Titanium: the innovators metal Historical case studies tracing titanium process and product innovation

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1 Titnium: the innovtos metl Histoicl cse studies tcing titnium pocess nd poduct innovtion by S.J. Oosthuizen* J o u n l Synopsis This ppe exmines innovtion in eltion to the vilbility of new mteil: the metl titnium. The ppe ims to highlight the need fo the inclusion of entepeneuil innovtion s necessy focus e in the development of titnium metl vlue chin. Both the Deptment of Science nd Technology (DST) nd the Deptment of Minel Resouces (DMR) hve identified the cetion of titnium metls poduction cpbilities s key gowth e fo South Afic. Using histoicl litetue s souce of dt, the ctivities of selected innovtos who used titnium metl s centl component in thei success, wee investigted. The oigin of the pocess innovtion behind the titnium metls industy, nd two titnium poduct innovtions: nmely, medicl implnts nd spoting goods, wee detiled s cse studies. It ws found tht individul innovtos wee esponsible fo the cetion, nd pid gowth, of the titnium industy nd titnium poduct pplictions. Thee is need to link the cuent esech nd development into titnium metls poduction with individuls nd ogniztions cpble of commecilizing innovtive pocesses nd poducts. Keywods titnium, koll, hunte, spot, medicl, defense, innovtion, entepeneu. Intoduction South Afic hs bundnt mketble ntul esouces, nd is notbly mjo expote of titnium-being minels nd mino poduce of pocessed titnium dioxide used s pigment. When it comes to high-end titnium poducts, South Afic hs no titnium metls industy nd only limited cpcity in titnium fbiction1,2. Titnium is moden metl, commecilly vilble only since the 1950s. Titnium hs the stength of the best steels t only hlf the weight, is widely esistnt ginst coosion, nd is biocomptible. Titnium is elstic nd tough, hdly expnds with incesing tempetues, nd cn withstnd cold without becoming bittle. Impotntly, fo pocessing: it cn be olled, foged, nd welded. Tody titnium is ssocited with sevel technologicl dvnces in fo exmple, medicine, nd the eospce nd chemicls industies2,3. The estblishment of locl titnium metl industy is science nd technology pioity e fo South Afic, with sustined effots by govenment to suppot titnium-elted esech nd development. The Deptment of Minel Resouces lunched the Dft Beneficition Sttegy4 fo the minels industy in South Afic in Midnd on 31 Mch 2009, which views the development of the titnium vlue chin (i.e. poduction of titnium pigment, metl, nd downstem fbiction) s potentil key gowth e fo South Afic. Key points of the sttegy im t the development of popiety low-cost titnium metl poduction pocess, nd the continued development nd commeciliztion of technologies to compete cost-effectively in intentionl titnium mkets4. Consideing tht the ntionl sttegy fo titnium is to mkedly chnge existing technology, nd to bing bout n industil evolution in low-cost titnium metl nd poducts t both the ntionl nd intentionl scle, it is deemed impotnt to dequtely undestnd the fctos involved in the success of such innovtions. An im of this ppe is to intoduce nd highlight the function of individul innovtos, who my be equied to fully exploit new oppotunities ssocited with the sudden vilbility of new mteil, nd to ultimtely tigge significnt positive socioeconomic developments. The foementioned im is to be chieved though the identifiction * CSIR Mining Technology. The Southen Aficn Institute of Mining nd Metllugy, SA ISSN X/ Ppe eceived My 2009; evised ppe eceived Jun P p e The Jounl of The Southen Aficn Institute of Mining nd Metllugy VOLUME 111 NOVEMBER

2 Titnium: the innovtos metl Histoicl cse studies nd study of the entepeneus nd innovtos who, hving mde use of titnium, estblished ssocited mkets nd pidly gew new ventues. The ede should note tht thee is mention of esech nd development conducted in South Afic towds the estblishment of n innovtive low-cost titnium poduction pocess, i.e. the industy-sponsoed South Aficn Titnium/Peuke pocess, nd DST suppoted development of CSIR titnium pocesses. The cuent sttegic focus is theefoe on pocess innovtion: howeve, the delivey of low-cost titnium vi n innovtive pocess is lso expected to unlock the potentil fo numeous poduct innovtions, initilly pojected to be used in chitectul nd utomotive pplictions. No futhe distinction is mde between the unique equiements fo pocess innovtion, s pe the fist cse study, nd poduct innovtions s discussed in the finl two cse studies. The pesent ticle ims to ddess the following esech questions: Does histoy indicte eltionship between the vilbility of new mteil nd technologicl dvncement? Is thee evidence to suggest tht individul innovtos wee of pimy impotnce in the estblishment of mkets fo titnium? Cn it be esoned tht South Aficn sttegy fo titnium beneficition should include effots to develop nd suppot innovtion nd entepeneuship in this field? Findings e pesented in the fom of distinct histoicl cse studies, individully bodly outlining the emegence of the titnium metls industy nd specific mkets. This esech is conducted to build fmewok fo the undestnding of pocess nd poduct innovtion in the estblishment of titnium vlue chin. Such fmewok my seve to ssist decision-mkes, eseches, nd innovtos in the identifiction nd exploittion of oppotunities fo South Aficn poduced titnium nd titnium poducts. This ppe hs fou pts. Fistly, it pesents the method used in dt gtheing nd building of cse studies. Then bckgound section sets out to () estblish the eltionship between the vilbility of new mteil nd technologicl pogess, (b) povide bief oveview of the metl titnium, nd (c) infe the need fo innovtion nd entepeneuship in the cetion of new industy nd mkets fo titnium. Thidly, cse studies e pesented to estblish the eltionship between the innovto, innovtion, nd esulting industy/mket fo titnium. Finlly conclusions e mde nd diections fo futue esech suggested. Method Fo dt on the eltionship between titnium, innovtion, nd entepeneuship, litetue sech ws conducted pee- =eviewed jounl ticles using combintions of the keywods Entep*, Innov*, nd Titnium. A study ws lso mde of publictions coveing the histoy of the titnium industy, industy-stndd mket epots, s well s cdemic publictions coveing innovtion. Cse studies wee compiled fom publicly vilble secondy dt. Fom the initil litetue sech, the oigin of the titnium industy nd two well-documented nd genelly ccessible titnium mkets, nmely medicl implnts nd spoting goods, wee selected fo futhe nlysis. In ech of the two selected mkets, detils of the most pominent innovtos nd thei espective pplictions of titnium wee compiled s cse studies. Litetue seches wee conducted in evese time-wise mnne, stting with the most moden publictions nd tcing the histoy of titniumbsed innovtion to inception. Bckgound Dnish cheologist nd museum cuto Chistin Thomsen in 1816 defined the Stone, Bonze, nd Ion Ages in n ttempt to ognize his museum s tefcts. In so doing he clssified the stges of humn development by the level of complexity of the mteils employed. The fct tht this method of clssifiction hs stood the test of time hints t n intimte connection between society s level of dvncement nd the mstey of mteils t its disposl. Thomsen s Thee Age system cn be sid to descibe pehistoic vitions of peiods of technologicl evolution5. Austin-bon Pofesso of Economics t Hvd Univesity, Joseph Schumpete ( ) identified cycles of technologicl dvncement within moden histoy (Tble I). These economic cycles wee nmed fte the Russin economist Kondtieff, who fist poposed such cyclicl ctivity. As with Thomsen s Thee Age system, ech Kondtieff cycle cn genelly be ssocited with mteils plying distinctive oles in shping the espective technologicl evolution6. Similly, the discovey nd utiliztion of titnium cn be seen to contibute to the chcteistics of the moden technologicl ge. Tble I Schumpete s Kondtieff cycles 6 Cycle Desciption Mteil(s) Fist Kondtieff (1780s 1840s) Industil Revolution: fctoy poduction fo textiles Cotton Second Kondtieff (1840s 1890s) Age of stem powe nd ilwys Ion/col Thid Kondtieff (1890s 1940s) Age of electicity, chemicls nd steel Steel Fouth Kondtieff (1940s 1990s) Age of mss poduction of utomobiles, Oil, Synthetics, Light Metls petochemicls nd synthetic mteils, Aeospce Fifth Kondtieff (lte 1990s) Age of infomtion, communiction, nd Semiconductos/silicon chips, composites compute netwoks. nd spce ge mteils 782 NOVEMBER 2011 VOLUME 111 The Jounl of The Southen Aficn Institute of Mining nd Metllugy

3 Titnium: the innovtos metl Histoicl cse studies Titnium As the fouth most bundnt metl in the eth s cust, titnium oe is plentiful nd widely dispesed ove the plnet. South Afic is cuently the second lgest poduce of titnium-being minels in the wold, contibuting 22% of the globl output of oughly 6 million tons pe nnum1. Titnium hs distinct physicl nd chemicl popeties which llow sevel industil sectos to benefit fom its ppliction. Titnium s high stength to weight tio is ttctive to the eospce nd tnspot industies, its excellent coosion esistnce mkes it n obvious choice in the chemicls, petochemicls, nd mitime industies, nd biocomptibility llows fo numeous medicl pplictions2,3,7. Cuently 95% of the titnium being minels mined nnully is used in the mnufctuing of pints (TiO 2 pigment), ppe, nd plstics1, nd only 5% is conveted to titnium metl2. The eltively smll size of the titnium metls industy is due pimily to the difficulty nd cost of commecil extction nd pocessing of the metl2. Illustting this stuggle to isolte the metl is the fct tht, even though titnium ws discoveed in its minel fom in 1791 by English clegymn Willim Gego, it ws not until 1910 tht the fist smll mounts of pue titnium metl wee poduced. Only s lte s 1948 ws pocess finlly commecilized, llowing limited-scle btch-wise poduction of the metl8. Titnium is not being utilized in the full nge of potentil pplictions, mostly due its high cost eltive to luminium nd steel. Much of titnium s cost is due to the expensive nd inefficient pocesses used in its poduction. Inteestingly, numbe of esech pojects in the pusuit of low-cost titnium poduction e suppoted/funded by the US mility, with the gol to poduce e.g. light, coosionesistnt ships nd moued vehicles. Should poduction of low-cost titnium become possible, thee is much potentil fo it to compete with e.g. the stinless steel mss mket in most pplictions2,3,7. This potentil is lso cknowledged in South Aficn effots to develop cost eduction technologies fo titnium pocessing4. The entepeneu s Innovto A key pocess in economic chnge, gowth, nd development is the pocess of innovtion. Innovtion cn be defined s the exploiting of inventions to enble thei tde in mketplce6. Schumpete9 is cedited with being the fist to posit tht cycles of economic gowth nd development did not simply occu, but equied the entepeneu s the pime move, whose function is to innovte, o to cy out new combintions. Venkmn9 poceeds to quote Schumpete t length, who stted tht: the function of entepeneus is to efom o evolutionize the ptten of poduction by exploiting n invention o, moe genelly, n untied technologicl possibility fo poducing new commodity o poducing n old one in new wy, by opening up new souce of supply of mteils o new outlet fo poducts, by eognizing n industy nd so on This kind of ctivity is pimily esponsible fo the ecuent pospeities tht evolutionize the economic ognism nd the ecuent ecessions tht e due to the disequilibting impct of new poducts o methods. Schumpete ws not lone in identifying the entepeneu s centl diving foce in innovtion; Hebig, Golden, nd Dunphy10 stted tht Entepeneus nd innovtion go togethe like the povebil hose nd cige. Entepeneus seek oppotunities nd innovtions often povide the instument fo them to succeed. The entepeneu leveging business nd scientific knowledge is theefoe the linchpin of innovtion, nd if society o locle wishes to genete innovtion (eithe low o high technology), it is in society s best inteests to cete n envionment conducive to the enty nd mintennce of entepeneus nd the ssocited smll new ventues tht they poduce. 10 Thee hve been sevel instnces whee govenment/ public entepise cted s the dives of innovtion, usully in cses of cpitl-intensive developments. Notbly, initil effots towds the commeciliztion of titnium wee mde by the US govenment9. Similly, the South Aficn Deptment of Science nd Technology, vi the Advnced Metls Inititive (AMI), intevenes to pogess development of dvnced metls cpbilities in South Afic. While cknowledging its vitl ole nd impotnce, govenment-led innovtion flls outside of the scope of the pesent ticle, which ims to focus on the contibutions of individul innovtos. J o u n l P p e Tble II Titnium Time Line 7 Dte Event 1790 Rev Gego discoves titnium in minel fom 1887 Fist peption of impue titnium (Ti) metl 1910 Smll mounts of Ti metl poduced fo Genel Electic. 1940s Koll develops pocess to commecilly poduce Ti metl 1950s Ti used mostly in mility icft/defence pplictions 1970s Incese in odes fo commecil icft nd Ti mket expnsion 1980s Ti incesingly used in medicl implnts 1990s Ti incesingly used in spots nd consume goods pplictions Pesent Ti incesingly used in chitectue, utomotive, chemicls, etc. Cse studies The initil ttempt t titnium innovtion In 1910 the Genel Electic Compny (GE) ws seching fo mteil to eplce the shot-lived gphite filments used in the incndescent light bulbs of the dy. The impotnce of filment mteils in GE s ovell success cnnot be dequtely mesued, but ccoding to Fiedel nd Isel11 thee wee up to 22 othe inventos ctive in the field of electic lighting t the time when GE s founde nd clssicl entepeneu, Thoms Edison, chieved significnt competitive dvntge. Edison mde the discovey tht bmboo filment tht hd been cbonized could lst up to 1200 hous, nd could theefoe be commecilized. As the oiginl filment ws ptented in the 1880s, by 1910 GE elized tht to mintin competitive dvntge, they needed to led, o keep up with, esech into metllic filments8,11. The Jounl of The Southen Aficn Institute of Mining nd Metllugy VOLUME 111 NOVEMBER

4 Titnium: the innovtos metl Histoicl cse studies Of pimy impotnce to metllic filment constuction ws the metl s melting point, nd since titnium hd yet to be extcted in commecilly vible metllic fom, its popeties wee unknown. GE ws hoping tht titnium metl would withstnd the opeting conditions equied in longlife filment. Titnium ws found to melt t 1668 C by metllugist Mtthew Albet Hunte, who extcted the fist smples. The pocess used by Hunte, using sodium metl to educe titnium tetchloide to titnium metl7,8, still bes his nme. Rthe thn joining the Thid Kondtieff s citicl pt of Thoms Edison s light bulb, titnium ws bndoned fo the metl tungsten, which hs much highe melting point (3422 C). It took lmost futhe thee decdes befoe titnium found its pimy innovto. GE cn, howeve, be mentioned s pominent pt of the Thid Kondtieff, tht of electicity, chemicls, nd steel, nd hs gown to be the 10th lgest compny in the wold (in tems of mket cpitliztion) with published net income in 2007 of 22.2 Billion US dolls12. Cse Study 1 Willim Koll, titnium pocess innovto In he book Blck Snd: The Histoy of Titnium, Kthleen Housley8 povides numeous fcts fom histoy of the development of titnium metl. The book dedictes numbe of chptes to discuss the wok of Willim Koll ( ), Luxemboug metllugist who is tody known s the fthe of the metllugicl pocesses fo the poduction of ziconium nd titnium. Koll ws ledy sesoned metllugist when he set up his pivte lbotoy in 1923 in the city of Luxemboug t the ge of 34. His fist poduction of titnium vi the Hunte pocess ws in Septembe In 1932 he tvelled to Ameic whee he ttempted to inteest the likes of GE nd Bell Telephone in the metl, without success. Steel ws widely used, since it ws in sufficient supply nd poduced commecilly t costs tht did not wnt inteest in the new metl, titnium. Koll etuned to his lbotoy nd stted wok on developing new poduction method to eplce the Hunte pocess, which ws deemed explosive nd not entiely suitble fo commeciliztion. In 1938 Koll mnufctued titnium vi pocess using mgnesium to educe titnium tetchloide13; the ptented pocess still bes his nme. In the sme ye Koll mde nothe visit to the USA in n ttempt to inteest compnies in the metl, but gin filed in ttcting suppot fom industy to commecilize his pocess8. In 1940, in ode to escpe the invsion of Luxemboug by the dvncing Gemn my, Koll fled to Ameic. Aged 50 nd med with only ptents to his nme nd his pesonl belongings, Koll stted ove in the USA. Due to Wold W II, the US congess tsked the US Bueu of Mines to secue nd stockpile sttegic nd citicl mteils. Among these mteils wee titnium nd ziconium, both of which could be poduced vi Koll s ptented pocess. Koll ws ppoched nd offeed employment by the Bueu of Mines, which he took up in Jnuy Within two yes the Bueu hd poduced two tons of titnium vi the Koll pocess8. The Koll pocess is widely known to be costly nd inefficient; howeve, to dte no othe pocess hs been ble to supplnt it, nd nely ll intentionl poduction of titnium metl still occus vi the Koll pocess2,3. Since becoming commecilly vilble, the lgest industil ppliction fo titnium lloy emins the eospce secto2,3. To suvive in these hsh envionments, the mteils fom which eospce components e mde must hve high stength nd be cpble of suviving high tempetues in n oxidizing envionment with sevee coustic lods. Howeve, the mteils should hve low density nd, fo most pplictions, must be eusble14. Titnium is theefoe idelly suited fo eospce pplictions. It cn be gued tht, wee it not fo D Koll s push to develop nd commecilize vible pocess fo titnium poduction, the eospce ge might hve lcked component citicl to its pid development. Cse Study 2 Pe-Ingv Bånemk,titnium poduct innovto Titnium is well documented s being biologiclly inet, pimily due to its esistnce to coosion; howeve, fctos such s being non-llegenic nd non-toxic lso enble the fit nd foget ttitude to titnium implnts15,16. Being nonmgnetic, titnium lso intefees less with fom of medicl scnning clled mgnetic esonnce imging (MRI), whee even the low feomgnetic popeties of sugicl steel could led to distoted imges17. The most impotnt spect of titnium s ppliction in medicine ws, howeve, discoveed by chnce. Woking t Lund Univesity in the 1950s, D. Pe-Ingv Bånemk used n ocul piece inseted into bbit s e to visully study bone heling. It ws found tht fte completion of the study tht the costly instument, constucted out of titnium, could not be extcted. Titnium ws found to integte nd be stuctully ccepted by bone, leding D Bånemk to cll the discovey osseointegtion. This popety is vitully unique to titnium18. The use of titnium t the time of the discovey ws coincidentl, in D. Bånemk s own wods: By coincidence, n othopedic sugeon, Hns Emneus, in Lund, ws studying diffeent metls used fo hip joint postheses. At tht time I hppened to meet him nd he indicted new metl, titnium, fom Russi used in nucle industy, tht might be optiml. I mnged to get smple fom Russi vi Avest Jenvek, Diecto Guffin, nd fom thee on it hs been pue titnium. Initilly we tied tntlum, which ws too soft. 19 D Bånemk sought to tke his discovey to the mket nd ppoched elevnt technology compnies to ssist in the commecilizing of titnium implnts. In 1978 Swedish chemicls nd defence compny Bofos geed to ptne with D Bånemk to develop his implnts. Bofos Nobelphm (lte Nobel Bioce) ws founded in In 2008 Nobel Bioce chieved tunove of 619 million EUR nd goss pofit of 374 million EUR20. Consideing tht NobelBioce ws officilly stted in 1981, but the innovtion tht the compny is built on hd been unde development since the ely 1960s16, it took ound 20 yes fo D Bånemk to commecilize his discovey. D Bånemk s mentioned tht pimy eson fo this ws tht osseointegtion ws looked upon with mistust, which pevented penettion of the ide16. Without D Bånemk s pesistence the mket fo medicl titnium implnts might still hve been dominted by less efficient mteils. 784 NOVEMBER 2011 VOLUME 111 The Jounl of The Southen Aficn Institute of Mining nd Metllugy

5 Titnium: the innovtos metl Histoicl cse studies D Bånemk s innovtion led to the estblishment of vibnt new mkets, Sweden is tody known s hving one of the leding clustes of biomteils compnies in the wold, whee Rickne21 epoted estblishment of 25 new compnies in the field in the peiod Titnium is lso utilized by some of the leding US biomteils compnies, such s wold-leding spinl implnts compny AcoMed of Ohio, which ws founded in 1983 by spine sugeon A. Steffee nd businessmn E. Wgne. Acomed s time fom invention to innovtion took ound two yes; howeve, it cn be gued tht osseointegtion ws ledy well eseched t tht stge16. Competing with the Swedish cluste, in the peiod the US stte of Msschusetts sw the founding of 30 biomteils compnies, followed by Ohio with 18 compnies in the sme peiod16. Cse Study 3 Ely Cllwy, titnium poduct innovto Titnium is 40% less dense (mss pe unit volume) thn steel, yet it possesses highe stength-to-modulus tio thn steel. The combintion of titnium s weight dvntge nd its impoved impct esistnce nd sping-bck following loding hs bought foth innovtions such s titnium bedspings, tennis cquets, nd fishing ods22. One of the lgest nd fstest gowing consume mkets fo the metl, howeve, cme fom its use in golf clubs. Ely Cllwy, etied pesident of multintionl textiles fim Bulington, founded Cllwy Vineyd nd Winey in southen Clifoni, which he sold in 1981 fo $14 million. Aged 60, Cllwy went on to estblish The Cllwy Golf Compny in In 1994, Cllwy Golf went to mket with golf club incopoting titnium in its constuction. With the Get Big Beth titnium dive, Ely Cllwy pomised dive tht is not only esie to hit fo distnce without swinging hde, but significntly moe fogiving of off-cente shots 23. Optiml golf club hed design equies the use of metl/lloy hving the best combintion of high modulus of elsticity nd high stength-to-density tio; Dhl, Novotny, nd Mtin24 sseted tht such ttibutes llows fo lge sweet spot (cente of pecussion) without dding uncceptble weight. The combintion of n enlged cente of pecussion nd incesed enegy tnsfe enbles the golfe to dive the bll gete distnce nd stighte, without swinging hde. The use of lighte weight titnium is lso sid to hve opened up the mket fo femle golfes, who wee epoted to hve poblems with the hevie stinless steel clubs23. Foes25 noted tht by 1999, in the dive nd woods segment of the mket 40% of the clubs poduced wee mde of Tble III US Titnium-metl woods sles 25 Ye Clubs sold (millions) 1994 ~500 clubs titnium, 59% of stinless steel, nd 1% othe mteils; nd mongst poduces in this segment, Cllwy hd chieved mket ledeship (42%) followed by Tylo Mde (35%). The eson fo titnium dives not completely dominting the mket ws pice; titnium dives wee sold fo pices upwd of $500 in the USA nd in the nge of $600-$1800 in Jpn, which ws compble to n entie set of stndd golf clubs25. The populity nd cost of the dives wee such tht in 1998 n ognized gng of obbes stted to tget golf stoes, specificlly steling Cllwy Get Big Beths nd Biggest Big Beth dives. In two months the gng hd boken into 25 golf stoes nd stolen n estimted Cllwy dives nd othe woods26. In 2000, the US Golf Assocition (USGA) which ovesees golfing competition in the United Sttes, bnned one of the Cllwy club designs, the ERC club, bsed on thei evlution tht its titnium hed povided unfi dvntge27. In n inteview with Englde23, Ely Cllwy sid: We went fom the smllest golf compny in the county in 1983 to the lgest in 1995 It ll ws done on poduct. We mke poducts tht e the most ewding in the wold, poducts tht e demonstbly supeio to nd plesingly diffeent fom ou competitos. In 1997, Ely Cllwy ws inducted into Bbson College s Acdemy of Distinguished Entepeneus28. Cllwy Golf decled $1.117 billion tunove nd goss pofit of $486.8 million in In wht hs been dubbed the Stbucks Effect30, it hs been obseved tht tendy poduct cn benefit the elted mket segment. The 1990s subsequently sw pid gowth in the ovell use of titnium in the field of spot nd ecetion31. Beech et l. epoted on the tend fvouing titnium spoting equipment, obseving tht: The Mongoose Po RX 10.7 bicycle s titnium fme weighed only thee pounds, the high esilience impted by the titnium fme ws sid to bsob shock bette thn othe mteils in use t the time Melin VI SL titnium skis fom K2 wee both lightweight nd climed to poduce less chtte t speed thn stndd fibeglss nd wooden skis, due to esiliency nd dubility of titnium Wilson s titnium line of golf blls epotedly incesed bll sles by 50%. Wilson climed tht the titnium coe offeed lge sweet spot, decesing hooks nd slices by thee to fou yds In Octobe 1997 spoting compny Hed bought to mket the titnium/gphite Ti.S2, which becme the top-selling tennis cket woldwide. Conclusions This ticle investigted individul innovtos nd thei use of new mteil, specificlly titnium, to estblish new industies nd mkets. Histoy points to eltionship between vilbility of new mteil nd incesed potentil fo technologicl nd economic development. This eltionship lso poves to be ccute fo the histoy of the development nd commeciliztion of titnium metl nd subsequent technologicl dvnces. Theoy of innovtion mkes note of the J o u n l P p e The Jounl of The Southen Aficn Institute of Mining nd Metllugy VOLUME 111 NOVEMBER

6 Titnium: the innovtos metl Histoicl cse studies entepeneu, seen to be diving foce behind innovtion. Entepeneus cn be obseved to e.g. innovtively use new mteils, theeby cusing technologicl chnge nd economic gowth. The equiement fo n innovto to unlock the potentil of new mteil hs been shown in the histoies of some of the leding figues in titnium poduction nd pplictions: Willim Koll, Pe-Ingv Bånemk, nd Ely Cllwy. Fom the cse studies pesented, it cn be gued tht without these individuls the equied pocess nd poduct innovtions my not hve occued, nd tht the eospce, medicl implnt, nd spoting goods mkets my not hve undegone the evitliztion nd pid gowth set off by the intoduction of titnium. It is esonble to expect tht simil effots will be equied in the commeciliztion of the titnium technologies developed in South Afic s dive to beneficite its titnium esouces nd cete titnium vlue chin. The study is limited by the inclusion of only thee successful nd popully published instnces of innovtion in titnium, nd theefoe cnnot be consideed conclusive. An investigtion into the wokings nd potentil integtion of South Aficn stuctues nd systems fo the development nd suppot of entepeneuship nd innovtion in dvnced metls is peceived to be vluble diection fo futhe esech. Acknowledgements The utho would like to cknowledge the Deptment of Science nd Technology fo thei continued suppot in the estblishment of titnium metl competencies in South Afic. Refeences 2. ROSKILL INFORMATION SERVICES. Economics of Titnium Metl., 4th edn. Roskill Infomtion Sevices, LÜTJERING, G. nd WILLIAMS, J.C. Titnium. 2nd edn. Spinge-Velg, Belin, Deptment of Minel Resouces, South Afic An oveview of South Afic s titnium minel concentte industy. [Online] html/ Accessed Deptment of Minel Resouces, South Afic. A beneficition sttegy fo the minels Industy of South Aficn. [Online] gov.z/publictions/finish/162-beneficition-sttegy-june-2011/617- beneficition-sttegy-june-2011-/0.html/ Accessed HEIZER, R.F. The Bckgound of Thomsen s thee-ge system. Technology nd Cultue, vol. 3, pp SMITH, D. Exploing Innovtion. McGw Hill, Midenhed, Bekshie, TURNER, P.C., HARTMAN, A., HANSEN, J.S., nd GERMANN, S.J. Low cost titnium myth o elity. Poceeding of the TMS Annul Meeting, New Olens, Febuy HOUSLEY, K.L. Blck Snd: The Histoy of Titnium. Htfod, CT, Metl Mngement Aeospce, Inc., VENKARAMAN, S. Regionl tnsfomtion though technologicl entepeneuship. Jounl of Business Ventuing, vol. 19, pp HERBIG, P., GOLDEN, J.E., nd DUNPHY, S. The eltionship of stuctue to entepeneuil nd innovtive success. Jounl of Mketing Intelligence nd Plnning, vol. 12, pp FRIEDEL, R. nd ISRAEL, P. Edison's Electic Light: Biogphy of n Invention. Rutges Univesity Pess, New Bunswick, New Jesey, Genel Electic. [Online] index.htm Accessed: KROLL, W.J. The poduction of ductile titnium. Tnsction of the Ameicn Electochemicl Society, vol. 78, pp BOYER, R.R. Titnium fo eospce: tionle nd pplictions. Advnced Pefomnce Mteils, vol. 2, no. 4, pp BALAZIC, M., KOPAC, J., JACKSON, M.J., nd AHMED, W. Review: titnium nd titnium lloy pplictions in medicine. Intentionl Jounl of Nno nd Biomteils, vol. 1, pp FRIDH, A. Titnium implnts compison of Swedish nd n Ohio fim. Clsson, B. (ed.). New Technologicl Systems in the Bio Industies: An Intentionl Study. Kluwe Acdemic Publishes, Dodecht, HOLTON, A., WALSH, E., nd ANAYIOTOS, A. Comptive MRI comptibility of 316 L stinless steel lloy nd nickel-titnium lloy stents. Jounl of Cdiovscul Mgnetic Resonnce, vol. 4, pp BRANEMARK, P. Osseointegtion nd its expeimentl bckgound. Jounl of Posthetic Dentisty, vol. 50, pp Bånemk Osseointegtion Cente. [Online] Accessed: Nobel Bioce. [Online] spx Accessed: RICKNE, A. New technology-bsed fims in the evolution of technologicl field the cse of biomteils. Fonties of Entepeneuship Resech: Poceedings of the 19th Annul Entepeneuship Resech Confeence, Bbson College, Wellesley, Msschusetts, SKRYSAK, J. Effektive Engineeing. [Online] jeff/titnium/ Accessed: ENGLADE, K. This ye's mgic. Acoss the Bod, vol. 33, p DAHL, J.M., NOVOTNY, P.M., nd MARTIN, J.W. Golf club fce plte lloys. Advnced Mteils & Pocesses, vol. 155, pp FROES, F.H Will the titnium golf club be tomoow s mshy niblick?. JOM, vol. 51, pp CHAMBERS, M. The golf epot: theft of the Big Beths is gowing poblem. New Yok Times, 16 Apil pp HYMAN, M. Psst! Wnn buy n illegl club? Despite USGA bn, plyes lust fo Cllwy s new dive. Business Week, vol. 3692, pp Bbson College. [Online] Accessed: Cllwy Golf Compny. [Online] US.html Accessed: VISHWANATH, V. nd HARDING, D. The Stbucks effect. Hvd Business Review, vol. 18, pp BEECH, M., COOK, K., nd MRAVIC, M. Titnium mni. Spots Illustted, vol. 90, pp NOVEMBER 2011 VOLUME 111 The Jounl of The Southen Aficn Institute of Mining nd Metllugy