Doug Ravenel. October 15, 2008
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1 Doug Ravenel University of Rochester October 15, 2008 s about Euclid s
2 Some s about primes that every mathematician should know (Euclid, 300 BC) There are infinitely numbers. is very elementary, and we will give it shortly. In 1737 Euler found a completely different proof that requires calculus. His method is harder to use but more powerful. We will outline it later if time permits. s about Euclid s
3 Some s about primes that every mathematician should know (Euclid, 300 BC) There are infinitely numbers. is very elementary, and we will give it shortly. In 1737 Euler found a completely different proof that requires calculus. His method is harder to use but more powerful. We will outline it later if time permits. s about Euclid s
4 Some s about primes that every mathematician should know (Euclid, 300 BC) There are infinitely numbers. is very elementary, and we will give it shortly. In 1737 Euler found a completely different proof that requires calculus. His method is harder to use but more powerful. We will outline it later if time permits. s about Euclid s
5 Theorem 2 (Dirichlet, 1837, Primes in arithmetic progressions) Let a and b be relatively prime positive integers. Then there are infinitely primes of the form am + b. Example. For a = 10, b could be 1, 3, 7 or 9. The says there are infinitely s of the form 10m + 1, 10m + 3, 10m + 7 and 10m + 9. For other values of b not prime to 10, there is at most one such prime. Dirichlet s proof uses functions of a complex variable. We will see how some cases of it can be proved with more elementary methods. s about Euclid s
6 Theorem 2 (Dirichlet, 1837, Primes in arithmetic progressions) Let a and b be relatively prime positive integers. Then there are infinitely primes of the form am + b. Example. For a = 10, b could be 1, 3, 7 or 9. The says there are infinitely s of the form 10m + 1, 10m + 3, 10m + 7 and 10m + 9. For other values of b not prime to 10, there is at most one such prime. Dirichlet s proof uses functions of a complex variable. We will see how some cases of it can be proved with more elementary methods. s about Euclid s
7 Theorem 2 (Dirichlet, 1837, Primes in arithmetic progressions) Let a and b be relatively prime positive integers. Then there are infinitely primes of the form am + b. Example. For a = 10, b could be 1, 3, 7 or 9. The says there are infinitely s of the form 10m + 1, 10m + 3, 10m + 7 and 10m + 9. For other values of b not prime to 10, there is at most one such prime. Dirichlet s proof uses functions of a complex variable. We will see how some cases of it can be proved with more elementary methods. s about Euclid s
8 Theorem 2 (Dirichlet, 1837, Primes in arithmetic progressions) Let a and b be relatively prime positive integers. Then there are infinitely primes of the form am + b. Example. For a = 10, b could be 1, 3, 7 or 9. The says there are infinitely s of the form 10m + 1, 10m + 3, 10m + 7 and 10m + 9. For other values of b not prime to 10, there is at most one such prime. Dirichlet s proof uses functions of a complex variable. We will see how some cases of it can be proved with more elementary methods. s about Euclid s
9 Theorem 3 (Hadamard and de la Valle Poussin, 1896, Assymptotic distribution of primes) Let π(x) denote the number of primes less than x. Then lim x π(x) x/ ln x = 1. In other words, the number of primes less than x is roughly x/ ln x. A better approximation is to π(x) is the logarithmic integral li(x) = x 0 dt ln(t). s about Euclid s
10 Theorem 3 (Hadamard and de la Valle Poussin, 1896, Assymptotic distribution of primes) Let π(x) denote the number of primes less than x. Then lim x π(x) x/ ln x = 1. In other words, the number of primes less than x is roughly x/ ln x. A better approximation is to π(x) is the logarithmic integral li(x) = x 0 dt ln(t). s about Euclid s
11 Theorem 3 (Hadamard and de la Valle Poussin, 1896, Assymptotic distribution of primes) Let π(x) denote the number of primes less than x. Then lim x π(x) x/ ln x = 1. In other words, the number of primes less than x is roughly x/ ln x. A better approximation is to π(x) is the logarithmic integral li(x) = x 0 dt ln(t). s about Euclid s
12 The omniscient being proof of Here is that there are infinitely s: Look at the positive integers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,... See which of them are primes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,... Notice that there are infinitely many of them. QED s about Euclid s
13 The omniscient being proof of Here is that there are infinitely s: Look at the positive integers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,... See which of them are primes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,... Notice that there are infinitely many of them. QED s about Euclid s
14 The omniscient being proof of Here is that there are infinitely s: Look at the positive integers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,... See which of them are primes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,... Notice that there are infinitely many of them. QED s about Euclid s
15 The omniscient being proof of Here is that there are infinitely s: Look at the positive integers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,... See which of them are primes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,... Notice that there are infinitely many of them. QED s about Euclid s
16 The omniscient being proof of Here is that there are infinitely s: Look at the positive integers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,... See which of them are primes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,... Notice that there are infinitely many of them. QED s about Euclid s
17 Without God s omniscience, we have to work harder. relies on the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic (FTA for short), which says that every positive integer can be written as a product of primes in a unique way. For example, 2008 = (251 is a prime) s about Euclid s
18 Without God s omniscience, we have to work harder. relies on the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic (FTA for short), which says that every positive integer can be written as a product of primes in a unique way. For example, 2008 = (251 is a prime) s about Euclid s
19 Without God s omniscience, we have to work harder. relies on the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic (FTA for short), which says that every positive integer can be written as a product of primes in a unique way. For example, 2008 = (251 is a prime) s about Euclid s
20 that there are infinitely many primes Here is Euclid s wonderfully elegant argument: Let S = {p 1, p 2,..., p n } be a finite set of primes. Let N = p 1 p 2... p n, the product of all the primes in S. The number N is divisible by every prime in S. The number N + 1 is not divisible by any prime in S. By the FTA, N + 1 is a product of one or more primes not in the set S. Therefore S is not the set of all the. This means there are infinitely s. s about Euclid s
21 that there are infinitely many primes Here is Euclid s wonderfully elegant argument: Let S = {p 1, p 2,..., p n } be a finite set of primes. Let N = p 1 p 2... p n, the product of all the primes in S. The number N is divisible by every prime in S. The number N + 1 is not divisible by any prime in S. By the FTA, N + 1 is a product of one or more primes not in the set S. Therefore S is not the set of all the. This means there are infinitely s. s about Euclid s
22 that there are infinitely many primes Here is Euclid s wonderfully elegant argument: Let S = {p 1, p 2,..., p n } be a finite set of primes. Let N = p 1 p 2... p n, the product of all the primes in S. The number N is divisible by every prime in S. The number N + 1 is not divisible by any prime in S. By the FTA, N + 1 is a product of one or more primes not in the set S. Therefore S is not the set of all the. This means there are infinitely s. s about Euclid s
23 that there are infinitely many primes Here is Euclid s wonderfully elegant argument: Let S = {p 1, p 2,..., p n } be a finite set of primes. Let N = p 1 p 2... p n, the product of all the primes in S. The number N is divisible by every prime in S. The number N + 1 is not divisible by any prime in S. By the FTA, N + 1 is a product of one or more primes not in the set S. Therefore S is not the set of all the. This means there are infinitely s. s about Euclid s
24 that there are infinitely many primes Here is Euclid s wonderfully elegant argument: Let S = {p 1, p 2,..., p n } be a finite set of primes. Let N = p 1 p 2... p n, the product of all the primes in S. The number N is divisible by every prime in S. The number N + 1 is not divisible by any prime in S. By the FTA, N + 1 is a product of one or more primes not in the set S. Therefore S is not the set of all the. This means there are infinitely s. s about Euclid s
25 that there are infinitely many primes Here is Euclid s wonderfully elegant argument: Let S = {p 1, p 2,..., p n } be a finite set of primes. Let N = p 1 p 2... p n, the product of all the primes in S. The number N is divisible by every prime in S. The number N + 1 is not divisible by any prime in S. By the FTA, N + 1 is a product of one or more primes not in the set S. Therefore S is not the set of all the. This means there are infinitely s. s about Euclid s
26 that there are infinitely many primes Here is Euclid s wonderfully elegant argument: Let S = {p 1, p 2,..., p n } be a finite set of primes. Let N = p 1 p 2... p n, the product of all the primes in S. The number N is divisible by every prime in S. The number N + 1 is not divisible by any prime in S. By the FTA, N + 1 is a product of one or more primes not in the set S. Therefore S is not the set of all the. This means there are infinitely s. s about Euclid s
27 that there are infinitely many primes Here is Euclid s wonderfully elegant argument: Let S = {p 1, p 2,..., p n } be a finite set of primes. Let N = p 1 p 2... p n, the product of all the primes in S. The number N is divisible by every prime in S. The number N + 1 is not divisible by any prime in S. By the FTA, N + 1 is a product of one or more primes not in the set S. Therefore S is not the set of all the. This means there are infinitely s. s about Euclid s
28 We can use Euclid s method to show there are infinitely of the form. Let S = {p 1,..., p n } be a set of such primes, and let N be the product of all of them. The number 4N 1 is not divisible by any of the primes in S. Therefore 4N 1 is the product of some primes not in S, all of which are odd and not all of which have the form. Therefore S is not the set of all primes of the form. s about Euclid s
29 We can use Euclid s method to show there are infinitely of the form. Let S = {p 1,..., p n } be a set of such primes, and let N be the product of all of them. The number 4N 1 is not divisible by any of the primes in S. Therefore 4N 1 is the product of some primes not in S, all of which are odd and not all of which have the form. Therefore S is not the set of all primes of the form. s about Euclid s
30 We can use Euclid s method to show there are infinitely of the form. Let S = {p 1,..., p n } be a set of such primes, and let N be the product of all of them. The number 4N 1 is not divisible by any of the primes in S. Therefore 4N 1 is the product of some primes not in S, all of which are odd and not all of which have the form. Therefore S is not the set of all primes of the form. s about Euclid s
31 We can use Euclid s method to show there are infinitely of the form. Let S = {p 1,..., p n } be a set of such primes, and let N be the product of all of them. The number 4N 1 is not divisible by any of the primes in S. Therefore 4N 1 is the product of some primes not in S, all of which are odd and not all of which have the form. Therefore S is not the set of all primes of the form. s about Euclid s
32 We can use Euclid s method to show there are infinitely of the form. Let S = {p 1,..., p n } be a set of such primes, and let N be the product of all of them. The number 4N 1 is not divisible by any of the primes in S. Therefore 4N 1 is the product of some primes not in S, all of which are odd and not all of which have the form. Therefore S is not the set of all primes of the form. s about Euclid s
33 We can try a similar approach to primes of the form. Let S = {p 1,..., p n } be a set of such primes, and let N be the product of all of them. The number 4N + 1 is not divisible by any of the primes in S. Therefore 4N + 1 is the product of some primes not in S, all of which are odd. However it could be the product of an even number of primes of the form, eg 21 = 3 7. OOPS. s about Euclid s
34 We can try a similar approach to primes of the form. Let S = {p 1,..., p n } be a set of such primes, and let N be the product of all of them. The number 4N + 1 is not divisible by any of the primes in S. Therefore 4N + 1 is the product of some primes not in S, all of which are odd. However it could be the product of an even number of primes of the form, eg 21 = 3 7. OOPS. s about Euclid s
35 We can try a similar approach to primes of the form. Let S = {p 1,..., p n } be a set of such primes, and let N be the product of all of them. The number 4N + 1 is not divisible by any of the primes in S. Therefore 4N + 1 is the product of some primes not in S, all of which are odd. However it could be the product of an even number of primes of the form, eg 21 = 3 7. OOPS. s about Euclid s
36 We can try a similar approach to primes of the form. Let S = {p 1,..., p n } be a set of such primes, and let N be the product of all of them. The number 4N + 1 is not divisible by any of the primes in S. Therefore 4N + 1 is the product of some primes not in S, all of which are odd. However it could be the product of an even number of primes of the form, eg 21 = 3 7. OOPS. s about Euclid s
37 We can try a similar approach to primes of the form. Let S = {p 1,..., p n } be a set of such primes, and let N be the product of all of them. The number 4N + 1 is not divisible by any of the primes in S. Therefore 4N + 1 is the product of some primes not in S, all of which are odd. However it could be the product of an even number of primes of the form, eg 21 = 3 7. OOPS. s about Euclid s
38 We can try a similar approach to primes of the form. Let S = {p 1,..., p n } be a set of such primes, and let N be the product of all of them. The number 4N + 1 is not divisible by any of the primes in S. Therefore 4N + 1 is the product of some primes not in S, all of which are odd. However it could be the product of an even number of primes of the form, eg 21 = 3 7. OOPS. s about Euclid s
39 How to fix this problem It turns out that the number 4N (instead of 4N + 1) has to be the product of primes of the form. Here are some examples. N 4N N 4N = = = = = = = s about Euclid s
40 How to fix this problem It turns out that the number 4N (instead of 4N + 1) has to be the product of primes of the form. Here are some examples. N 4N N 4N = = = = = = = s about Euclid s
41 How to fix this problem (continued) It turns out that the number 4N (instead of 4N + 1) has to be the product of primes of the form. To prove this we need some help from Pierre de Fermat, who is best known for his Last Theorem. Theorem (Fermat s Little Theorem, 1640) If p is a prime, then x p x is divisible by p for any integer x. Since x p x = x(x p 1 1), if x is not divisible by p, then x p 1 1 is divisible by p. In other words, x p 1 1 modulo p. s about Euclid s
42 How to fix this problem (continued) It turns out that the number 4N (instead of 4N + 1) has to be the product of primes of the form. To prove this we need some help from Pierre de Fermat, who is best known for his Last Theorem. Theorem (Fermat s Little Theorem, 1640) If p is a prime, then x p x is divisible by p for any integer x. Since x p x = x(x p 1 1), if x is not divisible by p, then x p 1 1 is divisible by p. In other words, x p 1 1 modulo p. s about Euclid s
43 How to fix this problem (continued) It turns out that the number 4N (instead of 4N + 1) has to be the product of primes of the form. To prove this we need some help from Pierre de Fermat, who is best known for his Last Theorem. Theorem (Fermat s Little Theorem, 1640) If p is a prime, then x p x is divisible by p for any integer x. Since x p x = x(x p 1 1), if x is not divisible by p, then x p 1 1 is divisible by p. In other words, x p 1 1 modulo p. s about Euclid s
44 How to fix this problem (continued) It turns out that the number 4N (instead of 4N + 1) has to be the product of primes of the form. To prove this we need some help from Pierre de Fermat, who is best known for his Last Theorem. Theorem (Fermat s Little Theorem, 1640) If p is a prime, then x p x is divisible by p for any integer x. Since x p x = x(x p 1 1), if x is not divisible by p, then x p 1 1 is divisible by p. In other words, x p 1 1 modulo p. s about Euclid s
45 How to fix this problem (continued) It turns out that the number 4N (instead of 4N + 1) has to be the product of primes of the form. To prove this we need some help from Pierre de Fermat, who is best known for his Last Theorem. Theorem (Fermat s Little Theorem, 1640) If p is a prime, then x p x is divisible by p for any integer x. Since x p x = x(x p 1 1), if x is not divisible by p, then x p 1 1 is divisible by p. In other words, x p 1 1 modulo p. s about Euclid s
46 Lemma Any number of the form 4N is a product of primes of the form. Proof: Let x = 2N, so our number is x Suppose it is divisible by a prime of the form p = 4m + 3. This means x 2 1 modulo p. Then x 4m = (x 2 ) 2m ( 1) 2m = 1. Fermat s Little Theorem tell us that x p 1 = x 4m+2 1, but x 4m+2 = x 4m x = 1, so we have a contradiction. Hence 4N is not divisible by any prime of the form 4m + 3. QED s about Euclid s
47 Lemma Any number of the form 4N is a product of primes of the form. Proof: Let x = 2N, so our number is x Suppose it is divisible by a prime of the form p = 4m + 3. This means x 2 1 modulo p. Then x 4m = (x 2 ) 2m ( 1) 2m = 1. Fermat s Little Theorem tell us that x p 1 = x 4m+2 1, but x 4m+2 = x 4m x = 1, so we have a contradiction. Hence 4N is not divisible by any prime of the form 4m + 3. QED s about Euclid s
48 Lemma Any number of the form 4N is a product of primes of the form. Proof: Let x = 2N, so our number is x Suppose it is divisible by a prime of the form p = 4m + 3. This means x 2 1 modulo p. Then x 4m = (x 2 ) 2m ( 1) 2m = 1. Fermat s Little Theorem tell us that x p 1 = x 4m+2 1, but x 4m+2 = x 4m x = 1, so we have a contradiction. Hence 4N is not divisible by any prime of the form 4m + 3. QED s about Euclid s
49 Lemma Any number of the form 4N is a product of primes of the form. Proof: Let x = 2N, so our number is x Suppose it is divisible by a prime of the form p = 4m + 3. This means x 2 1 modulo p. Then x 4m = (x 2 ) 2m ( 1) 2m = 1. Fermat s Little Theorem tell us that x p 1 = x 4m+2 1, but x 4m+2 = x 4m x = 1, so we have a contradiction. Hence 4N is not divisible by any prime of the form 4m + 3. QED s about Euclid s
50 Lemma Any number of the form 4N is a product of primes of the form. Proof: Let x = 2N, so our number is x Suppose it is divisible by a prime of the form p = 4m + 3. This means x 2 1 modulo p. Then x 4m = (x 2 ) 2m ( 1) 2m = 1. Fermat s Little Theorem tell us that x p 1 = x 4m+2 1, but x 4m+2 = x 4m x = 1, so we have a contradiction. Hence 4N is not divisible by any prime of the form 4m + 3. QED s about Euclid s
51 Lemma Any number of the form 4N is a product of primes of the form. Proof: Let x = 2N, so our number is x Suppose it is divisible by a prime of the form p = 4m + 3. This means x 2 1 modulo p. Then x 4m = (x 2 ) 2m ( 1) 2m = 1. Fermat s Little Theorem tell us that x p 1 = x 4m+2 1, but x 4m+2 = x 4m x = 1, so we have a contradiction. Hence 4N is not divisible by any prime of the form 4m + 3. QED s about Euclid s
52 Lemma Any number of the form 4N is a product of primes of the form. Proof: Let x = 2N, so our number is x Suppose it is divisible by a prime of the form p = 4m + 3. This means x 2 1 modulo p. Then x 4m = (x 2 ) 2m ( 1) 2m = 1. Fermat s Little Theorem tell us that x p 1 = x 4m+2 1, but x 4m+2 = x 4m x = 1, so we have a contradiction. Hence 4N is not divisible by any prime of the form 4m + 3. QED s about Euclid s
53 Lemma Any number of the form 4N is a product of primes of the form. Proof: Let x = 2N, so our number is x Suppose it is divisible by a prime of the form p = 4m + 3. This means x 2 1 modulo p. Then x 4m = (x 2 ) 2m ( 1) 2m = 1. Fermat s Little Theorem tell us that x p 1 = x 4m+2 1, but x 4m+2 = x 4m x = 1, so we have a contradiction. Hence 4N is not divisible by any prime of the form 4m + 3. QED s about Euclid s
54 again Here is our second attempt to use Euclid s method, this time with some help from Fermat. Let S = {p 1,..., p n } be a set of such primes, and let N be the product of all of them. The number 4N is not divisible by any of the primes in S. Therefore 4N is the product of some primes not in S, all of which must have the form. Therefore S is not the set of all primes of the form. s about Euclid s
55 again Here is our second attempt to use Euclid s method, this time with some help from Fermat. Let S = {p 1,..., p n } be a set of such primes, and let N be the product of all of them. The number 4N is not divisible by any of the primes in S. Therefore 4N is the product of some primes not in S, all of which must have the form. Therefore S is not the set of all primes of the form. s about Euclid s
56 again Here is our second attempt to use Euclid s method, this time with some help from Fermat. Let S = {p 1,..., p n } be a set of such primes, and let N be the product of all of them. The number 4N is not divisible by any of the primes in S. Therefore 4N is the product of some primes not in S, all of which must have the form. Therefore S is not the set of all primes of the form. s about Euclid s
57 again Here is our second attempt to use Euclid s method, this time with some help from Fermat. Let S = {p 1,..., p n } be a set of such primes, and let N be the product of all of them. The number 4N is not divisible by any of the primes in S. Therefore 4N is the product of some primes not in S, all of which must have the form. Therefore S is not the set of all primes of the form. s about Euclid s
58 again Here is our second attempt to use Euclid s method, this time with some help from Fermat. Let S = {p 1,..., p n } be a set of such primes, and let N be the product of all of them. The number 4N is not divisible by any of the primes in S. Therefore 4N is the product of some primes not in S, all of which must have the form. Therefore S is not the set of all primes of the form. s about Euclid s
59 Some other cases of Similar methods (involving algebra but no analysis) can be used to prove some but not all cases of. For example, We can show there are infinitely s of the forms 3m + 1 and 3m 1. We can show there are infinitely s of the forms 5m + 1 and 5m 1. We can show there are infinitely s of the forms 5m + 2 or 5m + 3, but not that there are infinitely many of either type alone. s about Euclid s
60 Some other cases of Similar methods (involving algebra but no analysis) can be used to prove some but not all cases of. For example, We can show there are infinitely s of the forms 3m + 1 and 3m 1. We can show there are infinitely s of the forms 5m + 1 and 5m 1. We can show there are infinitely s of the forms 5m + 2 or 5m + 3, but not that there are infinitely many of either type alone. s about Euclid s
61 Some other cases of Similar methods (involving algebra but no analysis) can be used to prove some but not all cases of. For example, We can show there are infinitely s of the forms 3m + 1 and 3m 1. We can show there are infinitely s of the forms 5m + 1 and 5m 1. We can show there are infinitely s of the forms 5m + 2 or 5m + 3, but not that there are infinitely many of either type alone. s about Euclid s
62 Some other cases of Similar methods (involving algebra but no analysis) can be used to prove some but not all cases of. For example, We can show there are infinitely s of the forms 3m + 1 and 3m 1. We can show there are infinitely s of the forms 5m + 1 and 5m 1. We can show there are infinitely s of the forms 5m + 2 or 5m + 3, but not that there are infinitely many of either type alone. s about Euclid s
63 Some other cases of Similar methods (involving algebra but no analysis) can be used to prove some but not all cases of. For example, We can show there are infinitely s of the forms 3m + 1 and 3m 1. We can show there are infinitely s of the forms 5m + 1 and 5m 1. We can show there are infinitely s of the forms 5m + 2 or 5m + 3, but not that there are infinitely many of either type alone. s about Euclid s
64 Euler s proof that there are infinitely s Euler considered the infinite series n 1 1 n s = 1 1 s s s +... From calculus we know that it converges for s > 1 (by the integral test) and diverges for s = 1 (by the comparison test), when it is the harmonic series. Using FTA, Euler rewrote the series as a product 1 n s = 1 p n 1 p prime ks k 0 = ( s + 14 ) (1 s s + 19 ) s s about Euclid s
65 Euler s proof that there are infinitely s Euler considered the infinite series n 1 1 n s = 1 1 s s s +... From calculus we know that it converges for s > 1 (by the integral test) and diverges for s = 1 (by the comparison test), when it is the harmonic series. Using FTA, Euler rewrote the series as a product 1 n s = 1 p n 1 p prime ks k 0 = ( s + 14 ) (1 s s + 19 ) s s about Euclid s
66 Euler s proof that there are infinitely s Euler considered the infinite series n 1 1 n s = 1 1 s s s +... From calculus we know that it converges for s > 1 (by the integral test) and diverges for s = 1 (by the comparison test), when it is the harmonic series. Using FTA, Euler rewrote the series as a product 1 n s = 1 p n 1 p prime ks k 0 = ( s + 14 ) (1 s s + 19 ) s s about Euclid s
67 Euler s proof that there are infinitely s Euler considered the infinite series n 1 1 n s = 1 1 s s s +... From calculus we know that it converges for s > 1 (by the integral test) and diverges for s = 1 (by the comparison test), when it is the harmonic series. Using FTA, Euler rewrote the series as a product 1 n s = 1 p n 1 p prime ks k 0 = ( s + 14 ) (1 s s + 19 ) s s about Euclid s
68 Euler s proof (continued) Each factor in this product is a geometric series. The pth factor converges to 1/(1 p s ), whenever s > 0. Hence n 1 1 n s = p prime 1 1 p s. If there were only finitely s, this would give a finite answer for s = 1, contradicting the divergence of the harmonic series. Dirichlet used some clever variations of this method to prove his 100 years later. s about Euclid s
69 Euler s proof (continued) Each factor in this product is a geometric series. The pth factor converges to 1/(1 p s ), whenever s > 0. Hence n 1 1 n s = p prime 1 1 p s. If there were only finitely s, this would give a finite answer for s = 1, contradicting the divergence of the harmonic series. Dirichlet used some clever variations of this method to prove his 100 years later. s about Euclid s
70 Euler s proof (continued) Each factor in this product is a geometric series. The pth factor converges to 1/(1 p s ), whenever s > 0. Hence n 1 1 n s = p prime 1 1 p s. If there were only finitely s, this would give a finite answer for s = 1, contradicting the divergence of the harmonic series. Dirichlet used some clever variations of this method to prove his 100 years later. s about Euclid s
71 Euler s proof (continued) Each factor in this product is a geometric series. The pth factor converges to 1/(1 p s ), whenever s > 0. Hence n 1 1 n s = p prime 1 1 p s. If there were only finitely s, this would give a finite answer for s = 1, contradicting the divergence of the harmonic series. Dirichlet used some clever variations of this method to prove his 100 years later. s about Euclid s
72 Epilogue: zeta function. In his famous 1859 paper On the Number of Primes Less Than a Given Magnitude, Riemmann studied Euler s series n 0 1 n s = p prime 1 1 p s as a function of a complex variable s, which he called ζ(s). He showed that the series converges whenever s has real part greater than 1, and that it can be extended as a complex analytic function to all values of s other than 1, where the function has a pole. He showed that the behavior of this function is intimately connected with the distribution of. To learn more about this connection, ask Steve Gonek to give a talk. s about Euclid s
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