21 Rules on Academic Writing

Transcription

1 adapted from: 21 Rules on Academic Writing Wolfgang Wagner University of Karlsruhe John M. Swales and Christine B. Feak, Academic Writing for Graduate Students. A Course for Nonnative Speakers of English The University of Michigan Press, 1994 Contents: (1) An Approach to Academic Writing (a) Style 1 to 3 (b) Flow 4,5 (2) Different Text Types (a) General-Specific 6 to 9 (b) Problem-Process-Solution 10 to 12 (c) Data Commentary 13 to 19 (d) Summaries 20, 21

2 Characteristics of Academic Writing Audience Purpose Organization cover this in section on specific text types Style cover general issues first Flow Presentation

3 (1) Style: The Vocabulary Shift A distict feature of academic writing style is choosing the more formal alternative when selecting a verb, noun, or other part of speech. vocabulary shift Verbs: Often two choices available: verb + preposition single verb with Latinate origin In academic writing choose the later! Examples: Researchers looked at the way strain builds up around a fault. Researchers observed the way strain accumulates around a fault. This issue was brought up during the investigation. This issue was raised during the investigation. Researchers have found out that this drug has serious side effects. Researchers have determined that this drug has serious side effects.

4 (1) Vocabulary Shift: More Examples Verbs: This program was set up / established to improve access to medical care. Building a nuclear power plant will not get rid of / eliminate the energy problem completely. We got / obtained encouraging results. Adjectives: The government has made good / considerable progress in solving environmental problems. The results of a lot of / numerous different projects have been pretty good / encouraging. The reaction of the officials was sort of / rather negative. The economic outlook is mighty nice / encouraging. The future of Federal funding is up in the air / uncertain.

5 (2) Style: Formal Grammar Avoid contractions: e.g. Export figures won`t improve until the economy is stronger. Export figures will not improve until the economy is stronger. Use the more appropriate formal negative forms. not any no not much little not many few Examples: The analysis didn`t yield any new results. The analysis yielded no new results. The government didn`t allocate much funding for the program. The government allocated little funding for the program. The problem doesn`t have many viable solutions. The problem has few viable solutions.

6 (2) Style: Formal Grammar Place adverbs within the verb (midposition). Examples: Then the solution can be discarded. The solution can then be discarded. The blood is withdrawn slowly. The blood is slowly withdrawn.

7 (3) Formal Style Limit the use of run on expressions, such as and so forth and etc.. These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, etc. These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, and other electronic devices. Avoid addressing the reader as you (exception: textbooks). You can see the results in Table 1. The results can be seen in Table 1. Limit the use of direct questions. What can be done to lower costs? We now need to consider what can be done to lower costs. or We now need to consider how costs may be lowered. Usage of I or we : should be used with care, but does not necessarily make a text informal.

8 (4) Flow Flow: moving from one statement in a text to the next. Establishing a clear connection of ideas is important to help the reader follow the text. Linking words and phrases can help a writer maintain flow and establish clear relationships between ideas.

9 (4) Flow: Linking Words and Phrases Function Subordinators Sentence connectors Addition Adversative Cause and Effect Clarification although even though despite the fact that because since furthermore in addition moreover however nevertheless therefore as a result consequently hence thus in other words that is i.e. Phrase Linkers in addition to despite in spite of because of due to as a result of

10 (4) Flow: Linking Words and Phrases Function Subordinators Sentence connectors Contrast Illustration Intensification while whereas in contrast however on the other hand conversely for example for instance on the contrary as a matter of fact in fact Phrase Linkers

11 (5) Punctation Punctation depends on the type of initiator in the second clause. Conjunction Connector Subordinator and, but, or Use a comma. Birds fly, but fish swim. however, thus, also, therefore Use a semicolon or a period. Birds fly; however, fish swim. because, if, while Use a comma. Birds fly, while fish swim.

12 (5) Punctation If there is no second clause initiator, punctation depends on the type of clause being joined. Nonfinite + Finite Finite + Finite Finite + Nonfinite Use a comma. Use a semicolon. Use a comma. His theory being wrong, he lost the argument. His theory was wrong; he lost the argument. He lost the argument, his theory being wrong.

13 (6) General-Specific Texts General-specific texts frequently occur as a) an answer to an examination, b) an opening paragraph of an assignment, or c) a background paragraph to an analysis or discussion General-Specific texts usually begin with one of the following: a) a short or extended definition b) a contrastive or comparative definition, or c) a generalization or pupose statement General statement Shape of generalspecific texts More specific statement Specific detail Broader statement

14 GS: Example 1 A compact disc (CD) is an optical storage medium onto which information has been recorded digitally. In a CD recording of sound, sound waves are converted into digital numbers and inscribed on the disc. The digital data on the disc is read by a laser beam, thus eliminating any form of mechanical fritction that could distort sound quality. CDs can also be used to store images as well as information. As optical data storage techniques improve, CD technology will become more widespread and may someday entirely replace magnetic storage.

15 GS: Example 2 Pollution is a form of environmental contamination resulting from human activity. Some common forms of pollution are wastes from the burning of fossil fuels and sewage running into rivers. Even litter and excessive noise can be considered forms of pollution because of the impact they can have on the environment.

16 GS: Sentence Definitions A sole proprietorship is a business which is owned and operated by one individual for personal profit. A star is a celestial body that shines by itself and whose source of energy is nuclear fusion occuring in ist core. Annealing is a metalworking process in which a material is subjected to elevated temperatures for a period of time to cause structural or electrical changes in its properties. Structure of sentence definitions: term class relative clause