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1 Organic Chemistry I Dr Alex Roche Organic chemistry is the chemistry of Carbon and its compounds. Organic molecules constitute the essence of life (fats, sugars, proteins, DNA), and also permeate our everyday lives (cotton, polyester, toothpaste, plastics, etc). Chemistry s top two commercial fields are organic dominated: Pharmaceuticals and Polymers. Organic chemistry is also easy - IF: don t fall behind do the problems understand, not memorize Notes are available at: Office: SCI 311 Labs: SCI 309/319/328 Tel: (856) alroche@camden.rutgers.edu Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 1
2 Structure of the Atom Atoms consist of: Protons (+ve) Neutrons (neutral) Electrons (-ve) Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus and have similar masses (1800x that of an electron). Atoms with the same number of protons but different neutrons are called ISOTOPES. E.g. 12 C (major isotope) 13 C (~1%, used in carbon NMR) 14 C (radioactive, used in Carbon dating) Almost all the mass of an atom is in the nucleus, but it is the electrons that are involved in the chemical bonding and reactions of an atom. Electronic Structure of the Atom Electrons display wave-particle duality. Electrons are located in orbitals around a nucleus, but the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle tells us that we cannot pinpoint exactly where the electron is. So we use the term ELECTRON DENSITY, which is the probability of finding the electron in a particular part of the orbital. ORBITAL: is an allowed energy state for an electron, with an associated probability function that defines the distribution of electron density in space. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 2
3 Atomic Orbitals These are different shells at differing distances away from the nucleus. Each has a principal quantum number (n). As n increases, Shells are further from the nucleus Higher energy Can hold more electrons n=1 can hold 2 electrons, n=2 can hold 8 electrons. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 3
4 First Electron Shell Contains the 1s orbital. An s orbital is spherical, so the electron density is only a function of the distance from the nucleus. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 4
5 Second Electron Shell Contains the 2s and the 2p orbitals. 2s is also spherically symmetrical, but is not a simple exponential function. Most of the electron density is further away, past a NODE (region of zero electron density). Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 5
6 The second shell also contains three 2p atomic orbitals. These are oriented in the three spatial directions. (2p x, 2p y, 2p z ). Orbitals of the same energy are said to be DEGENERATE. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 6
7 2p orbitals are slightly higher in energy than 2s orbitals because the average location of the electron is further from the nucleus. The Pauli Exclusion Principle tells us each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons, provided the spins are paired. The first shell (one 1s orbital) can hold 2 electrons The second shell (one 2s and three 2p orbitals) can hold 8 electrons The third shell (one 3s, three 3p and five 3d orbitals) can hold 18 electrons. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 7
8 Electronic Configuration of Atoms The Aufbau Principle tells us how to build up a ground state (most stable) configuration, which is to fill the orbitals in order, until the correct number of electrons has been added. Hund s rule states that when there are two or more degenerate orbitals available, electrons would rather go into different orbitals rather than the same one. Element Configuration Valence Electrons H 1s 1 1 He 1s 2 2 Li 1s 2 2s 1 1 Be 1s 2 2s 2 2 B 1s 2 2s 2 1 2p x 3 C 1s 2 2s 2 2p 1 1 x 2p y 4 N 1s 2 2s 2 2p 1 x 2p 1 1 y 2p z 5 O 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2 x 2p 1 1 y 2p z 6 F 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2 x 2p 2 1 y 2p z 7 Ne 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2 x 2p 2 2 y 2p z 8 The valence electrons are those in the outermost shell. (Periodic group number is the number of valence electrons). Bonding Atoms transfer or share electrons in such a way as to attain a filled shell of electrons The OCTET rule. A filled shell is also known as a noble gas configuration. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 8
9 Ionic Bonding The transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another. Covalent Bonding The electrons are shared, not transferred. Covalent is the most important bonding in Organic Chemistry. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 9
10 Lewis Structures Each electron is represented by a dot. A pair of electrons by two dots, or a dash. Each carbon is surrounded by 8 electrons Each hydrogen is surrounded by 2 electrons. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 10
11 Non bonding pairs of electrons Also known as lone pairs. Lone pairs often dictate a molecule s reactivity. Multiple Bonds The sharing of one pair of electrons is a single bond. The sharing of two pairs gives a double bond. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 11
12 The sharing of three pairs gives a triple bond. In neutral organic compounds: Carbon forms four bonds Nitrogen forms three bonds (and a lone pair) Oxygen forms two bonds (2 lone pairs) Hydrogen forms 1 bond. The number of bonds an atom normally forms is called the VALENCY. E.g. Nitrogen is trivalent. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 12
13 Bond Polarity A covalent bond, where the electrons are shared equally is called a non-polar bond. (E.g. H-H) Bonds between different atoms usually result in the electrons being attracted to one atom more strongly than the other. Such an unequal sharing of the pair of bonding electrons results in a POLAR bond. This competition for electron density is scaled by ELECTRONEGATIVITY values. Elements with higher electronegativity values have greater attraction for bonding electrons. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 13
14 Notice: EN increases left to right, and down to up. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 14
15 Chloromethane When chlorine is bonded to carbon, the bonding electrons are attracted more strongly to chlorine. This results in a small partial positive charge on the carbon, and an equal but opposite partial negative charge on the chlorine. Bond polarity is measured by Dipole Moment ( ). (Generally the C-H bond is considered non-polar). Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 15
16 Formal Charges Formal charges is a way of keeping count of electrons, but the charges may or may not be real. (Partial charges + are real ). Formal Charge = (group number) (non bonding e s) ½(shared e s) E.g. methane, CH 4 Hydrogens: FC = 1 0 ½(2) = 0 Carbon : FC = 4 0 ½(8) = 0 (whenever C has 4 bonds, it is neutral). Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 16
17 Hydronium Ion, H 3 O + Hydrogens: Each have one bond and is neutral. FC = 0 Oxygen: FC = 6 2- ½(6) = 1 Oxygen has a formal charge of +1. Ionic Structures Some organic compounds do contain ionic bonds. Methyl ammonium chloride (CH 3 NH 3 Cl) does NOT contain solely covalent bonds. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 17
18 The covalent structure would require 5 bonds (10 e s) around Nitrogen. Chloride must be bonded ionically to the methylammoniun cation. However, some molecules can be written either ionically or covalently. Differences in electronegativity decide which structure is the more accurate description. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 18
19 Resonance Structures The structures of some compounds are not sufficiently described by a single Lewis structure. E.g. [CH 2 NH 2 ] + Carbon FC = +1 0 Nitrogen FC = 0 +1 When two or more valence structures are possible, differing only in location of electrons, the molecule will generally show properties of both structures. (The atoms must stay in the same location). These different structures are called RESONANCE structures. The real structure is a combination of the resonance forms, and is called a resonance HYBRID. The spreading out of the positive charge over two or more atoms makes the overall structure more stable. (Charge delocalisation). [CH 2 NH 2 ] + is said to be a resonance stabilized cation. The concept of resonance stabilization is very important in organic chemistry. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 19
20 Consider the deprotonation of acetic acid. Acetate ion has the negative charge delocalised over 2 oxygen atoms. Each O bears ½ a negative charge. The carbon oxygen bond order is 1½. Individual structures do not exist, and the molecule does not oscillate between the two extremes. Arrows in Chemistry Reaction Equilibrium Resonance Two electron movement One electron movement Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 20
21 Uncharged molecules can also have resonance forms, with equal +ve and -ve formal charges, like Nitromethane (CH 3 NO 2 ). Major and Minor Contributors Certain resonance structures are more stable than others (i.e. of lower energy). These are said to be major contributors, whereas higher energy structures are minor contributors. The real structure will resemble the major contributor more than it does the minor contributor. Consider formaldehyde, even though the minor contributor is of higher energy than its double bonded counterpart, its contribution helps explain the polarization of the double bond. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 21
22 Resonance Structure Rules: 1) All resonance structures must be valid Lewis structures 2) Only the placement of electrons can be changed (atoms cannot be moved) 3) The number of unpaired (not lone pairs) electrons must stay the same 4) The major resonance contributor is the one of lowest energy 5) Resonance stabilization is best when delocalising a charge over 2 or more atoms. General points: Normally lone pairs or multiple bond electrons are the most common to move for resonance structures. Good contributors will have all octets satisfied, as many bonds as possible, and as little charge separation as possible. Negative charges are most stable on more electronegative elements. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 22
23 Structural Formulas There are several shorthand notations used by chemists: Lewis; Condensed Structural and Line Angle Formula Chemists need to be familiar with all, and often use them interchangeably. Condensed Structural Formula These are generally written without lines indicating bonds, or showing lone pairs, and parentheses are used for identical groups. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 23
24 Often, but not always, multiple bonds will be included. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 24
25 Line Angle Formulae (Stick Figures) Bonds are represented by lines, carbon atoms are assumed to be present at the start and finish of a line. Nitrogen, oxygen and halogens are labeled, but hydrogens are only shown when bonded to a drawn atom. Each atom is assumed to have sufficient hydrogen atoms around it to make it neutral. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 25
26 Acids and Bases Three different definitions: Arrhenius Bronsted-Lowry Lewis Arrhenius Definition (pre-1900) An acid is a substance that dissociates in water to give H 3 O + ions. (Stronger acids like H 2 SO 4 were assumed to dissociate more than weaker acids like CH 3 CO 2 H). H 2 SO 4 + H 2 O H 3 O + HSO A base is a substance that dissociates in water to give - OH ions. NaOH - OH Na + + ph values The acidity of an aqueous solution is determined by the concentration of H 3 O + ions. Water Autoprotolysis Constant, K w = 1.00 x at 25 o C K w = [H 3 O + ] [ - OH] In a neutral solution, [H 3 O + ] = [ - OH] = 1.00 x 10-7 M ph = -log 10 [H 3 O + ] So a neutral ph is 7. Acidic Solutions have [H 3 O + ] > 10-7 M; so ph < 7; Basic Solutions have [H 3 O + ] < 10-7 M; so ph > 7. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 26
27 Bronsted-Lowry Definition An acid is a species that can donate a proton. A base is a species that can accept a proton. Bronsted-Lowry definition is broader than the Arrhenius definition. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 27
28 Conjugate Acids and Bases When a base accepts a proton, it is capable of returning that proton it has become an acid. (Conjugate Acid) When an acid donates a proton, it is capable of receiving it back it has become a base. (Conjugate Base) Acid Strength This is expressed just as for the Arrhenius acids, by the extent of ionization in water. The stronger the acid, the larger the K a. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 28
29 Typical values: Strong Acid (H 2 SO 4 ) K a = 1 pk a = 0 Organic Acid (CH 3 CO 2 H) K a = 10-4 pk a = 4 Organic Compound (CH 4 ) K a = pk a = 40 (Stronger the acid, lower the pk a ) pk a = -log 10 K a Base Strength Acid strength is related to base strength of its conjugate base. For an acid to be strong, its conjugate base must be weak (i.e. stable) HCl + H 2 O H 3 O + + Cl - Strong Acid Weak Base H 3 C OH + H 2 O H 3 O + + CH 3 O - Weak acid Strong Base For an acid to be weak, its conjugate base must be strong. In general, in the reaction between an acid and base, the equilibrium favors the weaker acid or base. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 29
30 Base strength is measured in a similar way to acid strength, via equilibrium constants of hydrolysis. Acid strength is related to the basicity of its conjugate base by the following: So, if K a is large, K b must be small. The stronger the acid, the weaker the conjugate base. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 30
31 Structural Effects on Acidity By considering the stability of the conjugate base, we can predict how strong an acid a compound might be. More stable anions tend to be weaker bases, and thus their conjugate acids are stronger acids. Factors that influence stability of conjugate bases (anions) are: Size Electronegativity Resonance. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 31
32 Size An anion is more stable if the negative charge is spread out over a larger distance in space. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 32
33 Electronegativity More electronegative elements bear negative charge more efficiently. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 33
34 Resonance If the negative charge of the conjugate base can be spread over 2 or more atoms, resonance stabilization will make the base weaker (i.e. more stable). Typically, if resonance stabilization is available to an anion, this is the dominating factor. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 34
35 Lewis Acids and Bases For a broader definition, instead of considering the proton transfer, consider the movement of electrons, and the bond formation. Lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor. Lewis base is an electron pair donor. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 35
36 Since a Lewis acid is a species that accepts electrons, it is termed an ELECTROPHILE ( lover of electrons ) A Lewis base is a species that donates electrons to a nucleus with an empty (or easily vacated) orbital, and is termed a NUCLEOPHILE. The departing species is called a LEAVING GROUP. (Remember, the curly arrows mean movement of 2 electrons). Curly arrows go from the nucleophile to the electrophile. Ch01 Introduction (landscape) Page 36
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