in the language, in precise a scientific finding of the world problem is more complicated There simple question. When people are
|
|
- Randall Barton
- 8 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 How Man y Languages Are There in the World? Stephen R. Anderson * Linguistic Society of America Brochure Series: Frequently Asked Questions The object of inquiry in linguistics is human language, in particular the extent and limits of diversity in the world s languages. One might suppose, therefore, that linguists would have a clear and reasonably precise notion of how many languages there are in the world. It turns out, however, that theree is no such definite count or at least, no such count that has any status as a scientific finding of modern linguistics. The reason for this lack is not (just) that parts of the world such as highland New Guinea or the forests of the Amazon have not been explored in enough detail to ascertain the range of people who live there. Rather, the problem is that the very notion of enumerating languages is a lot more complicated than it might seem. There are a number of coherent (but quite different) answers that linguists might give to this apparently simple question. More than you might have thought. When people are asked how many languages they think there are in the world, the answers vary quite a bit. One random sampling of New Yorkers, for instance, resulted in answers like probably several hundred. However we choose to count them, though, this is not close. When we look at reference works, we find estimates that have escalated over time. The 1911 (11th) edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, for example, implies a figure somewhere around 1,000, a number that climbs steadily over the course of the twentieth century. That is not due to any increase in the number of languages, but rather to our increased understanding of how many languages are actually spoken in areas thatt had previously been underdescribed. Much pioneering work in documenting the languages of the world has been done by missionary organizations (such as the Summer Institute of Linguistics, now known as SIL International) with an interest in translating the Christian Bible. As of 2009, at least a portion of the Bible had been translated into 2,508 different languages, still a long way short of full coverage. The most extensive catalog of the world s languages, generally taken to be as authoritative as any, is thatt of Ethnologue (published by SIL International), whose detailed classified list as of 2009 included 6,909 distinct languages. A family is a group of languages that can be shown to be genetically related to one another. The best known languages are those of the Indo European family, to which English belongs. Considering how widely the Indo European languages are distributed
2 geographically, and their influence in world affairs, one might assume that a good proportion of the world s languages belong to this family. That is not the case, however: there are about 200 Indo European languages, but even ignoring the many cases in which a language s genetic affiliation cannot be clearly determined, there are undoubtedly more families of languages (about 250) than there are members of the Indo European family. Languages are not at all uniformly distributed around the world. Just as some places are more diverse than others in terms of plant and animal species, the same goes for the distribution of languages. Out of Ethnologue s 6,909, for instance, only 230 are spoken in Europe, while 2,197 are spoken in Asia. One area of particularly high linguistic diversity is Papua New Guinea, where there are an estimated 832 languages spoken by a population of around 3.9 million. That makes the average number of speakers around 4,500, possibly the lowest of any area of the world. These languages belong to between 40 and 50 distinct families. Of course, the number of families may change as scholarship improves, but there is little reason to believe that these figures are radically off the mark. We do not find linguistic diversity only in out of the way places. Centuries of French governments have striven to make that country linguistically uniform, but (even disregarding Breton, a Celtic language; Allemannisch, the Germanic language spoken in Alsace; and Basque), Ethnologue shows at least ten distinct Romance languages spoken in France, including Picard, Gascon, Provençal, and several others in addition to French. Multilingualism in North America is usually discussed (apart from the status of French in Canada) in terms of English vs. Spanish, or the languages of immigrant populations such as Cantonese or Khmer, but we should remember that the Americas were a region with many languages well before modern Europeans or Asians arrived. In pre contact times, over 300 languages were spoken in North America. Of these, about half have died out completely. All we know of them comes from early word lists or limited grammatical and textual records. But that still leaves about 165 of North America s indigenous languages spoken at least to some extent today. Once we go beyond the major languages of economic and political power, such as English, Mandarin Chinese, Spanish, and a few more with millions of speakers each, everywhere we look in the world we find a vast number of others, belonging to many genetically distinct families. But whatever the degree of that diversity (and we discuss below the problem of how to quantify it), one thing that is fairly certain is that a surprising proportion of the world s languages are in fact disappearing even as we speak. Fewer than there were last month. Whatever the world s linguistic diversity at the present, it is steadily declining, as local forms of speech increasingly become moribund before the advance of the major languages of world civilization. When a language ceases to be learned by young children, its days are clearly numbered, and we can predict with near certainty that it will not survive the death of the current native speakers. The situation in North America is typical. Of about 165 indigenous languages, only eight are spoken by as many as 10,000 people. About 75 are spoken only by a handful of older people, and can be assumed to be on their way to extinction. While we might think this is an unusual fact about North America, due to the overwhelming pressure of European settlement over the past 500 years, it is actually close to the norm. Around a quarter of the world s languages have fewer than a thousand remaining speakers, and linguists generally agree in estimating that the extinction within the next century of at least 3,000 of the 6,909 languages listed by Ethnologue, or nearly half, is virtually guaranteed under present circumstances. The threat of extinction thus affects a vastly greater proportion of the world s languages than its biological species. Some would say that the death of a language is much less worrisome than that of a species. After all, are there not instances of languages that died and were reborn, like Hebrew? And in any case, when a group abandons its native language, it is generally for another that is more economically advantageous to them: why should we question the wisdom of that choice?
3 But the case of Hebrew is quite misleading, since the language was not in fact abandoned over the many years when it was no longer the principal language of the Jewish people. During this time, it remained an object of intense study and analysis by scholars. And there are few if any comparable cases to support the notion that language death is reversible. The economic argument does not really supply a reason for speakers of a small and perhaps unwritten language to abandon that language simply because they also need to learn a widely used language such as English or Mandarin Chinese. Where there is no one dominant local language, and groups with diverse linguistic heritages come into regular contact with one another, multilingualism is a perfectly natural condition. When a language dies, a world dies with it, in the sense that a community s connection with its past, its traditions and its base of specific knowledge are all typically lost as the vehicle linking people to that knowledge is abandoned. This is not a necessary step, however, for them to become participants in a larger economic or political order. For further information about the issues involved in language endangerment, see the LSA s FAQ What is an endangered language? Count the flags! To this point, we have assumed that we know how to count the world s languages. It might seem that any remaining imprecision is similar to what we might find in any other census like operation: perhaps some of the languages were not home when the Ethnologue counter came calling, or perhaps some of them have similar names that make it hard to know when we are dealing with one language and when with several; but these are problems that could be solved in principle, and the fuzziness of our numbers should thus be quite small. But in fact, what makes languages distinct from one another turns out to be much more a social and political issue than a linguistic one, and most of the cited numbers are matters of opinion rather than science. The late Max Weinreich used to say that A language is a dialect with an army and a navy. He was talking about the status of Yiddish, long considered a dialect because it was not identified with any politically significant entity. The distinction is still often implicit in talk about European languages vs. African dialects. What counts as a language rather than a mere dialect typically involves issues of statehood, economics, literary traditions and writing systems, and other trappings of power, authority and culture with purely linguistic considerations playing a less significant role. For instance, Chinese dialects such as Cantonese, Hakka, Shanghainese, etc. are just as different from one another (and from the dominant Mandarin) as Romance languages such as French, Spanish, Italian and Romanian. They are not mutually intelligible, but their status derives from their association with a single nation and a shared writing system, as well as from explicit government policy. In contrast, Hindi and Urdu are essentially the same system (referred to in earlier times as Hindustani ), but associated with different countries (India and Pakistan), different writing systems, and different religious orientations. Although varieties in use in India and Pakistan by well educated speakers are somewhat more distinct than the local vernaculars, the differences are still minimal far less significant than those separating Mandarin from Cantonese, for example. For an extreme example of this phenomenon, consider the language formerly known as Serbo Croatian, spoken over much of the territory of the former Yugoslavia and generally considered a single language with different local dialects and writing systems. Within this territory, Serbs (who are largely Orthodox) use a Cyrillic alphabet, while Croats (largely Roman Catholic) use the Latin alphabet. Within a period of only a few years after the breakup of Yugoslavia as a political entity, at least three new languages (Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian) had emerged, although the actual linguistic facts had not changed a bit. One common sense notion of when we are dealing with different languages, as opposed to different forms of the same language, is the criterion of mutual intelligibility: if the speakers of A can understand the speakers of B without difficulty, A and B must be the same language. But this notion fails in practice to cut the world up into clearly distinct language units. In some instances, speakers of A can understand B, but not vice versa, or at least speakers of B will insist that they cannot. Bulgarians, for instance, consider Macedonian a dialect of Bulgarian, but Macedonians
4 insist that it is a distinct language. When Macedonia s president Gligorov visited Bulgaria s president Zhelev in 1995, he brought an interpreter, although Zhelev claimed he could understand everything Gligorov said. Somewhat less fancifully, Kalabari and Nembe are two linguistic varieties spoken in Nigeria. The Nembe claim to be able to understand Kalabari with no difficulty, but the rather more prosperous Kalabari regard the Nembe as poor country cousins whose speech is unintelligible. Another reason why the criterion of mutual intelligibility fails to tell us how many distinct languages there are in the world is the existence of dialect continua. To illustrate, suppose you were to start from Berlin and walk to Amsterdam, covering about ten miles every day. You can be sure that the people who provided your breakfast each morning could understand (and be understood by) the people who served you supper that evening. Nonetheless, the German speakers at the beginning of your trip and the Dutch speakers at its end would have much more trouble, and certainly think of themselves as speaking two quite distinct (if related) languages. In some parts of the world, such as the Western Desert in Australia, such a continuum can stretch well over a thousand miles, with the speakers in each local region able to understand one another while the ends of the continuum are clearly not mutually intelligible at all. How many languages are represented in such a case? Related to this is the fact that we refer to the language of, say, Chaucer (1400), Shakespeare (1600), Thomas Jefferson (1800) and George W. Bush (2000) all as English, but it is safe to say these are not all mutually intelligible. Shakespeare might have been able, with some difficulty, to converse with Chaucer or with Jefferson, but Jefferson (and certainly Bush) would need an interpreter for Chaucer. Languages change gradually over time, maintaining intelligibility across adjacent generations, but eventually yielding very different systems. The notion of distinctness among languages, then, is much harder to resolve than it seems at first sight. Political and social considerations trump purely linguistic reality, and the criterion of mutual intelligibility is ultimately inadequate. At least 500 (But that s just in Northern Italy). So does the science of Linguistics provide a better basis for measuring the number of different languages spoken in the world? When we address the question of just when forms of speech differ systematically from a linguistic point of view, we get answers that are potentially crisp and clear, but rather surprising. If we try to distinguish languages from one another simply in terms of their words and the patterns we can observe in sentences, problems arise. Very different languages can share words (through borrowing) while different speakers of the same language may vary widely in their vocabulary due to factors of education or speaking style. Different languages may display the same sentence patterns, while a single language may display a great variety of patterns. In general, linguists have found that the analysis of the external facts of language use gives us at best a slippery object of study. Rather more coherent, it seems, is the study of the abstract knowledge speakers have which allows them to produce and understand what they say or hear or read: their internalized knowledge of the grammar of their language. We might propose, then, that instead of counting languages in terms of external forms, we might try to count the range of distinct grammars in the world. How might we do this? What differentiates one grammar from another? Some aspects of grammatical knowledge, like the way pronouns are interpreted with respect to another expression in the same sentence, seem to be common across languages. In She thinks that Mary is smart, the pronoun she can refer to any female in the universe with one exception: she here cannot refer to the same individual as Mary. This seems to be a fact not about English, but about language in general, because the same facts recur in every language when the structural relations are the same. On the other hand, the fact that adjectives precede their nouns in English (we say a red balloon, not a balloon red) is a fact about English, since the opposite is true, for instance, in French. If we had a complete inventory of the set of parameters that can serve in this way, we could then say that each particular collection of values for those parameters that we could identify in the
5 knowledge of some set of speakers should count as a distinct language. But let us see what happens when we apply this approach to a single linguistic area, say Northern Italy. Consider the facts of negative sentences, for example. Standard Italian uses a negative marker which precedes the verb (Maria non mangia la carne Maria not eats the meat ), while the language spoken in Piémonte (Piedmontese) uses a negative marker that follows the verb (Maria a mangia nen la carn Maria she eats not the meat ). Other differences correlate with this: standard Italian cannot have a negative with an imperative verb, but uses the infinitive instead, while Piedmontese allows negative imperatives; standard Italian requires a double negative in sentences like Non ho visto nessuno not have I seen nobody while Piedmontese does not use the extra negative marker, and so on. The functioning of negation here establishes a parameter that distinguishes these (and other) grammars. This is only the beginning, though. When we look more closely at the speech of various areas in Northern Italy, we find several other parameters that distinguish one grammar from another within this area, such that each of them can vary from place to place in ways that are independent of all of the others. Still staying within Northern Italy, let us suppose that there are, say, ten such parameters that distinguish one grammar from another. This is really quite a conservative estimate, in light of the variation that has in fact been found there. But if each of these can vary independently of the others, collectively they define a set of two to the tenth, or 1,024 distinct grammars, and indeed scholars have estimated that somewhere between 300 and 500 of these distinct possibilities are actually instantiated in the region! Of course, the implications of this result for the world as a whole must be based on a thorough study of the range and limits of possible grammatical variation. But all of these forms of Italian have a great deal in common, and there are many ways in which they are all distinct as a group from many other languages in many other parts of the world. Since the number of possible grammatical systems expands exponentially as the number of parameters grows, if we have only about 25 or 30 of these, the number of possible languages in this sense becomes huge: well over a billion, on the assumption of thirty distinct parameters. Obviously not all of these possibilities will be actualized, but if the space of possible grammars is covered uniformly to something like the extent we find in Northern Italy for the limited set of parameters in play there, the number of languages in the world must be much greater than the Ethnologue s 6,909. Only one (A biologist looks at human language). When we look at the languages of the world, they may seem bewilderingly diverse. From the point of view of communication systems more generally, however, they are remarkably similar to one another. Human language differs from the communicative behavior of every other known organism in a number of fundamental ways, all shared across languages. By comparison with the communicative devices of herring gulls, honey bees, dolphins or any other non human animal, language provides us with a system that is not stimulus bound and ranges over an infinity of possible distinct messages. It achieves this with a limited, finite system of units that combine hierarchically and recursively into larger units. The words themselves are structured from a small inventory of sounds basic to the language, individually meaningless elements combined according to a system completely independent of the way words combine into phrases and sentences. The particular linguistic system that each individual controls goes far beyond the direct experience from which knowledge of it arose. And the principles governing these systems of sounds, words and meanings are largely common across languages, with only limited possibilities for difference (the parameters described above). In all these ways, human language is so different from any other known system in the natural world that the narrowly constrained ways in which one grammar can differ from another fade into insignificance. For a native of Milan, the differences between the speech of that city and that of Turin may loom large, but for a visitor from Kuala Lumpur both are Italian. Similarly, the differences we find across the world in grammars seem very important, but for an outside observer say, a biologist studying communication among living beings in general all are relatively minor variations on the single theme of Human language.
6 As the 11th edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica put it, [...] all existing human speech is one in the essential characteristics which we have thus far noted or shall hereafter have to consider, even as humanity is one in its distinction from the lower animals; the differences are in nonessentials. For Further Reading Anderson, Stephen R. & David W. Lightfoot The Language Organ: Linguistics as Cognitive Physiology. Cambridge; Cambridge University Press. Baker, Mark The Atoms of Language. New York: Basic Books. Chambers, J. K. & Peter Trudgill Dialectology. 2ndedn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Romaine, Suzanne Language in Society. 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press. About the LSA Founded in 1924, The Linguistic Society of America is the major professional society in the United States that is exclusively dedicated to the advancement of the scientific study of language. As such, the LSA plays a critical role in supporting and disseminating linguistic scholarship, as well as facilitating the application of current research to scientific, educational, and social issues concerning language. Contact Information: Linguistic Society of America th St., NW, Suite 211 Washington, DC Fax: info@lsadc.org *This brochure authored by Stephen R. Anderson, with contributions from David Harrison, Laurence Horn, Rafaella Zanuttini and David Lightfoot.
2011 Census: Language
October 25, 2012 2011 Census: Language The 2011 Census Day was May 9, 2011. Today, Statistics Canada released its fourth set of data from this Census on the language characteristics of Canadians. The population
Historical Linguistics. Diachronic Analysis. Two Approaches to the Study of Language. Kinds of Language Change. What is Historical Linguistics?
Historical Linguistics Diachronic Analysis What is Historical Linguistics? Historical linguistics is the study of how languages change over time and of their relationships with other languages. All languages
Introductory Guide to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) for English Language Teachers
Introductory Guide to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) for English Language Teachers What is the Common European Framework of Reference? The Common European Framework of Reference gives
Reference Guide: Approved Vendors for Translation and In-Person Interpretation Services
Reference Guide: Approved Vendors for Translation and In-Person Interpretation Services What you need to know The government of D.C. has identified, vetted, and engaged four vendors in a citywide contract
Comparative Analysis on the Armenian and Korean Languages
Comparative Analysis on the Armenian and Korean Languages Syuzanna Mejlumyan Yerevan State Linguistic University Abstract It has been five years since the Korean language has been taught at Yerevan State
IV. DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF THE OLDER POPULATION
World Population Ageing 195-25 IV. DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF THE OLDER POPULATION A. AGE COMPOSITION Older populations themselves are ageing A notable aspect of the global ageing process is the progressive
OPTIMIZING CONTENT FOR TRANSLATION ACROLINX AND VISTATEC
OPTIMIZING CONTENT FOR TRANSLATION ACROLINX AND VISTATEC We ll look at these questions. Why does translation cost so much? Why is it hard to keep content consistent? Why is it hard for an organization
Modern foreign languages
Modern foreign languages Programme of study for key stage 3 and attainment targets (This is an extract from The National Curriculum 2007) Crown copyright 2007 Qualifications and Curriculum Authority 2007
Culture and Language. What We Say Influences What We Think, What We Feel and What We Believe
Culture and Language What We Say Influences What We Think, What We Feel and What We Believe Unique Human Ability Ability to create and use language is the most distinctive feature of humans Humans learn
PUBLISHING TRANSLATIONS IN EUROPE SURVEY OF PUBLISHERS
PUBLISHING TRANSLATIONS IN EUROPE SURVEY OF PUBLISHERS prepared by Budapest Observatory January 2011 Making Literature Travel series of reports on literary exchange, translation and publishing Series editor:
PROFILE OF THE SINGAPORE CHINESE DIALECT GROUPS
PROFILE OF THE SINGAPORE CHINESE DIALECT GROUPS by Edmond Lee Eu Fah Social Statistics Section Singapore Department of Statistics INTRODUCTION The Singapore society is made up of different ethnic groups
Structure and Dynamics of the World System of Translation
1 Structure and Dynamics of the World System of Translation UNESCO, International Symposium Translation and Cultural Mediation, February 22-23, 2010 Johan Heilbron, Centre européen de sociologie et de
EUROPEAN. Geographic Trend Report for GMAT Examinees
2011 EUROPEAN Geographic Trend Report for GMAT Examinees EUROPEAN Geographic Trend Report for GMAT Examinees The European Geographic Trend Report for GMAT Examinees identifies mobility trends among GMAT
ASSOCIATION OF DUTCH TEACHERS IN FRANCOPHONE BELGIUM DISCUSSION ON TRANSLATING PROFESSIONALLY. 7 October 2000. Cooremans Institute Brussels
ASSOCIATION OF DUTCH TEACHERS IN FRANCOPHONE BELGIUM DISCUSSION ON TRANSLATING PROFESSIONALLY 7 October 2000 Cooremans Institute Brussels Lecture by Marleen Wauters Eurologos-Antwerp Working in a subsidiary
A Report on my Foreign Language Learning Experience BA English Language and Communication
Focus A Report on my Foreign Language Learning Experience BA English Language and Communication 1 I aim to discuss and evaluate my acquisition of the grammatical systems of foreign languages; focusing
What makes a language attractive its sound, national identity or familiarity?
LÍNGUA INGLESA What makes a language attractive its sound, national identity or familiarity? The allure of a language may have more to do with perceptions of that country's status and social values than
ESCUELA DE LENGUAS CENTRO DE IDIOMAS ESCUELA SUPERIOR POLITECNICA DE CHIMBORAZO LANGUAGE CENTER
ESCUELA SUPERIOR POLITECNICA DE CHIMBORAZO LANGUAGE CENTER ENGLISH SYLLABUS FOR THE SCHOOL OF ECOTOURISM ENGINEERING LEVELS: IV, V, VI, VII INFORMATION DATA: SCHOOL: ECOTOURISM. SUBJECT: ENGLISH LEVELS:
Government of Ireland 2013. Material compiled and presented by the Central Statistics Office.
Government of Ireland 2013 Material compiled and presented by the Central Statistics Office. Reproduction is authorised, except for commercial purposes, provided the source is acknowledged. Print ISSN
Global Demographic Trends and their Implications for Employment
Global Demographic Trends and their Implications for Employment BACKGROUND RESEARCH PAPER David Lam and Murray Leibbrandt Submitted to the High Level Panel on the Post-2015 Development Agenda This paper
Linking the world through professional language services
ProLINK Linking the world through professional language services ProLINK is strategically located in Hong Kong, Asia world city and gateway to China, where the East meets the West. The economy of China
COMPARATIVES WITHOUT DEGREES: A NEW APPROACH. FRIEDERIKE MOLTMANN IHPST, Paris fmoltmann@univ-paris1.fr
COMPARATIVES WITHOUT DEGREES: A NEW APPROACH FRIEDERIKE MOLTMANN IHPST, Paris fmoltmann@univ-paris1.fr It has become common to analyse comparatives by using degrees, so that John is happier than Mary would
Heritage Voice: Program. Lenape Language Education Program of the Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania and Swarthmore College
Heritage Voice: Program Lenape Language Education Program of the Lenape Nation of Pennsylvania and Swarthmore College PO Box 451 Easton, PA 18044 www.lenapenation.org/lenapelanguage.html www.swarthmore.edu/socsci/linguistics/lenapelanguageresources
The Chinese Language and Language Planning in China. By Na Liu, Center for Applied Linguistics
The Chinese Language and Language Planning in China By Na Liu, Center for Applied Linguistics This brief introduces the Chinese language and its varieties and describes Chinese language planning initiatives
Projections of the Size and Composition of the U.S. Population: 2014 to 2060 Population Estimates and Projections
Projections of the Size and Composition of the U.S. Population: to Population Estimates and Projections Current Population Reports By Sandra L. Colby and Jennifer M. Ortman Issued March 15 P25-1143 INTRODUCTION
Points of Interference in Learning English as a Second Language
Points of Interference in Learning English as a Second Language Tone Spanish: In both English and Spanish there are four tone levels, but Spanish speaker use only the three lower pitch tones, except when
SEIZING THE OPPORTUNITY IN INTERNATIONAL MARKETS
WHITE PAPER SEIZING THE OPPORTUNITY IN INTERNATIONAL MARKETS A practical guide to choosing the right s and languages 2014 Lionbridge INTRODUCTION If your app for Windows Phone is doing well at home, now
This Module goes from 9/30 (10/2) 10/13 (10/15) MODULE 3 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TOPIC 1. **Essential Questions**
This Module goes from 9/30 (10/2) 10/13 (10/15) NOTE 1: THERE IS A LOT OF READING OVER THE NEXT TWO WEEKS, BUT I HAVE BROKEN THEM INTO CHUNKS TO MAKE IT MORE DIGESTIBLE. THE TASKS ARE MINIMAL; IT S REALLY
Xavier University Course Sharing FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQS)
1. What are X courses? Xavier University Course Sharing FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQS) Beginning Summer 2015 Aultman College and Xavier University (Cincinnati, OH) have formed a relationship that will
You re One in Seven Billion!
You re One in Seven Billion! We ve all heard the expression, You re one in a million!. With the ever-growing number of people on the planet, it might be more accurate to say, You re one in seven billion!
Introduction. Hegel s Trinitarian Claim
Hegel s Trinitarian Claim G. W. F. Hegel is one of the greatest thinkers of the Greek-Western trinitarian tradition. He said that the theologians of his day had effective ly abandoned the doctrine of the
Helping Companies with Globalization
Universal Translation Services www.universal-translation-services.com Helping Companies with Globalization universal Translation Services Brochure 2015 universal Translation services workflow 2 3 We are
Translution Price List GBP
Translution Price List GBP TABLE OF CONTENTS Services AD HOC MACHINE TRANSLATION... LIGHT POST EDITED TRANSLATION... PROFESSIONAL TRANSLATION... 3 TRANSLATE, EDIT, REVIEW TRANSLATION (TWICE TRANSLATED)...3
The Business Impact of the Cloud. According to 460 Senior Financial Decision-Makers
The Business Impact of the Cloud According to 460 Senior Financial Decision-Makers March 2012 Contents Summary of key findings 4 Finance decision-makers have a high awareness of cloud computing 4 The majority
China The Giant Panda
China The Giant Panda China The Giant Panda Deep in a forest, a black-and-white bear sits peacefully. It chews the green leaves of a plant. The bear is alone, but there are others not too far away. Later,
1. Learner language studies
1. Learner language studies The establishment of learner language research as a particular area of linguistic investigation can be traced to the late 1940s and early 1950s, when CA and EA started to compare
The Secularization of the Modern American University
The Secularization of the Modern American University BY J. A. APPLEYARD, S.J. IN CONVERSATIONS ON JESUIT HIGHER EDUCATION, 10 (1996): 31-33 Appleyard is a Professor of English literature and the Vice President
A Method of Determining Inventory Levels for Retail Jewelers
A Method of Determining Inventory Levels for Retail Jewelers Abe Sherman, CEO Buyers Intelligence Group JCK 2012 Booth: S11487 info@bigjewelers.com Abe Sherman Buyers Intelligence Group JCK 2012 Booth:
INTRODUCTION to writing a graph description
INTRODUCTION to writing a graph description For the IELTS writing test, you are required to complete two writing tasks. Task 1 is some kind of data report, while Task 2 is an essay. You are probably already
SDL BeGlobal: Machine Translation for Multilingual Search and Text Analytics Applications
INSIGHT SDL BeGlobal: Machine Translation for Multilingual Search and Text Analytics Applications José Curto David Schubmehl IDC OPINION Global Headquarters: 5 Speen Street Framingham, MA 01701 USA P.508.872.8200
Interpreting and translation services
Interpreting and translation services Guidelines (2015) Promoting effective communication between schools, parents and communities NSW DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION WWW.SCHOOLS.NSW.EDU.AU Contents Interpreting
Module: Culturally Competent Care
Module: Culturally Competent Care Objectives: After completion of the module, students will be able to: Define and/or describe culture, diversity, cultural competence, and cultural diversity Identify steps
Local Sidereal Time is the hour angle of the First Point of Aries, and is equal to the hour angle plus right ascension of any star.
1 CHAPTER 7 TIME In this chapter we briefly discuss the several time scales that are in use in astronomy, such as Universal Time, Mean Solar Time, Ephemeris Time, Terrestrial Dynamical Time, and the several
COMMITTEE FOR LEGISLATION OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES OF THE CROATIAN STATE PARLIAMENT
Constitutional Law of Human Rights and Freedoms and the Rights of National and Ethnic Communities or Minorities in the Croatia (as amended in May 2000) COMMITTEE FOR LEGISLATION OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
FINANCIAL ANALYSIS ****** UPDATED FOR 55% BENEFIT ****** ****** FOR ALL SURVIVORS ******
FINANCIAL ANALYSIS ****** UPDATED FOR 55% BENEFIT ****** ****** FOR ALL SURVIVORS ****** This fact sheet is designed to supplement the Department of Defense brochure: SBP SURVIVOR BENEFIT PLAN FOR THE
GRAMMAR, SYNTAX, AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
GRAMMAR, SYNTAX, AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS When it comes to grammar, many writing tutors and instructors are unsure of the most effective way to teach ESL students. And while numerous studies, articles
Helping Companies with Globalization
Universal Translation Services www.universal-translation-services.com Universal Translation Services www.universal-translation-services.com Helping Companies with Globalization universal Translation Services
THE PARADOX OF ENGLISH LEARNING IN JAPAN: PROBLEMS AND. ABSTRACT: This paper will examine the various policies of the Japanese
THE PARADOX OF ENGLISH LEARNING IN JAPAN: PROBLEMS AND POLICIES BERNARD SAINT-JACQUES ABSTRACT: This paper will examine the various policies of the Japanese Government concerning English teaching and learning
Overview of admission requirements for the master s degree programs of the Faculty of Arts
Overview of admission requirements for the master s degree programs of the Faculty of Arts Subjects Studies amounting to 78 credits Studies amounting to 42 credits Egyptology and Coptic Studies General
Study Plan. Bachelor s in. Faculty of Foreign Languages University of Jordan
Study Plan Bachelor s in Spanish and English Faculty of Foreign Languages University of Jordan 2009/2010 Department of European Languages Faculty of Foreign Languages University of Jordan Degree: B.A.
Text Analytics with Ambiverse. Text to Knowledge. www.ambiverse.com
Text Analytics with Ambiverse Text to Knowledge www.ambiverse.com Version 1.0, February 2016 WWW.AMBIVERSE.COM Contents 1 Ambiverse: Text to Knowledge............................... 5 1.1 Text is all Around
About CRC? What is Email Link?
About CRC? The Community Relations Commission for a multicultural NSW (CRC) was established by Parliament to implement a new approach to protecting and promoting community harmony in our unique culturally
A comparative analysis of the language used on labels of Champagne and Sparkling Water bottles.
This research essay focuses on the language used on labels of five Champagne and five The two products are related, both being sparkling beverages, but also have obvious differences, primarily that one
A Survey of Online Tools Used in English-Thai and Thai-English Translation by Thai Students
69 A Survey of Online Tools Used in English-Thai and Thai-English Translation by Thai Students Sarathorn Munpru, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand Pornpol Wuttikrikunlaya, Srinakharinwirot University,
2015 Laureate/Zogby Global Student Confidence Index
2015 Laureate/Zogby Global Student Confidence Index Submitted to: Matthew Yale, Laureate International Universities Submitted by: Zogby Analytics Jonathan Zogby, CEO John Zogby, Sr. Analyst May 2015 2015
Submission guidelines for authors and editors
Submission guidelines for authors and editors For the benefit of production efficiency and the production of texts of the highest quality and consistency, we urge you to follow the enclosed submission
Identifying and Managing Project Risk, Second Edition 2008 Tom Kendrick. The PERIL Database
The PERIL Database Good project management is based on experience. Fortunately, the experience and pain need not all be personal; you can also learn from the experience of others, avoiding the aggravation
Street Smart: Demographics and Trends in Motor Vehicle Accident Mortality In British Columbia, 1988 to 2000
Street Smart: Demographics and Trends in Motor Vehicle Accident Mortality In British Columbia, 1988 to 2000 by David Baxter 3-Year Moving Average Age Specific Motor Vehicle Accident Death Rates British
PELLISSIPPI STATE COMMUNITY COLLEGE MASTER SYLLABUS BEGINNING SPANISH I SPAN 1010. Laboratory Hours: 0.0 Date Revised: Summer 10
PELLISSIPPI STATE COMMUNITY COLLEGE MASTER SYLLABUS BEGINNING SPANISH I SPAN 1010 Class Hours: 3.0 Credit Hours: 3.0 Laboratory Hours: 0.0 Date Revised: Summer 10 Catalog Course Description: Introduction
Why major in linguistics (and what does a linguist do)?
Why major in linguistics (and what does a linguist do)? Written by Monica Macaulay and Kristen Syrett What is linguistics? If you are considering a linguistics major, you probably already know at least
European Migration Survey
European Migration Survey Key challenges in IT migration Survey conducted by IDG Connect on behalf of Dell Summary of Research Yes to Windows 7, no to the cloud as businesses strive to migrate from Windows
Who are the Other ethnic groups?
Article Who are the Other ethnic groups? Social and Welfare David Gardener Helen Connolly October 2005 Crown copyright Office for National Statistics 1 Drummond Gate London SW1V 2QQ Tel: 020 7533 9233
Ling 201 Syntax 1. Jirka Hana April 10, 2006
Overview of topics What is Syntax? Word Classes What to remember and understand: Ling 201 Syntax 1 Jirka Hana April 10, 2006 Syntax, difference between syntax and semantics, open/closed class words, all
LONG TERM DISABILITY INSURANCE
LONG TERM DISABILITY INSURANCE In Canada there are about 2 million disabled people of working age who reside in households. About 48% of them are severely or moderately disabled. Only about 40% of disabled
IC2 Class: Conference Calls / Video Conference Calls - 2016
IC2 Class: Conference Calls / Video Conference Calls - 2016 Technology today is wonderful. That doesn t mean, however, that conferencing calling in a foreign language is easy. In fact, the experience can
Survey of University of Michigan Graduate-level Area Studies Alumni/ae & FLAS Recipients from 1996-2006: Selected Findings
Survey of University of Michigan Graduate-level Area Studies Alumni/ae & FLAS Recipients from 1996-2006: Selected Findings Azumi Ann Takata, Center for Japanese Studies, International Institute Donna Parmelee,
III. CHANGING BALANCE BETWEEN AGE GROUPS
Population Ageing 195-25 III. CHANGING BALANCE BETWEEN AGE GROUPS A. BROAD AGE GROUPS The young-old balance is shifting throughout the world The increasing proportions of aged persons have been accompanied,
degrees Fahrenheit. Scientists believe it's human activity that's driving the temperatures up, a process
Global Warming For 2.5 million years, the earth's climate has fluctuated, cycling from ice ages to warmer periods. But in the last century, the planet's temperature has risen unusually fast, about 1.2
http://www.transfluenci.com General Services Administration
http://www.transfluenci.com 119 Industrial Drive P.O. Box 1006 East Longmeadow, MA 01028 Phone: (413) 737-1888 Fax: (413) 737-0188 Contract Administrator Jessica M. Ridley jessica@transfluenci.com General
Is there life on other worlds?
activity 5 Is there life on other worlds? purpose Is there life on other worlds? People have pondered this question since ancient times. But now, for the first time in human history, advances in the biological
Thinkopolis VII: How relevant is bilingualism to your career in Canada in 2015?
Thinkopolis VII: How relevant is bilingualism to your career in Canada in 2015? Currently, 8.8% of Canadian job postings require candidates to be fluent in both official languages. There has been a slight
Tia Brown, BS Science Teacher Dunnellon High School 10055 SW 180 th Avenue Road Dunnellon, FL 34432 Tia.Brown@marion.k12.fl.us
The impact on critical thinking and writing skills when biotechnology activities and a case study approach are incorporated into a high school anatomy course. Tia Brown, BS Science Teacher Dunnellon High
CERTIFICATION EXAMINATIONS FOR OKLAHOMA EDUCATORS (CEOE )
CERTIFICATION EXAMINATIONS FOR OKLAHOMA EDUCATORS (CEOE ) FIELD 74: OKLAHOMA GENERAL EDUCATION TEST (OGET ) Subarea Range of Competencies I. Critical Thinking Skills: Reading and Communications 01 05 II.
Presented by Erin Cathey FOED 6022
Presented by Erin Cathey FOED 6022 Shifts in Language Policy Since the beginning of what is known as the United States of America, federal policies on serving English language learners (ELLs) in the public
THE FIELD POLL. UCB Contact. Release #2430 Release Date: Friday, September 28, 2012
Field Research Corporation 601 California Street, Suite 900, San Francisco, CA 94108-2814 415.392.5763 FAX: 415.434.2541 field.com/fieldpollonline THE FIELD POLL UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY BERKELEY
PENNSYLVANIA COMMON CORE STANDARDS English Language Arts Grades 9-12
1.2 Reading Informational Text Students read, understand, and respond to informational text with emphasis on comprehension, making connections among ideas and between texts with focus on textual evidence.
Create A Language. 2015 Global Educator Award Winner: sharon mcadam. lo b a l e d u cato r awa r d w i n n e r. Global Connections 1: Global Society
g lo b a l e d u cato r awa r d w i n n e r Global Connections 1: Global Society 2015 Unit 1: My Culture, My Family Create A Language 2015 Global Educator Award Winner: sharon mcadam PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
One natural response would be to cite evidence of past mornings, and give something like the following argument:
Hume on induction Suppose you were asked to give your reasons for believing that the sun will come up tomorrow, in the form of an argument for the claim that the sun will come up tomorrow. One natural
Speech to the Bell Telephone Systems General Commercial Conference 1
Speech to the Bell Telephone System s General Commercial Conference June 1927 Page, A. W. (1927, June). Special Talk. Speech presented at the Bell Telephone System s General Commercial Conference. Summary
arxiv:1112.0829v1 [math.pr] 5 Dec 2011
How Not to Win a Million Dollars: A Counterexample to a Conjecture of L. Breiman Thomas P. Hayes arxiv:1112.0829v1 [math.pr] 5 Dec 2011 Abstract Consider a gambling game in which we are allowed to repeatedly
Guidelines for Preparing an Undergraduate Thesis Proposal Department of Agricultural Education and Communication University of Florida
Guidelines for Preparing an Undergraduate Thesis Proposal Department of Agricultural Education and Communication University of Florida What is a thesis? In our applied discipline of agricultural education
Writing Well - Paraphrasing
What is paraphrasing? Writing Well - Paraphrasing Angela Koch (ak214@kent.ac.uk) Student Learning Advisory Service expressing somebody else s ideas in your own language or words accurately and thoroughly
Very often my clients ask me, Don I need Chinese translation. If I ask which Chinese? They just say Just Chinese. If I explain them there re more
Hello, fellow colleagues in Translation industry. And, Thank you very much for nice introduction. Vanessa. When you hear the topic Asian Languages and Markets, each of you probably had some questions or
Courses in Arabic, Mandarin Chinese, Catalan, Irish Gaelic, and American Sign Language are offered.
The Catholic University of America Libraries Collection Development Policy Subject Modern Languages and Literatures Mission Modern Languages materials are acquired and maintained by the library to support
MediaLink. Hundreds of thousands of Australians read the daily news in. ... Arabic, Bosnian, Chinese, Croatian, Greek, Italian,
Hundreds of thousands of Australians read the daily news in... Arabic, Bosnian, Chinese, Croatian, Greek, Italian, Korean, Serbian, Spanish, Turkish, Urdu, Vietnamese... Each day, hundreds of thousands
SOFTWARE PIRACY AND ITS IMPACT ON SOCIAL WELFARE 1
SOFTWARE PIRACY AND ITS IMPACT ON SOCIAL WELFARE 1 Toomas Hinnosaar Software piracy involves usage, copying, selling and distributing computer programmes without the permission of its producer. Software
CREATING LEARNING OUTCOMES
CREATING LEARNING OUTCOMES What Are Student Learning Outcomes? Learning outcomes are statements of the knowledge, skills and abilities individual students should possess and can demonstrate upon completion
skills mismatches & finding the right talent incl. quarterly mobility, confidence & job satisfaction
skills mismatches & finding the right talent incl. quarterly mobility, confidence & job satisfaction Randstad Workmonitor Global Press Report wave 3-2012 Randstad Holding nv September 2012 content Chapter
An Innocent Investigation
An Innocent Investigation D. Joyce, Clark University January 2006 The beginning. Have you ever wondered why every number is either even or odd? I don t mean to ask if you ever wondered whether every number
Population Change and Public Health Exercise 1A
Population Change and Public Health Exercise 1A 1. What is not true of demographic transition in European countries A. The pre-transition fertility and mortality rates were as high as seen in developing
Inductive Reasoning Page 1 of 7. Inductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning Page 1 of 7 Inductive Reasoning We learned that valid deductive thinking begins with at least one universal premise and leads to a conclusion that is believed to be contained in the
Guide for Writing an Exegesis On a Biblical Passage
Guide for Writing an Exegesis On a Biblical Passage A. Initial Approach 1. Context. Locate your pericope both within the immediate context of the basic division of the book and the overall structural units
Biodiversity Concepts
Biodiversity Concepts WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY? Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth. For any kind of animal or plant each individual is not exactly the same as any other; nor are species or ecosystems.
Just note down the main points and examples in the space provided.
LISTENING NOTE TAKING: LANGUAGES You are going to listen to a lecture about languages. Do not attempt to write everything down. Just note down the main points and examples in the space provided. At the
WELCOME to the Tulsa Mission Mobilizers Network. developing a church missions strategy
WELCOME to the Tulsa Mission Mobilizers Network developing a church missions strategy by Blake McDaniel today s objectives to introduce 8 key factors to consider in selecting field-based focus areas to
Bidder questions and Agency answers for DHS RFP BPC-17-001
November 10, 2015 Bidder questions and Agency answers for DHS RFP BPC-17-001 1. Regarding subcontractor status, and specifically, whether we (as Bidder) are required to identify each professional translator
Linguistics & Cognitive Science
Linguistics & Cognitive Science 07.201* History of Cognitive Science Fall term 2000 formal account of pivotal role of linguistics in the development of cognitive science relation to psychology, AI, & philosophy
The Rise of Documentary Linguistics and a New Kind of Corpus
The Rise of Documentary Linguistics and a New Kind of Corpus Gary F. Simons SIL International 5th National Natural Language Research Symposium De La Salle University, Manila, 25 Nov 2008 Milestones in
Ninth Grade History & Social Science World History I
SEPTEMBER WHI.1 Historical Research and Geographical Analysis *(ongoing throughout year) identify, analyze, and interpret primary and secondary sources use maps, globes, artifacts, pictures identify major
Dashboards with Live Data For Predictive Visualization. G. R. Wagner, CEO GRW Studios, Inc.
Dashboards with Live Data For Predictive Visualization G. R. Wagner, CEO GRW Studios, Inc. Computer dashboards the formatted display of business data which allows decision makers and managers to gauge
Read this syllabus very carefully. If there are any reasons why you cannot comply with what I am requiring, then talk with me about this at once.
LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING PHIL 2020 Maymester Term, 2010 Daily, 9:30-12:15 Peabody Hall, room 105 Text: LOGIC AND RATIONAL THOUGHT by Frank R. Harrison, III Professor: Frank R. Harrison, III Office: