5.5 and 6.5 years for lower seondary teahers, and 6.5 years for upper seondary teahers. For teahing at primary levels, pre-servie training is the shortest (three years) in Austria, Belgium, Spain and Switzerland; for teahing at lower seondary levels it is the shortest (three years) in Belgium; and for teahing at the upper seondary level, pre-servie training is the shortest in England (UK) and Israel (3.5 years). A teahing pratium is required as part of pre-servie training for primary teahers in all OECD ountries exept Chile and England (UK), and in all partner ountries and eonomies exept Brazil, Jordan and Tunisia. Teahing pratiums are also required for lower seondary eduation in all OECD and partner ountries and eonomies, exept Brazil, Chile, England (UK), Jordan, Maao China and Romania. Teahing pratiums are also required for upper seondary eduation in all OECD and partner ountries and eonomies exept Austria, Chile, Denmark, England (UK) and Mexio among OECD ountries, and partner ountries and eonomies Brazil, Jordan, Maao-China and Romania. Countries and eonomies an be ategorised into four groups aording to whether their publi-shool teaher preservie training system requires a ompetitive examination and by the average duration of the training programme as shown in Figure IV Two groups require no entrane examination. One of these groups has a omparatively short pre-servie training programme, and the other group has a omparatively long programme. The two additional groups require a ompetitive entrane examination, one with a short pre-servie training programme and another with a omparatively long programme. Figure IV.3.3 Profiles of teaher pre-servie training aross ountries and eonomies Relatively short duration of pre-servie training programme (less than 4.3 years) Relatively long duration of pre-servie training programme (more than 4.3 years) Countries and eonomies with no information on duration and/or examination Soure: OECD, PISA 2012 Database, Table IV.3.4. No examination to enter pre-servie training Belgium (Fl.) Belgium (Fr.) England (UK) Ieland Japan Latvia Liehtenstein Montenegro New Zealand Poland Qatar Singapore United States Uruguay Canada Czeh Republi Denmark Estonia Frane Luxembourg Malaysia Netherlands Norway Peru Portugal Sotland (UK) Slovak Republi Spain Switzerland Albania Argentina Brazil Chile Costa Ria Jordan Kazakhstan Competitive examination to enter pre-servie training Australia Bulgaria Croatia Greee Israel Lithuania Maao-China Romania Shanghai-China Chinese Taipei Viet Nam Austria Colombia Germany Hungary Indonesia Ireland Mexio Turkey Russian Federation Serbia Slovenia Tunisia United Arab Emirates What Makes Shools Suessful? Resoures, Poliies and Praties Volume IV OECD

6 Resoures Invested In Eduation Requirements to enter the teahing profession A ompetitive examination is required to enter the teahing profession for primary and seondary shool in Frane, Germany, Greee, Israel,, Japan,, Luxembourg, Mexio, Spain, Turkey, the United States and the partner ountries and eonomies Brazil, Colombia, Maao-China, Peru, Qatar, Romania, Shanghai-China, Chinese Taipei,, the United Arab Emirates and Viet Nam. A redential or liense, in addition to the eduation diploma, is required to start teahing or to beome a fully qualified lower or upper seondary teaher in Australia, Canada, Denmark, England (UK), Germany, Ieland, Ireland, Israel,, Japan,, Mexio, New Zealand, Sotland (UK), Switzerland, the United States and the partner ountries and eonomies Bulgaria, Croatia,, Indonesia, Malaysia, Montenegro, Shanghai-China, Chinese-Taipei,, the United Arab Emirates and Viet Nam. A teahing pratium is required for lower or upper seondary teahers to obtain a redential/liene or is required after being reruited, during an indution/probation period, in Austria, Canada, Denmark, England (UK), Germany, Greee, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Japan,, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Sotland (UK), Spain, Turkey, the United States and the partner ountries and eonomies Colombia, Croatia, Malaysia, Montenegro, Qatar, Romania, Shanghai-China, Chinese Taipei, the United Arab Emirates and Viet Nam. Just over half of the partiipating ountries and eonomies (18 OECD and 11 partner ountries and eonomies) have a register for lower or upper seondary teahers. A register for teahers is an administrative reord that ontains a detailed profile of teahers, inluding suh information as their qualifiations, experiene and areer path. Continuing eduation is ompulsory for remaining employed in the teahing profession at the lower and upper seondary levels in Belgium (Frenh ommunity), England (UK), Estonia,, Hungary, Ieland, Israel, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Sotland (UK), the United States and the partner ountries and eonomies Croatia, Liehtenstein, Montenegro, Romania, Shanghai-China,, the United Arab Emirates and Viet Nam (Table IV.3.5). Teaher profile and qualifiations How are these poliies and requirements exerised at shool? PISA 2012 asked shool prinipals to report the omposition and qualifiations of teahers in their shools. Aross OECD ountries, the average 15-year-old student is in a shool whose prinipal reported that 87% of teahers are fully ertified. In 47 partiipating ountries and eonomies, shool prinipals reported that 80% of teahers or more are fully ertified, while in Colombia and Chile, prinipals reported that fewer than 20% of teahers are fully ertified. In addition, the average 15-year-old student in OECD ountries attends a shool whose prinipal reported that 85% of teahers have a university-level qualifiation (i.e. university or similar qualifiation). In 48 partiipating ountries and eonomies, prinipals reported that more than 80% of teahers have suh a qualifiation, while in Serbia, Uruguay and Argentina, prinipals reported that fewer than 20% of teahers have attained that qualifiation (Figure IV.3.4 and Table IV.3.6). Box IV.3.1. Soio-eonomially disadvantaged and advantaged shools Soio-eonomially disadvantaged and advantaged shools are identified within individual shool systems by omparing the average soio-eonomi status of the students in the system and the average soio-eonomi status of the students in eah shool (Monseur and Crahay, 2008). Student soio-eonomi status is measured by the PISA index of eonomi, soial and ultural status (ESCS). Within eah shool system, shools are ategorised into three groups: soio-eonomially advantaged shools: shools where the average soio-eonomi status of 15-year-old students is more advantaged than the average soio-eonomi status of students in the system as a whole; soio-eonomially average shools: shools where the average soio-eonomi status of 15-year-old students is not statistially different from the average soio-eonomi status of students in the system as a whole; or soio-eonomially disadvantaged shools: shools where the average soio-eonomi status of 15-year-old students is more disadvantaged than the average soio-eonomi status of students in the system as a whole. The differene between a shool average and the system average is statistially tested onsidering the onfidene interval for shool and system averages. Table IV.3.7 presents the perentage of students alloated to the three groups in PISA Table II.4.2 in Volume II presents average soio-eonomi, demographi and aademi harateristis of shools in these three groups. 98 OECD 2013 What Makes Shools Suessful? Resoures, Poliies and Praties Volume IV

7 Resoures Invested In Eduation Figure IV.3.4 Teahers profiles and qualifiations Shool prinipals report on the: Spain Croatia Japan Maao-China Ireland Romania Poland Australia Ieland Malaysia Russian Federation Singapore Shanghai-China Canada Lithuania Montenegro Portugal New Zealand United States Slovenia United Kingdom Estonia Slovak Republi Albania Germany Chinese Taipei Turkey Czeh Republi Kazakhstan Serbia Norway Peru Argentina Austria OECD average Belgium Switzerland Greee Frane Liehtenstein Latvia Netherlands Costa Ria Viet Nam Israel Qatar Jordan Luxembourg Indonesia Uruguay Tunisia Mexio Chile Colombia Perentage of ertified teahers % Countries and eonomies are ranked in desending order of the perentages. Soure: OECD, PISA 2012 Database, Table IV Norway Japan Ireland Hungary United States Qatar Australia Romania United Kingdom Canada Singapore Shanghai-China Spain Croatia Greee Turkey Poland New Zealand Chile Maao-China Czeh Republi Luxembourg United Arab Emirates Colombia Chinese Taipei Slovak Republi Lithuania Montenegro Malaysia Denmark Slovenia Mexio Russian Federation Tunisia Viet Nam Brazil Israel OECD average Kazakhstan Jordan Costa Ria Albania Indonesia Ieland Peru Liehtenstein Portugal Frane Switzerland Austria Latvia Belgium Netherlands Argentina Uruguay Serbia Perentage of teahers with a university-level degree % What Makes Shools Suessful? Resoures, Poliies and Praties Volume IV OECD

8 Resoures Invested In Eduation Student-teaher ratio PISA 2012 asked shool prinipals to report the total number of teahers and students in their shools. 6 The studentteaher ratio is not equivalent to lass size. For example, shools with large speial eduation programmes tend to have many teahers, but the size of regular lasses is not redued by the shool s high teaher-student ratio. Also, the amount of preparation time per day allotted to teahers may vary aross shools and aross shool systems. More teahers are needed where more preparation time is given and lass size remains onstant. Aross OECD ountries, the average student attends a shool where the student-teaher ratio is 13 students to one teaher. Student-teaher ratios range from over 25 students per teaher in Mexio, Brazil and Colombia, to fewer than 10 students per teaher in Liehtenstein, Portugal, Luxembourg, Greee, Belgium, Poland, Latvia and Kazakhstan (Table IV.3.8). Student-teaher ratios do not vary muh within ountries and eonomies, but in some ountries there is a differene of around three or more students per teaher between soio-eonomially advantaged and disadvantaged shools. In Brazil, Turkey, Shanghai-China, Romania, Uruguay and Maao-China, disadvantaged shools tend to have more students per teaher than advantaged shools, while in Belgium, the Netherlands,, Qatar, Estonia, the Russian Federation, Mexio, Peru and Japan advantaged shools have at least three more students per teaher than disadvantaged shools (Table IV.3.9). Teaher shortages In order to assess how shool prinipals pereive the adequay of the supply of teahers in their shools, they are asked to report on the extent to whih they think instrution in their shool is hindered by a lak of qualified teahers and staff in key areas. This information was ombined to reate a omposite index of teaher shortage, suh that the index has an average of 0 and a standard deviation of 1 for OECD ountries. Higher values on the index indiate prinipals pereption that there are more problems with instrution beause of teaher shortages. Caution is required in interpreting these results: shool prinipals aross ountries and eonomies, and even within ountries and eonomies, may have different expetations and benhmarks to determine whether there is a lak of qualified teahers. Nonetheless, these reports provide valuable information that an be used to assess whether shools or shool systems are providing their students with adequate human resoures. Aording to shool prinipals, teaher shortages hindered instrution the most in Luxembourg, Jordan,, Turkey and Shanghai-China. In these ountries and eonomies, between 31% and 69% of students are in shools whose prinipals reported that a lak of qualified mathematis teahers hindered to some extent or a lot the shools apaity to provide instrution (the OECD average is 17%). By ontrast, in Poland, Bulgaria, Portugal, Serbia and Spain relatively few prinipals reported that teaher shortages hindered instrution. In these ountries, only around 1% to 4% of students are in shools whose prinipals reported that a lak of qualified mathematis teahers hindered instrution to some extent or a lot (Figure IV.3.5 and Table IV.3.10). Teaher shortages vary within ountries, as measured by the standard deviation of the index of teaher shortage. Variation is omparatively large in Jordan, the United Arab Emirates, Colombia, Kazakhstan, Maao-China and Shanghai-China, while it is omparatively small in Poland, Bulgaria, Lithuania, Slovenia and Serbia (Figure IV.3.5 and Table IV.3.10). In 30 ountries and eonomies, prinipals in soio-eonomially disadvantaged shools reported more teaher shortage than those in advantaged shools. Partiularly wide gaps between advantaged and disadvantaged shools in teaher shortage are observed in Chinese Taipei, Australia, New Zealand, Brazil,, the Slovak Republi, Shanghai-China, Uruguay, Indonesia, Mexio, Turkey, Serbia, the Czeh Republi, Chile, the United States, Ireland, Viet Nam and Peru, where the differene is greater than 0.5 index points (i.e. a half of the standard deviation of this index). In 14 ountries and eonomies, prinipals of publi shools tended to report more teaher shortage than those of private shools. In all of these ountries and eonomies exept the United Arab Emirates and, prinipals of disadvantaged shools reported more teaher shortage than those of advantaged shools (Table IV.3.11). On average aross OECD ountries, prinipals of shools loated in rural areas reported more teaher shortage than prinipals of shools in towns, and they, in turn, reported more teaher shortage than prinipals of shools in ities. This is observed in Ieland, Mexio and Qatar. However, in the Slovak Republi, the Czeh Republi, Hungary, Chile and Romania, prinipals of shools loated in towns and ities reported similar levels of teaher shortage, while prinipals of shools loated in rural areas reported more teaher shortage than prinipals of shools in towns. In ontrast, prinipals of shools loated in rural areas and in towns reported similar levels of teaher shortage, 100 OECD 2013 What Makes Shools Suessful? Resoures, Poliies and Praties Volume IV

9 Resoures Invested In Eduation Figure IV.3.5 Impat of teaher shortage on instrution, shool prinipals views A B C D Lak of qualified mathematis teahers Lak of qualified siene teahers Lak of qualified language-of-instrution teahers Lak of qualified teahers of other subjets Luxembourg Jordan Turkey Shanghai-China Israel Colombia Peru Chile Netherlands Mexio Germany Viet Nam Russian Federation Uruguay Norway Kazakhstan Indonesia Belgium Malaysia Australia Brazil Ieland United Arab Emirates Singapore New Zealand Switzerland Liehtenstein Estonia Maao-China Costa Ria OECD average Argentina Tunisia Austria Qatar Ireland Chinese Taipei Frane Denmark United Kingdom Albania Japan Canada Slovak Republi Latvia Greee United States Czeh Republi Croatia Montenegro Romania Hungary Lithuania Slovenia Spain Serbia Portugal Bulgaria Poland Perentage of students in shools whose prinipals reported that the following phenomena hindered student learning to some extent or a lot A B C D Index of teaher shortage Range between top and bottom quarters Average index Variability in the index S.D Differene between private and publi shools (priv.-pub.) Index differene 1.41* * 0.48* * * 0.* * * 0.76* 0.80* * * * * * Differene between advantaged and disadvantaged shools (adv.-disadv.) Index differene -0.44* * -0.70* * -0.59* * * * * -0.48* * -0.* -0.49* * * * -0.76* * -0.54* -1.16* * -0.43* -0.47* m * -0.70* * -0.60* * * * -0.17* -0.62* Index points Notes: Higher values on the index of teaher shortage indiate greater inidene of teaher shortage. Differenes that are signifiant at the 5% level (p < 0.05) are marked with *. Countries and eonomies are ranked in desending order of the average index. Soure: OECD, PISA 2012 Database, Tables IV.3.10 and IV What Makes Shools Suessful? Resoures, Poliies and Praties Volume IV OECD

10 Resoures Invested In Eduation Figure IV.3.6 Continuing eduation neessary to remain employed as a teaher Mean perentage of mathematis teahers who have attended a programme of professional development with a fous on mathematis during the previous three months Turkey Colombia Germany Switzerland Czeh Republi Norway Slovak Republi Greee Spain Denmark Chile Jordan Uruguay Peru Frane Portugal Bulgaria Brazil Latvia Indonesia Malaysia Poland Mexio Lithuania Austria Chinese Taipei Maao-China Canada Singapore Qatar Ireland Hungary Japan Netherlands Ieland Liehtenstein Belgium Romania Montenegro Luxembourg Viet Nam United Kingdom United Arab Emirates Israel United States Estonia Croatia Shanghai-China Average: 39% Average: 48% Continuing eduation is not a ompulsory requirement to remain employed in the teahing profession Continuing eduation is a ompulsory requirement to remain employed in the teahing profession % Notes: In Ieland, the majority of 15-year-olds are at the lower seondary level, therefore the information at the lower seondary in Table IV.3.5 is used. Belgium is grouped as ontinuing eduation is ompulsory requirement even though it is not a ompulsory requirement in the Flemish ommunity of Belgium. Countries and eonomies are ranked in asending order of the perentages. Soure: OECD, PISA 2012 Database, Tables IV.3.5 and IV OECD 2013 What Makes Shools Suessful? Resoures, Poliies and Praties Volume IV

11 Resoures Invested In Eduation while in Colombia, Australia, Indonesia, Uruguay, Viet Nam, New Zealand, Montenegro, Chinese Taipei, the United Arab Emirates, Peru, Brazil, Norway, Ireland, and Canada, prinipals of shools loated in ities reported less teaher shortage than prinipals of shools in towns. In 34 ountries and eonomies, the level of teaher shortage reported by prinipals does not vary by where shool is loated (Table IV.3.11). Teahers professional development How is the requirement that teahers pursue ontinuing eduation implemented? Aross OECD ountries, the average 15-year-old student attends a shool whose prinipal reported that 39% of those who teah mathematis in his or her shool have attended a programme of professional development, with a fous on mathematis, during the previous three months. This proportion varies greatly aross ountries: in Ireland, Qatar,, Shanghai-China, Croatia, Singapore, Estonia, the United States, New Zealand and Israel, at least 60% of teahers attended suh a programme, while in Turkey, Hungary, Japan, Colombia, Germany, Switzerland, the Czeh Republi, Norway, the Slovak Republi and Greee, 25% of teahers or fewer did so (Figure IV.3.6 and Table IV.3.12). As expeted, in those ountries where it is ompulsory for teahers to partiipate in ontinuing eduation, teahers are more likely to have attended professional development programmes (48% on average) than teahers in those ountries/eonomies where it is not ompulsory (39% on average) (as shown in Figure IV.3.6). The timing of the PISA data olletion largely affets prinipals responses on this proportion sine they were asked to report teahers attendane in professional development programmes during the three months prior to the assessment. For example, if most teahers in a ountry or eonomy partiipate in professional development programmes during summer holidays and the PISA data olletion was onduted before the summer break in this ountry, the reported proportion would be underestimated. In 18 ountries and eonomies, more mathematis teahers in soio-eonomially advantaged shools than in disadvantaged shools attended a programme of professional development. The gap is espeially wide in Luxembourg, Austria, Turkey, Serbia, Chinese Taipei and Shanghai-China, where the differene between advantaged and disadvantaged shools in the perentage of teahers who attended suh a programme during the previous three months is 25 perentage points or more (Table IV.3.13). On average aross OECD ountries, mathematis teahers in publi shools are more likely (40%) than those in private shools (37%) to attend a programme of professional development. This is the ase in Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Canada,, Frane, Switzerland, Germany and, where the differene ranges from 8 to 40 perentage points. In ontrast, in Shanghai-China and Luxembourg, mathematis teahers in private shools are more likely than those in publi shools to attend suh a programme (Table IV.3.13). Aross OECD ountries, there is no differene between shools loated in towns and those loated in ities, on average, in the likelihood of mathematis teahers attending a programme of professional development. But mathematis teahers in shools in rural areas are less likely to attend suh a programme than those in shools loated in towns. This is observed in Slovenia, Ieland, Denmark, Hungary, the Slovak Republi, Norway and Mexio. However, in 45 ountries and eonomies, there is no differene among shools loated in rural areas, towns and ities in the likelihood of mathematis teahers attending a professional development programme (Table IV.3.13). Material resoures The eduational resoures available in a shool tend to be related to the system s overall performane as well as shools average level of performane, aording to the results examined in Chapter 1. Furthermore, it is shown that high performing systems tend to alloate resoure more equitably between soio-eonomially advantaged and disadvantaged shools. While an adequate physial infrastruture and supply of eduational resoures does not guarantee good learning outomes, the absene of suh resoures ould negatively affet learning. What matters for student ahievement and other eduation outomes is not neessarily the availability of resoures, but the quality of those resoures and how effetively they are used (Gamoran, Seada and Marrett, 2000). The PISA 2012 Shool Questionnaire asked shool prinipals to report on not only the availability of shool resoures, on how the availability or non-availability of ertain shool resoures affet teahing and learning in their shools. What Makes Shools Suessful? Resoures, Poliies and Praties Volume IV OECD

12 Resoures Invested In Eduation Figure IV.3.7 Shool prinipals views on adequay of physial infrastruture A B C Shortage or inadequay of shool buildings and grounds Shortage or inadequay of heating/ooling and lighting systems Shortage or inadequay of instrutional spae (e.g. lassrooms) Poland Qatar United States Czeh Republi Singapore Latvia Ieland Canada Switzerland Hungary Frane Bulgaria Romania Australia Russian Federation United Arab Emirates Liehtenstein Estonia Malaysia Chinese Taipei Slovenia United Kingdom New Zealand Spain Lithuania Germany OECD average Ireland Montenegro Maao-China Chile Japan Slovak Republi Belgium Austria Denmark Shanghai-China Greee Kazakhstan Turkey Portugal Netherlands Norway Serbia Brazil Argentina Mexio Viet Nam Uruguay Albania Peru Luxembourg Indonesia Israel Jordan Croatia Costa Ria Colombia Tunisia Perentage of students in shools whose prinipals reported that the following phenomena hindered student learning not at all or very little A B C Index of quality of physial infrastruture Range between top and bottom quarters Average index Variability in the index S.D Differene between private and publi shools (priv.-pub.) Index differene * * -0.77* -1.04* * * -0.* * * -0.56* * * -0.90* -1.36* -1.04* -1.13* * -1.59* -1.01* -0.25* -0.32* -0.77* -1.54* -1.16* -0.93* Differene between advantaged and disadvantaged shools (adv.-disadv.) Index differene * 0.47* * -0.40* 0.18* * * * * * -0.45* * -0.50* * * 0.65* 0.92* 0.39* * * 0.73* * 1.25* 0.* 0.47* 1.32* m 0.94* 0.20* 0.66* * 0.58* 0.42* Index points Notes: Higher values on the index of quality of physial infrastruture indiate better physial infrastruture. Differenes that are signifiant at the 5% level (p < 0.05) are marked with *. Countries and eonomies are ranked in desending order of the average index. Soure: OECD, PISA 2012 Database, Tables IV.3.14 and IV OECD 2013 What Makes Shools Suessful? Resoures, Poliies and Praties Volume IV

13 Resoures Invested In Eduation Physial infrastruture and eduational resoures Shool prinipals were asked to report on whether their shools apaity to provide instrution was hindered ( not at all, very little, to some extent, or a lot ) by a shortage or inadequay of physial infrastruture, suh as shool buildings and grounds; heating/ooling and lighting systems; and instrutional spae, suh as lassrooms. The responses were ombined to reate an index of quality of physial infrastruture that has a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one in OECD ountries. Positive values reflet prinipals pereptions that the shortage of physial infrastruture hinders learning to a lesser extent than the OECD average, and negative values indiate that shool prinipals believe the shortage hinders learning to a greater extent. On average aross OECD ountries, 65% to 77% of students are in shools whose prinipals reported that shortages or inadequay of shool buildings and grounds, heating/ooling and lighting systems, or instrutional spaes do not hinder at all or hinder very little their shool s apaity to provide instrution. In Latvia, the Czeh Republi, the United States, Poland, Romania, Singapore, Switzerland and Canada, 75% or more of students are in shools whose prinipals reported that shortages or inadequay of shool buildings and grounds do not hinder learning at all or hinder learning very little, while in Tunisia, Croatia, Luxembourg, and Colombia, fewer than 40% of students are in suh shool. The variation, between shools, in the quality of physial infrastruture and its effet on instrution reported by prinipals is notable in Argentina, Uruguay, Jordan, the United Arab Emirates, Kazakhstan and Brazil, while it is small in Romania, Latvia, the Czeh Republi and Liehtenstein (Figure IV.3.7 and Table IV.3.14). In 27 ountries and eonomies, prinipals of disadvantaged shools tended to report more shortages or inadequay of physial infrastruture than did prinipals of advantaged shools. This differene is of one index point or more on the index of quality of physial infrastruture (i.e. over one standard deviation of the index) in Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina and Costa Ria. In ontrast, in Lithuania, the United Kingdom, Latvia, Bulgaria and Slovenia, prinipals of advantaged shools tended to report more shortages or inadequay of physial infrastruture than did prinipals of disadvantaged shools. In 24 ountries and eonomies, prinipals of publi shools tended to report more shortages or inadequay of physial infrastruture than did prinipals of private shools. The differene in reporting is over one index point (i.e. over one standard deviation of the index) in Albania, Costa Ria, Brazil, Uruguay, Colombia, Mexio, New Zealand, Argentina, Estonia and Peru. On average aross OECD ountries, prinipals in shools loated in rural areas tended to report more shortages or inadequay of physial infrastruture than prinipals of shools loated in towns. However, in 33 ountries and eonomies, the level of shortages or inadequay of physial infrastruture reported by prinipals does not vary by where shool is loated (Figure IV.3.7 and Table IV.3.15). Shool prinipals also reported their pereptions about eduational resoures in their shool. They were asked to report whether their shool s apaity to provide instrution was hindered by a shortage or inadequay of: siene laboratory equipment, instrutional materials (e.g. textbooks), omputers for instrution, Internet onnetivity, omputer software for instrution, and library materials. The responses were ombined to reate an index of quality of shools eduational resoures that has a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one in OECD ountries. Positive values reflet prinipals pereptions that a shortage of eduational resoures hinders learning to a lesser extent than the OECD average, and negative values indiate that shool prinipals believe the shortage hinders learning to a greater extent. An average of around 80% of students aross OECD ountries attends shools whose prinipals reported that the shool s apaity to provide instrution was not hindered at all or hindered very little by a shortage or inadequay of instrutional materials or a lak or inadequay of Internet onnetivity. Some 74% of students are in shools whose prinipals reported that instrution was not hindered at all or hindered very little by a shortage or inadequay of library materials. Between 66% and 69% of students are in shools whose prinipals reported that instrution was not hindered at all or was hindered very little by shortages or inadequay of siene laboratory equipment, omputer software for instrution or omputers for instrution. Prinipals in Singapore, Qatar and Liehtenstein reported that instrution is not hindered by a shortage of eduational resoures, while in Colombia, Tunisia, Peru and Costa Ria, prinipals reported that instrution is hindered to some extent by a shortage of eduational resoures (Figure IV.3.8 and Table IV.3.16). In 35 ountries and eonomies, prinipals of disadvantaged shools reported more shortage or inadequay of eduational resoures than did prinipals of advantaged shools. This differene amounts to more than one index point (i.e. more than one standard deviation) in Peru, Costa Ria, Mexio, Brazil and Indonesia. In ontrast, in, prinipals of disadvantaged shools reported less shortage or inadequay of eduational resoures than did those of advantaged shools. What Makes Shools Suessful? Resoures, Poliies and Praties Volume IV OECD

14 Resoures Invested In Eduation Figure IV.3.8 Shool prinipals views on adequay of eduational resoures Singapore Qatar Liehtenstein Australia Chinese Taipei Switzerland United Kingdom Japan Slovenia Frane United States United Arab Emirates Poland Maao-China Belgium Canada Austria Romania New Zealand Netherlands Hungary Portugal Lithuania Shanghai-China Uruguay Ireland Germany OECD average Czeh Republi Luxembourg Latvia Spain Bulgaria Denmark Estonia Norway Malaysia Ieland Greee Israel Chile Turkey Albania Jordan Russian Federation Viet Nam Montenegro Croatia Brazil Argentina Slovak Republi Serbia Kazakhstan Indonesia Mexio Costa Ria Peru Tunisia Colombia A B C D E F A Shortage or inadequay of siene laboratory equipment Shortage or inadequay of instrutional materials (e.g. textbooks) Shortage or inadequay of omputers for instrution Lak or inadequay of Internet onnetivity Shortage or inadequay of omputer software for instrution Shortage or inadequay of library materials Perentage of students in shools whose prinipals reported that the following phenomena hindered student learning not at all or very little B C D E F Index of quality of shools eduational resoures Range between top and bottom quarters Average index Variability in the index S.D Differene between private and publi shools (priv.-pub.) Index differene 0.46* -0.59* * * -0.76* * * * * * * * -0.22* -0.56* * * -0.97* -0.92* -0.74* -1.38* * -0.71* -1.05* * -1.76* -1.30* -1.63* Differene between advantaged and disadvantaged shools (adv.-disadv.) Index differene 0.04* 0.30* 0.73* * * 0.58* 0.43* 0.38* * * 0.* * 0.73* * 0.52* * * 0.49* * 0.47* 0.27* 0.45* 0.51* 0.* 0.* m 0.62* * * 0.77* * * 1.29* 1.33* 1.50* 0.44* 0.91* Index points Notes: Higher values on the index of quality of shools eduational resoures indiate better quality of shools eduational resoures. Differenes that are signifiant at the 5% level (p < 0.05) are marked with *. Countries and eonomies are ranked in desending order of the average index. Soure: OECD, PISA 2012 Database, Tables IV.3.16 and IV OECD 2013 What Makes Shools Suessful? Resoures, Poliies and Praties Volume IV

15 Resoures Invested In Eduation In 26 ountries and eonomies, prinipals of publi shools reported more shortage or inadequay of eduational resoures than did prinipals of private shools. In 36 ountries and eonomies, the level of shortage or inadequay of eduational resoures reported by shool prinipals did not vary aording to where the shools are loated. On average aross OECD ountries, prinipals of shools loated in ities reported less shortage or inadequay of eduational resoures than did prinipals of shools loated in towns; this is observed in 14 ountries and eonomies. In ontrast, in Austria, Belgium, Germany, Ieland and Qatar, prinipals of shools loated in ities reported more shortages or in adequay of eduational resoures did those of shools loated in towns. In Argentina, Mexio, Chile,, Peru, Albania, Malaysia and Qatar, prinipals of shools loated in rural areas reported more shortages or inadequay than did prinipals of shools in towns (Figure IV.3.8 and Table IV.3.17). Figure IV.3.9 Equity in alloation of eduational resoures BETTER EQUITY IN RESOURCE ALLOCATION -0.5 Mean index is below the OECD average Mean index is above the OECD average Equity in alloation of shools eduational resoures (Index-point differene) Tunisia Colombia R² = 0.33 Germany Croatia Norway United Kingdom Serbia Montenegro Slovak Republi Latvia Austria Estonia 6 Slovenia Kazakhstan Czeh Republi 4 5 Denmark 2 1 Russian Federation Spain 3 Switzerland Ieland Qatar Canada Japan Greee Malaysia Maao-China Israel Poland Chinese Taipei Jordan Luxembourg Ireland United Arab Emirates Chile Shanghai-China Argentina Turkey United States Australia Viet Nam Bulgaria Uruguay New Zealand Indonesia Brazil Singapore R² = 0.01 Romania Costa Ria Peru Mexio MORE RESOURCES Average level of shools eduational resoures (Mean index) Notes: The vertial axis refers to the differene in the index of quality of shools eduational resoures between soio-eonomially advantaged and disadvantaged shools (adv. - disadv.). The horizontal axis refers to the mean index of quality of shools eduational resoures. Soure: OECD, PISA 2012 Database, Tables IV.3.16 and IV OECD average: Frane 2. Belgium 3. Portugal 4. Lithuania 5. Netherlands 6. Hungary As shown in Figure IV.3.9, among the ountries and eonomies where the average eduational resoure is below the OECD average, the overall level of eduational resoures is related to the level of equity in resoure alloation between soio-eonomially advantaged and disadvantaged shools. The lower the overall level of shools eduational resoures, the greater the gap in eduational resoures between advantaged and disadvantaged shools. Sare resoures tend to be more onentrated in advantaged shools, and disadvantaged shools tend to suffer from inadequay What Makes Shools Suessful? Resoures, Poliies and Praties Volume IV OECD