CROSS-CULTURAL MANAGEMENT

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Brenda Bridges
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1 CROSS-CULTURAL MANAGEMENT 2 nd edition RAY FRENCH Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development

2 Contents Acknowledgements and credits List of figures and tables XI x PART 1: SETTING THE SCENE Chapter 1 Introduction Learning outcomes Cross-cultural management as an everyday activity The benefits of successful cross-cultural management The centrality of ethics A multi-layered subject area An emerging area Non-cultural explanations A changing world The organisation of this book PART 2: CULTURE - USES AND LIMITATIONS Chapter 2 The meaning(s) of culture Learning outcomes Introduction Defining culture: values, attitudes and behaviour Defining culture: context and communication Levelsof analysis National culture and other cultural layers Dealing with the ecological fallacy Culture change Convergence and divergence Interpreting culture profiles Is national culture still meaningful? Organisational culture National and organisational culture: similarities Linking the macro and micro levels Non-cultural explanations Conclusions Chapter 3 Models of culture: traditional approaches Learning outcomes Introduction Project GLOBE: tracing the bloodline Geert Hofstede's pivotal contribution

3 Cross-cultural Management in Work Organisations The Chinese Value Survey and the fifth dimension 55 Utilising Hofstede's model of culture 56 Criticism of Hofstede's work 58 At the core of cross-cultural studies: Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's work 59 Fons Trompenaars' 7-D model: practical steps for doing business 61 Evaluating Trompenaars'work 64 Shalom Schwartz's universal values model 66 A potentially valuable departure 69 Cultural differences in communication style 69 Conclusions 72 Chapter 4 Models of culture: developments and debates 77 Learning outcomes 77 Introduction 77 Non-cultural explanations 78 Convergence, divergence, globalisation and cross-cultural management 80 A new domestic stage for cross-cultural management? 82 Evaluating bipolar value-based models of culture 85 Understanding cultures in their own terms 86 f ' An example of the emic approach -guanxi 88 A time for new research methods? 90 Senior managers as the object of study 93 Some emerging theoretical approaches 94 What makes us different and similar? A new interpretation 100 Conclusions 102 PART 3: CROSS-CULTURAL SOCIAL RELATIONS IN THE WORKPLACE 105 Chapter 5 Culture and organisation structure 107 Learning outcomes 107 Introduction 107 Classical models of structure 110 The Chinese small business model 111 Alternatives to bureaucracy - adapting to 'contingencies' 113 Contingent factors 116 Culture and the contingency approach 118 The institutional level 120 Do cultural values underlie organisation structure? 121 Contemporary and emerging structures 126 Downsizing and de-layering 128 Conclusion: culture and structure - a complex area 130

4 Contents Chapter 6 Intercultural communication and negotiation 133 Learning outcomes 133 Introduction 133 The need for sensitivity 134 Stereotyping revisited 135 Other barriers to intercultural communication 136 Mixed messages and non-verbal communication 139 Enhancing intercultural communication 142 Cross-cultural theory and communication 143 The crucial contribution of Hall's low- and high-context model 146 Chinese culture 147 Levels of communication 149 The key area of negotiation 151 Conclusions 156 Chapter 7 Leadership and multicultural teams 161 Learning outcomes 161 Introduction 161 The traits approach 163 The behavioural approach 165 Implicit leadership theories 169 The contingency approach 170 Project GLOBE 173 Evaluation of Project GLOBE 179 The institutional level 180 Gender, culture and leadership 182 Emergingtwenty-first-century approaches to leadership 184 Leading multicultural teams 185 Conclusions 188 Chapter 8 Motivation and exchange 191 Learning outcomes 191 Introduction 191 Universal needs? 192 Self-actualisers? 193 Is the content approach to motivation culture-bound? 195 Positive psychology 197 Job characteristics: a universal link to motivation? 198 Total Quality Management 200 Needs and job characteristics models in different cultures -some evidence 202 How are people motivated? Orientations to work across cultures 205 Other 'process' models of motivation 209

5 Cross-cultural Management in Work Organisations Globalised motivational strategies 214 Conclusions 214 PART 4: MANAGING ACROSS OR WITHIN CULTURES 219 Chapter 9 Intercultural competencies, training and ethics 221 Learning outcomes 221 Introduction 221 Overcoming culture shock - the core intercultural competency? 223 The search for effective interventions 226 Intercultural competencies at home 228 Is cultural awareness sufficient? 230 Cross-cultural training: other considerations 232 The effectiveness of cross-cultural training 234 Repatriation 234 The ethical dimension 235 Ethics and the cross-cultural manager 237 Gender issues and ethics 240 Dealing with ethical dilemmas 241 Non-negotiable moral issues 242 Conclusions 244 r Chapter 10 Culture and human resource management 249 Learning outcomes 249 Introduction 249 International HRM in context 250 Levels and phases of intemationalisation 251 Varieties of capitalism 255 Culture and human resource management 257 Culture and the functional areas of HRM 260 Flexibility and work-life balance 269 Conclusion: the effect of culture - a mixed picture? 270 PART 5: LOOKING TO THE FUTURE 275 Chapter 11 Conclusions ' 277 Learning outcomes 277 Comparing cultures - enduring evidence 277 Cultural values - some further considerations 280 Macro-social manifestations of culture 283 New approaches to understanding culture 284 Cross-cultural management in 'new' forms of organisation 286 Diversity and synergy: the future of cross-cultural management 290

6 Contents Non-managerial approaches 291 Universalism or relativism? 292 Continuous change 293 References 297 Index 319

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