FROM CHIPS TO SYSTEMS RONAY ZAKS ALEXENDER WOLFE SUMMARY CONTENTS

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1 FROM CHIPS TO SYSTEMS RONAY ZAKS ALEXENDER WOLFE SUMMARY From Chips to Systems: An Introduction to Microcomputers is a complete guide to the inner workings of today's microcomputer systems-detailed from the ground up, with plenty of real-life examples. Described by reviewers as "one of the best introductory texts to the hardware end of things," the first edition was a worldwide bestseller. Now the text has been updated and expanded to include the latest developments in microprocessor technology: 32-bit processors, RISC technology, expanded bus architectures, DSP chips and more. From Chips to Systems provides clear definitions of technical terms and concepts, along with a fascinating history of the microprocessor industry. So it's an excellent textbook for non-technical readers, as well as for students, scientists, engineers-or anyone who wants to know what's in a microcomputer, how it works, and how a complete system is assembled. Topics include: internal operations of a microprocessor-starting with a step-by-step tour through the classic Intel 8080 system components-including memory, I/O, and device controller chips a comparative evaluation of microprocessors-from 4-bit to 32-bit, including the state-of-theart building a complete system-from assembling a CPU to interconnecting the address bus, memory, and I/O building microprocessor applications-with detailed case studies hardware interfacing techniques-for keyboard, disk, CRT, and more the state of the art-including RISC architectures, the VMEbus, MultiBus II, and Digital Signal Processors You'll also find two full chapters on programming concepts, including assembly language and high-level programming; and a thorough discussion of system development-concepts, capabilities, and tools. CONTENTS Préface Introduction XXI XXIII CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Introduction 2 Basic Definitions 2 Organization of a Computer 4 The Buses 7 Summary-Computer Organization 8 A Simple Computer 8 Summary-A Simple Computer 11 The Memory 11 Memory Hierarchy 11 Memory Access 12 Summary-Memory 15 Basic Microprocessor Definitions 16 Hardware, Firmware, and Software 16 Very Large Scale Integration 16 The Microprocessor 17 Manufacturing a Microprocessor 18 Making a Chip 19 Technologies 24 Summary-Technologies 28 A Brief History of Microprocessors 28 Silicon Valley 31 Advantages of Microprocessors 32 Summary 34 Exercises 36 INTERNAL OPERATION OF A MICROPROCESSOR Objective 40

2 Objective 40 The Constraints of LSI and VLSI 40 Buses 43 Single-Bus Architecture 44 Double- and Triple-Bus Architecture 49 Standard Microprocessor Architecture 51 Status Bits 54 Setting Flags 57 The Registers 57 The Address Bus 65 Execution of an Instruction 65 The Control Unit 67 A Case Study: The Cycles and States 72 Instruction Formats 73 Execution of Instructions within the The FETCH Phase 85 Summary of 8080 Study 105 Internal Microprocessor Architectures 105 The Four Main Architectures 109 Summary 112 Exercises 112 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 SYSTEM COMPONENTS Objective 116 The Microprocessor Families 116 The Three Basic System Components 116 The Memory 118 Random Access Memory (RAM) 119 Static versus Dynamic 119 Summary-Static versus Dynamic 123 Reading from the Memory 123 Writing in the Memory 124 Read-Modify-Write Cycle 124 The Memory Volatility Problem 125 Read Only Memories (ROMs) 126 ROM Technologies 134 Other Types of Memories 136 Bubble Memory 136 CCD 136 PLA 138 Summary-Memory 139 Input/Output Techniques 139 Polling 140 Interrupts 144 Direct Memory Access (DMA) 147 Input/Output Interface Circuits 148 Basic I/O Interface Chips 149 The UART 149 The PIO 155 Summary-PIO 168 Interrupt Management Chip 170 Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC) 175 Intel versus Motorola Interrupts 179 Direct Memory Access Controller (DMAC) 180 DMAC Summary 186 Programmable Interval Timer (PIT) 187 Device Controller Chips 189 Typical Peripherals 190 Combination Chips 191 Summary 192 Exercises 192 COMPARATIVE MICROPROCESSOR EVALUATION: 4 BIT TO 32 BIT Objective 196 Functional Elements of an MPU 196 Classifying Microprocessors Bit Microprocessors Bit Microprocessors 202 Intel (8-Bit Microprocessors) 206 Motorola (8-Bit Microprocessors) 206 The Second Sources 208 Rockwell 210 National Semiconductor 210 Commodore 211 RCA 212 Zilog 212 Intel (Revisited) 214 Motorola (8-Bit Microprocessors-Revisited) 217 Other Manufacturers (8-Bit Microprocessors) Bit Single-Chip Microcomputers 218 Intel Motorola

3 Zilog Z Bit Microprocessors 223 Intel Intel Zilog Z Motorola Bit 1-Chip Microcomputers Bit Microprocessors 236 Intel National Motorola Fairchild Clipper 248 Zilog Z80, AT&T WE Inmos Transputer 253 Bit-Slice Processors 253 National Semiconductor GP/CP 255 Intel Monolithic Memories 5701/ Advanced Micro Devices AMD Motorola Texas Instruments Fairchild Macrologic Bit Bit-Slice 259 Selecting a Microprocessor 262 Criterion 1: Performance 263 Criterion 2: Number of Units to Be Produced 263 Criterion 3: Availability 265 Criterion 4: Software 265 Criterion 5: Development Tools 265 Criterion 6: Special Criteria 265 Criterion 7: Cost 266 Summary of Selection Criteria 266 Summary 267 Exercises 267 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7 SYSTEM INTERCONNECT Objective 270 Standard System Architecture 270 Assembling a CPU 271 Connecting the Address Bus 274 Linear Selection 274 Decoded Addressing 278 Connecting the Memory 282 Connecting the Input/Output 283 Standard System Interconnect 285 A Multiplexed Bus System 288 Connecting Minimal Systems 292 Connecting Other Devices 293 Summary 293 Exercises 295 MICROPROCESSOR APPLICATIONS Objective 298 Application Areas 298 Computer Systems 299 Industrial Systems 302 Consumer Devices 309 Specialized Applications 312 Summary-Application Areas 315 Building a Microprocessor Application 315 A Single-Board Computer 315 A Paper Tape Reader/Punch Controller 317 A Cassette-Drive Controller 319 Analog-to-Digital Conversion 321 Four Case Studies 324 An Urban Traffic Controller 325 Microprocessor Controlled Spark Ignition System 333 A Microwave Oven Controller 336 Copier Controller 337 The Impact of Personal Computers 338 Summary 340 Exercises 340 INTERFACING TECHNIQUES Objective 344 Keyboard 344 Key Identification 345 The Debouncing Problem 350 Complex Keyboards 351

4 Complex Keyboards 351 LED Display 353 Teletype Interface 355 The Transmitting Sequence 356 The Receiving Sequence 358 Floppy Disk 361 Floppy Disk Controllers 363 A Single-Chip FDC 364 CRT Interface 368 Multimicroprocessor Systems 372 Memory Communication 372 Interregister Communication 373 Bus Standards 375 RS-232C 375 IEEE CAMAC 380 The S-100 Bus 381 The PC Bus 381 The Macintosh Nubus 383 Summary 383 Exercises 383 CHAPTER 8 CHAPTER 9 MICROCOMPUTER PROGRAMMING Objective 386 Definitions 386 Algorithm and Program 386 Programming Language 386 Debugging 388 Flowchart 389 Summary-Definitions 389 Internal Representation of Information 390 Representation of Numeric Data 390 Summary of Internal Number Representations 400 Representation of Alphanumeric Data 401 External Representation of Information 402 Representation of Instructions 403 Summary 405 Exercises 405 ASSEMBLY AND HIGH-LEVEL PROGRAMMING Objective 408 Assembly Language 408 Declarations 409 Executable Instructions 411 Macros 413 Types of Instructions 414 Subroutines 426 Stack Instructions 430 Addressing Techniques 431 Implicit Addressing 432 Immediate Addressing 432 Direct Addressing 433 Extended or Normal Addressing 434 Indexed Addressing 434 Relative Addressing 436 Indirect Addressing 437 Programming Example 439 An Arithmetic Program: Multiplication 439 Summary of the Multiplication Program 446 Simulating Digital Logic by Program 447 Programmed Inverter 447 Programmed AND-OR Functions 450 Flip-Flop Simulation 451 Implementing a Delay 452 Limitations of Programmed Logic 453 High-Level Languages 453 The Main Languages 455 Selecting a Language 455 Advantages of Programming 456 Summary 458 Exercises 458 CHAPTER 10 SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT Objective 462 The Steps of System Development 462 Phase 1: Design and Evaluation 463 Phase 2: Design Verification 463 Phase 3: Hardware/Software Partitioning 465 Phase 4: Parallel Design of Hardware and Software 465

5 Phase 5: Trade-off Evaluation 466 Phase 6: Integration and Testing 466 Phase 7: Performance Evaluation 466 Software Development 467 Software Development Tools 471 A Memory Map 471 The Four Basic Choices 472 Choosing the Microprocessor 473 Hardware/Software Partitioning 473 Programming Languages 473 System Development Tools 476 Summary 486 Exercises 487 CHAPTER 11 APPENDIX A APPENDIX B APPENDIX C APPENDIX D THE STATE OF THE ART: RISC ARCHITECTURE, EXPANDED BUSES, AND DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSORS Objective 490 Characteristics of a RISC Architecture 490 RISC Implementations 494 Performance: RISC versus ClSC 509 Bus Architectures 510 Characteristics of Bus Architectures 510 Implementations of Bus Architectures 519 Digital Signal Processors 522 Characteristics of Digital Signal Processors 522 Implementations of Digital Signal Processors 523 The Future 527 Technological Evolution 529 Component Evolution 529 Social Impact 530 Exercises 530 ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS 534 INTEL 8080 INSTRUCTION SET 538 IEEE 696 S-100 BUS SIGNALS 544 APPENDIX E ASCII CODE 550 MICROPROCESSOR MANUFACTURERS 554 A P P E N D I X F ACRONYMS 560 TOP Index 567