SECTION 3.0 PUNCTUATION, STYLE, AND GRAMMAR 3.1 Punctuation 3.1.1 Apostrophes An apostrophe is not necessary when making numerals or acronyms plural (eg., 1990s, VOCs) unless omitting it would cause confusion. Possessive case: Most singular nouns end with s to show possession (boy s). Singular nouns that end in s may drop the possessive s after the apostrophe if pronunciation would be difficult (New Orleans ). Plural nouns that end in s or es take only an apostrophe to show possession (managers schedules). Plural nouns that do not end in s take an s (children s). Coordinate nouns (joined by and ) show joint possession with s on the last noun (Mary and John s). 3.1.2 Colons Can be used to introduce a list in text or a bulleted or numbered list, but it must be preceded by an independent clause (with a subject and verb), as opposed to a phrase. The exception to this rule is if the introduction to a list is a short title or heading. A colon should follow the greeting in a letter or email. Follow colons with two spaces. Colons go outside quotation marks when used within a sentence. Rev. 12/14 Page 17
3.1 Punctuation (cont.) 3.1.3 Commas Use the Oxford comma, or serial comma (comma before the and in a list, such as red, white, and blue ). Use a comma and a conjunction (and, but, or) to separate two independent clauses in a sentence. Place a comma after introductory phrases and clauses to show where the main part of the sentence begins. Commas should be used to separate numerals of one thousand or more. When more than one adjective precedes a noun, use a comma to separate them if the two adjectives could be switched and still make sense. The same goes true for adverbs preceding a verb. Ex: The red, blue, and green ball bounced down the street means the same as The blue, green, and red ball bounced down the street, so commas are needed. Ex: Past empirical research shows the effects of the toxins on marine life does not require a comma between past and empirical because the two words could not be switched and still make sense. Commas with dates: Month-day-year format: comma after day and year (October 25, 2014, ) Day-month-year format: no commas (25 October 2014.) Only month-year or month-day: no commas (October 2014 or October 25 ) Page 18 Rev 12/14
3.1 Punctuation (cont.) 3.1.4 Em and En Dashes Em and en dashes do not have spaces around them. The em dash can be used as a strong comma when you want to give emphasis to a comment inserted into or at the end of a sentence. To create an em dash in Word, type two hyphens with no spaces between the words where you want it. When you hit space following the second word, Autoformat should change it to an em dash. An em dash can also be inserted by typing alt + ctrl + - (minus sign). To create an en dash in Word, type a space hyphen space between the words or numbers where you want the en dash. Word will automatically create an en dash with a space on either side. Delete the spaces. An en dash can also be inserted by typing ctrl + - (minus sign). 3.1.5 Hyphens A hyphen is not the same as an en dash or em dash and should be used only for hyphenating words. Hyphenation of breaking words at the ends of lines is acceptable. Two- and three-word modifiers are hyphenated when they come before a noun, but not when they follow the noun they modify. Ex: It was a well-supported argument. The argument was well supported. When a hyphenated word is used in title case, capitalize the words both before and after the hyphen. If you are not sure whether a word should be hyphenated, it is best to consult a dictionary. Rev. 12/14 Page 19
3.1 Punctuation (cont.) 3.1.6 Parentheses Parentheses can be used to include additional information that is not important enough to emphasize, such as a side comment, and that is not essential to the sentence. Parentheses within a sentence do not affect the punctuation of a sentence, and any punctuation should come after the closing parentheses. A complete sentence within parentheses that is not part of another sentence takes ending punctuation within the parentheses. Parentheses are also used to enclose numbers or letters in a sequence within a sentence. Do not follow spelled-out numbers with a numeral in parentheses of the same number, such as five (5). 3.1.7 Periods Insert two spaces after the period in a sentence. It is not necessary to put a period after common measurement abbreviations, such as in, ft, cm, etc., when used in a table or chart. Measurement abbreviations in text do not need a period unless they could be confused with another word, such as in. for inches or gal. for gallons. Do not include an additional period at the end of a sentence that ends with an abbreviation. At the end of a quotation, the period goes inside the ending quotation mark. If the quote is part of a question but is not a question itself, the question mark goes outside the end quotation mark. Page 20 Rev 12/14
3.1 Punctuation (cont.) 3.1.8 Semicolons Use a semicolon to separate items in a list when one or more of the items contains a comma(s). Ex: We need small, medium, and large t-shirts; a dozen ball caps; and three baseballs. A semicolon can also be used to separate two independent clauses in the same sentence when they are closely related and of equal importance. Semicolons go outside quotation marks when used within a sentence. Rev. 12/14 Page 21
3.2 Punctuation Pattern Sheet Source: Dr. Cynthia Narhwold Page 22 Rev 12/14
3.3 Style Style affects comprehension and the tone of your writing. It is the overall effect of word choices and word arrangement in sentences. 3.3.1 General Style Notes Whatever you are writing, consider who will be reading it and write to that audience s level of expertise. If a lay person will be reading your writing, avoid industry slang and define whatever terms may not be familiar to the reader. Conciseness is critical to good technical writing. The fewer words you can use to get your point across, the better. Examine each sentence for any words that can be eliminated without sacrificing clarity. Avoid redundancy caused by modifiers that repeat an idea already implied in the word being modified, repetitive synonyms, and extra qualifications. Ex: basic essentials, final outcome, completely finished each and every, first and foremost perfectly clear, totally accurate 3.3.2 Sentence Structure The main idea of the sentence should be in the subject and verb positions (the core of the sentence). Keep the subject and verb close to together in the sentence where possible, without a lot of words separating them. Use parallel structure for items in a series or a compound sentence. All items in a series should begin with the same part of speech. Ex: They ran, jumped, and skipped across the parking lot. The group traveled by car, by plane, and by train. In a compound sentence, both clauses (which have a subject and a verb) should be either active or passive voice, but not mixed. Vary sentence length, using shorter sentences to emphasize key points. Rev. 12/14 Page 23
3.3.2 Sentence Structure (cont.) Positive constructions are easier to read than negative constructions. Ex: Original: It is not uncommon for writers to have others edit their work. Improved: Writers commonly ask others to edit their work. 3.3.3 Verbs and Other Words Favor strong action verbs over forms of to be and weaker verbs such as have/has/had, make, deal with, give, do, involve, concern, reflect, provide, become, and use. There is certainly a place for these verbs, just do not rely primarily on them in your writing. Use active voice when possible. Avoid biased language. Instead of using the singular they or he/she, try writing the sentence in the plural. Ex: Every employee should place his or her time card in the appropriate slot. Change to: All employees should place their time cards in the appropriate slot. Speak to the reader, using you whenever appropriate. Doing so will engage the readers as they see themselves in the action. Only a possessive pronoun should be used with a gerund (noun formed with ing). Ex: The manager insisted on our wearing khaki pants to the office. See the Word Usage section for more word guidelines. Page 24 Rev 12/14
3.4 Grammar Table 2 comes directly from Technical Editing, pg. 140. 3.4.1 Common Grammatical Errors Error Subject-verb agreement Faulty predication Dangling modifier Misplaced modifier Pronoun-antecedent agreement error Ambiguous pronoun referent Pronoun case error Tense error Tense sequence error Table 2. Common Grammatical Errors Definition Subject and verb do not agree in number. A singular subject is used with a plural verb, or vice versa. The predicate does not comment logically on the subject. Either the subject cannot complete the action that the verb defines, or the subject complement cannot be identified with the subject. Modifier (participle, gerund, or infinitive phrase) defines an action that the subject of the sentence cannot perform. Misreading is likely because the modifier is separated from the item it is intended to modify. The solution is to move the modifier. The pronoun does not agree in number with the antecedent. It is unclear which of two (or more) previously named items in the sentence or a previous sentence the pronoun refers to. A pronoun in the subject case is used in the object position or vice versa. The tense does not accurately represent the time of action. The times of actions as implied by the verb tenses contradict logic, or the time shifts arbitrarily. Rev. 12/14 Page 25
3.4 Grammar (cont.) 3.4.2 Terminology Review Antecedent: Noun that gives definition to a following pronoun Ex: Bob is leaving the house. He is going to work. Gerund: A verb ending in ing that functions as a noun in a sentence Ex: She enjoys running. Infinitive phrase: A combination of the word to plus a verb that functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb Ex: He likes to play basketball. Linking verb: Does not express action but instead links the subject to the rest of the sentence; includes such words as all forms of to be (am, is, are, was, were, might be, and so forth), forms of to become, to seem, to appear, to feel, and others Ex: I am becoming sleepy. Modifier: An element in a sentence that alters the meaning of another element in a sentence, often an adjective or adverb; can generally be removed without affecting the structure of the sentence Ex: They toss the red ball. Object: The entity in a sentence that is acted upon by the subject Ex: He studied grammar. Participle: A word formed by a verb that can act as an adjective Ex: The baking bread Predicate: The verb that talks about the subject of a sentence Ex: The child ran across the street. Subject complement: An adjective, noun, or pronoun that follows a linking verb Ex: She appears happy today. Page 26 Rev 12/14