Increased economic growth and improved livelihoods in eastern and central Africa while enhancing the quality of the environment

Transcription

1 Coffee Goal: Purpose: Increased economic growth and improved livelihoods in eastern and central Africa while enhancing the quality of the environment Enhanced sustainable productivity, value-added and competitiveness of the regional coffee systems Chapter 1: Introduction Coffee plays a central role in the economies of eight out of the ten member countries of the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA). It provides a major source of foreign exchange for most of the ASARECA member countries as well as supporting the livelihoods of millions of rural families. In Burundi for example, coffee accounts for 78% of the total export earnings. The commodity accounts for 68% of Rwanda s total foreign currency earnings, 55% in Ethiopia, 53% in Uganda, 15% in Tanzania, 14% in Madagascar and 11% in Kenya. Even in countries not so heavily dependant on coffee, for example Kenya, Madagascar and Tanzania, the crop is still among the top agricultural export commodities and represents a very significant source of cash incomes for smallholders in these countries. It is estimated that over 22 million workers in Kenya, Rwanda, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Uganda, are directly employed in the coffee industry. Despite the pivotal role played by coffee in the economy of the sub-region, both production and export of coffee from East and Central Africa (ECA) has been on a downward trend. Production declined from a peak of 780,000 Metric tonnes in 1997 to the current low level of 450,000 tonnes, i.e., a decline of 42% in coffee exports. Total area under coffee increased from around 1,350,000 ha in 1984 to 1,460,000 ha in 1990 but had declined to 1,161,000 by This represents a reduction of almost 300,000 ha or about 21% in a span of 12 years. Available information from Kenya and Uganda also indicates that quality has likewise declined during the past decade. Returns from coffee to the subregion have also fallen in line with the overall fall in global prices. In Ethiopia for instance, export earnings from coffee fell from US$ 384 million in 1997 to around 160 million dollars by the year The decline in coffee earnings to the sub-region is mainly the result of falling world prices which itself is due to the imbalance between production and consumption at the global level. A major factor in this decline is the abolition of economic clauses of the International Coffee Agreement (ICA) and the consequent collapse in world coffee prices. In many cases, particularly in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania, the prices received by growers fell below the breakeven point making it uneconomical to maintain recommended agronomic practices such as pest and disease control and the application of fertilisers. Stringent coffee processing procedures previously associated with the production of high quality mild Arabica coffee were likewise minimised with negative impact on coffee quality. The need to reverse this downward trend in coffee production, quality and export earnings, together with the reemergence of the Coffee Wilt Disease (CWD) in the region stimulated the desire for regional collaboration in coffee research. Co-ordination of coffee research in the ASARECA region dates back to 1995, with the organisation of a regional workshop by CAB International at which national coffee research programmes, extension workers and farmers developed a proposal to co-ordinate regional activities in coffee IPM. Subsequently, the EU/ACP coffee marketing organisation, APROMA, organised a series of meetings in 1997 to review the need for regional co-ordination and networking of research and marketing activities. This initiative brought together the main coffee producers in the region who endorsed an outline proposal for co-ordinated marketing and research strategies. The APROMA review highlighted two important principles: the need for coffee research priorities to be market-led, and the potential benefits to be gained by considering joint marketing strategies for producers throughout the region. The establishment of the regional coffee research Network, CORNET, under the auspices of ASARECA was therefore to enable the common 1

2 themes between the national coffee research programs of each country to be identified, prioritised and addressed through collaborative research. This document describes the process initiated by the Coffee Research Network to identify and prioritise constraints and opportunities of regional interest in the coffee sub-sector of the ECA. It provides an insight in the prevailing research opportunities as viewed from stakeholder perspective and their relative ranking in order of priorities. A traditional coffee percolator: Coffee is an important crop in the lives of the people 2

3 Chapter 2: Review of the research domain Production structures The Eastern and Central Africa sub-region produces both Arabica and Robusta coffee (Table 1) with the former accounting for about 59%. Ethiopia is the largest producer of Arabica coffee not only in the sub-region but in Africa, followed by Kenya. These are followed by Tanzania, which also produces sizeable quantities of Robusta coffee. Uganda is by far the largest producer of Robusta coffee in the sub region with D. R. Congo and Madagascar being distant second and third. The crop is grown predominantly as a smallholder cash crop though commercial farms also exist in most of these countries (Table 2). In Kenya and Tanzania where comprehensive data is available, smallholders account on average for 61% and 95% of total production respectively. Table 1: Coffee Production Structure by Major Subtypes Country Yearly Means 1986/01 Arabica Robusta Burundi D. R. Congo Ethiopia Kenya Madagascar Rwanda 24.8 Tanzania Uganda (Thousand tonnes) - Source: ICO data Table 2. Disaggregating of coffee producers in ECA by scale of production Country No. of small-holder farms No. of Estates Total Ethiopia 331,130 19, ,000 Kenya 522,151 1, ,426 Rwanda 500, ,000 Tanzania 380,000 20, ,000 Uganda 465,000 35, ,000 (Source: Sweet Marias Coffee Reviews, 2004) Crop husbandry practices In all the countries, the level of crop management practices is higher on large-scale farms than on smallholdings. In Tanzania and Kenya, Arabica coffee estates apply higher standards of crop management practices on basis of level of weed control, pruning, application of pesticides for diseases and insects, and use of fertilisers as compared to their smallholder counterparts. The Kenyan smallholders followed by those of Burundi apply higher level of crop management practices in this category of producers. For Robusta producers, estates in Uganda followed by Madagascar maintain fairly high management standards including average level of clean weeding, slashing, application of herbicides and moderate use of fertiliser and pesticides. Smallholders in Tanzania and Uganda maintain medium to low levels of management followed by Madagascar and D. R. Congo. Smallholders in D. R. Congo normally apply no chemicals, either in the form of pesticides or fertilisers, or even herbicides but maintain a high degree of clean weeding and slashing. Improved germplasm Coffee is indigenous to Africa, and the ASARECA sub-region is the centre of origin for the two most important cultivated species, namely, Coffea arabica (commercially known as Arabica coffee) and Coffea canephora (commonly referred to as Robusta coffee). Despite the existence of the rich genetic diversity, industry is still based on the 3

4 production the traditional varieties, the so-called old chicks. Improved varieties are only available in countries with active variety improvement programs. These include Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. In Uganda, about 13% of Robusta an area representing about 34,000 ha had been transplanted with new elite Robusta clones by 2000/01 In Kenya, it is estimated that 10% of the total coffee area in the country, about 17,000 ha, had been replanted to the new variety Ruiru 11 by 2001/2002 while in Tanzania over 300,000 plants of selected improved Robusta clones were used in the replanting programme in Robusta coffee growing areas in Kagera region. No information was available for Ethiopia. In all the cases, the improved varieties have had little impact on the livelihoods of the rural poor both at national and regional levels. Cross-border utilisation of the improved germplasm has been constrained by policy restrictions whereas broader within country adaptation has been hampered by inadequate provision of good quality planting material. Production trends Average production in the region over the last 20 years is estimated at 680,000 metric tonnes of green coffee annually. This production level represents 60% of Africa s total production and 11.5% of world production on average. The highest production was 801,000 tonnes in 1989 while the lowest was in 1993 with just over half a million tonnes. The overall production and export trend has been declining since the mid 90 s with the sub-region losing 60% of its share of the world coffee market and 49% of the world coffee earnings between 1984 and To appreciate the performance of the sub-region in terms of production, in 1984, the annual production was higher than that of the entire Asian continent. However, by 2003, production for the sub-region, and indeed Africa, still stagnated around the 1984 level of 650,000 tonnes or even declined. This was against 2,040,000 tonnes production by Asia in the same period, a threefold increase over that of the sub-region. A similar picture emerges when comparing performance with that of the Americas where an increase of over 55% production was realised between 1984 and 2003 (Figure 1). Fig 1. Trends in coffee production for ECA, Africa, Asia and the Americas (thousands of tonnes) Quantity Year of Production ECA Africa Asia Americas The observed production trends are attributable to two principal factors; decline in coffee hectarage from 1,350,000 ha in 1984 to 1,161,000 by 2003 and declining crop productivity. In 1984/85 for example, the ECA region was leading in terms of average productivity compared with the rest of Africa, Asia, North, Central and South America. This was followed by a general decline and by the 1990s, the region was already lagging behind the rest of the world with the per hectare yields in the Americas and Asia being respectively, double and one and a half times that of the sub region (Fig 2). 4

5 Fig 2. Trends in coffee productivity (tonnes/ha) for ECA, Asia and the Americas ( ) Tonnes/ha Year of Production ECA Africa Asia Americas Information available from three out of the eight countries where reliable records have been maintained for a reasonable length of time indicates that performance in terms of quality has not been any better. Substantial erosion of the sub-regions premium grade coffees occurred during the past 20 years as exemplified by quality trends of Kenya coffee (Fig. 3). The observed quality decline mirrors declining agronomic standards and declining primary processing standards. It was noted that despite the existence of cost-saving eco-friendly processing equipment and procedures, the region still relies heavily on conventional processing which is cumbersome, expensive both to install and maintain and are prone to quality degradation if stringent processing standards are not followed. Lack of information on the performance of such equipment in respect to quality was cited as the main reason for the observed state of affairs. This points to the need for adaptive research in the area of processing, to demonstrate the utility of modern processing techniques, coupled with capacity building at farm/factory level. Fig.4 Trends in liquor quality of Kenya coffee during the period NATIONAL COFFEE QUALITY TREND (%) MBUNI /70 78/79 96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00 00/01 Source: CBK annual report 5

6 Research system and Institutional support The coffee research systems in the ECA are characterised by inadequate funding, lack of specialised human capacity and poor research infrastructure. Most of the research activities are funded through the respective governments with substantial support from development partners. Participation of the private sector in coffee research is negligible in all countries and industry support absent except in two countries. In view of the declining financial resources, the subregion could benefit enormously by adopting a regional approach to technology development, and consolidating the scarce resources to develop regional public goods. A common trend among research institutions in the region is the limitation of infrastructure, lack of specialised human capacity and poor research networking. More importantly, the staff structure is heavily biased towards production with limited trained manpower in processing and marketing (Table 3). For instance, whereas Ethiopia and to lesser extent Kenya, appear to have sufficient technical staff at their research institutions, research institutes in Burundi, D. R. Congo and Madagascar are relatively understaffed and may be unable to cope with research responsibilities expected to support their coffee industries. The staff situation further justifies the need for strong regional partnerships in research, as this would facilitate complimentary sharing of research facilities and scientists. Table 3: Staff (Research and Extension) Level of Training on Country Basis Country PhD MSc BSc. Technicians Total Burundi D.R. Congo Ethiopia Kenya Madagascar Tanzania Uganda Total As regards technology transfer or research liaison, Tanzania has the strongest team with 4 well-trained scientists while Kenya and Ethiopia have 3 and 1 scientists respectively. The rest of the research institutes have no provision for technology transfer, which is a misnomer given that effectiveness of research depends on how responsive it is to farmers concerns. Status of germplasm conservation Madagascar holds by far the largest germplasm collection in the sub-region, both in terms of number of accessions and taxa with over 10,000 surviving accessions. Ethiopia is a distant second (4,000 accessions) and holds exclusively Arabica coffee. Kenya is the third important centre, whose collection also represents considerable diversity. Uganda has a fairly large collection of coffea canephora, and Tanzanian collection probably also represents considerable diversity since exact number of Arabica coffee collections remains to be established. The conservation of all these collections is done ex-situ in field collections. As a result of inadequate resources for upkeep, losses due to pests, disease, poor adaptation and natural disasters, the existing coffee collections in the subregion are in imminent danger of genetic erosion. Furthermore it is doubtful if any extensive documentation of the collections has been attempted in most of the centres, let alone utilisation in improvement programmes. It is therefore necessary for the sub-region to re-think its conservation strategies with a view of incorporating modern conservation techniques such as in-vitro culture, and to conduct additional prospections where necessary. Furthermore, comprehensive evaluation of the regions germplasm should be conducted to identify, map and conserve genes controlling traits of economic importance Extension and dissemination of research findings Extension services for the coffee sector have been hindered by limited funding and underdeveloped extension dissemination systems. Delays in the dissemination of information, poor research-extension-farmer linkages are common throughout the ECA region. Inadequate facilities, lack of qualified personnel, poor funding, inadequate logistical support for extension, inappropriate timing, inefficient dissemination methods, poor delivery of information, inefficient information delivery pathways, inadequate extension coverage, and poor adaptation of extension messages to farmer circumstances are some of the factors which undermines efficient management of extension services for the 6

7 coffee sub-sector. The findings underscore the need to devlop more innovative information dissemination approaches, which are less reliant on the number of extension agents for their effectiveness and reach. Markets and marketing systems The marketing systems in the sub-region include the auction system, private treaty, barter trade, forward selling, direct sales, futures market, and international tendering. Of the prevailing systems, the auction is credited as providing a better prices discovery mechanism in the regional coffee sub-sector. It helps concentrate supply i.e. growers compete on quality and concentrates demand i.e. exporters compete on prices. It fosters transparent and competitive operations in the market place, eliminating most unethical market influences. However the auction system in the sub-region is still constrained, especially where there is skewed market information and excessive government control. The key market players are growers, farmer organisations, marketing agents, regulatory bodies and the research organizations. These market players perform different functions or roles, which may be more than one. Specifically, the roles include production, processing, transportation, milling, grading, quality control, policy interventions, cataloguing and auction, promotion and legislation. Except for Ethiopia and Madagascar where there is significant domestic consumption, all the coffee grown in the ASARECA region is exported. The main destinations for the region s coffees include Germany, Belgium/Luxemburg, the United States of America, the Republic of South Africa and Canada for Burundi, southern Europe, and in particular France and Italy for D. R. Congo, Germany and Japan for Ethiopia, Germany, Scandinavia USA and Eritrea for Kenya, Germany, Japan, Italy and Belgium/Luxemburg for Tanzania and the European Union for Uganda. Major shifts have occurred in the coffee destinations with notable ones being the loss of Italy as a destination to the Kenyan coffee and the emergence of Sudan as the most important single destination for Uganda coffee. Improved coffee varieties have been developed in response to diseases, which are one of the constraints to increased coffee production in the sub-region 7

8 Chapter 3: Evaluation of Past Research Coffee agronomy Of the eight coffee producing member countries of ASARECA, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda have longstanding research programmes covering most areas of production and processing. Tangible results have been achieved in field establishment and management (establishment, intensification, nutrition, irrigation, mixed cropping, agroforestry, weed control) insect pest management (Coffee Berry Borer, Antestia, Leaf miner, Scales, White stem borer), disease control (Coffee Berry Disease, Coffee Leaf Rust, Coffee Wilt Disease), and primary processing (harvesting, wet and dry processing and socio-economic packages). Field establishment and nutrition Recommendations on field establishment at planting densities of between 1329 trees per hectare to 5000 trees per hectare are available for use by farmers from the regional research institutes. These recommendations are however way below planting densities recommended in other major coffee producing countries such as Colombia ( ,000 trees/ha), Costa Rica ( trees/ha). Some of the reasons for lower plant densities in the sub-region include lack of resistant compact varieties, inadequate moisture supply and prevalence of insect pests and diseases. Coffee nutrition is another area where substantial research outcomes already exist, particularly on the use of major elements such as NPK. In Kenya, recommended levels of N range from 80kg/ha to 300kg/ha depending on the level of cropping while in Tanzania the optimum rate is 60kg N/ha. On the other hand, rates as high as 400kg/ha are often applied in high-density coffee in Latin America. Protocols for rapid conversion of coffee processing by-products into organic manure and their application regimes are available in Kenya and Uganda. Likewise, recommendations on the use of green manure for the production of organic coffee are well documented in Kenya and Uganda, though not widely applied by farmers. Methods for rapid conversion of farm by-products to organic manure will greatly increase the efficiency with which small-holder farmers could generate organic manure on-farm. Mixed cropping Mixed cropping is quite common among smallholders in ECA. About 80% of smallholder farmers in Uganda and Tanzania and 50% in Ethiopia practice mixed cropping. Available socio-economic evaluation studies conducted in Kenya indicates that mixed cropping provides the most optimal use of resources in the small-scale sector. Nevertheless, the practice is still legislated against in the country. Recommendations exist on mixed cropping involving coffee with a variety of crops including Bananas, Phaseolus beans and Soya beans. A range of other intercrops have been tested in Kenya, including food crops and perennial fruit tree crops and most of them have been shown to have no significant deleterious effects on coffee. Instead, their use contributes significant economic benefits to the smallholder farmers in terms of increased yields and quality and as an insurance against fluctuations in household incomes. Shade and use of agroforestry systems Use of shade in coffee has received less attention by research as in the sub-region probably due to the fact that shade has been associated with reduced cropping potential under the high-input; high-output growing systems. However, it is a common practice in Ethiopia, Uganda, Tanzania and parts of DR Congo and Madagascar. Shade is beneficial in moderating extreme temperature variations and excessive light intensity as well as in nutrient recycling. Recommendations on the use of shade/agro-forestry and cover crops with respect to specific management of forest coffee are only available in Ethiopia. Earlier work in Lyamungu, Tanzania, led to detailed recommendations on the use of various shade trees in coffee. The best shade trees are leguminous trees, which also add Nitrogen to the soil. Methods for using forest and semi-forest coffee while conserving the bio-diversity resident in such areas still need to be developed. Irrigation Irrigation is frequently used on estates in Kenya and some smallholdings in Tanzania. Estates in Zimbabwe and Malawi also practice irrigation. Main research breakthroughs in this area concern irrigation timings, rates and mode of application. In Kenya, the Coffee Research Foundation recommends that the soil water deficit is allowed up to 150mm before 100mm net irrigation is applied plus an additional 5 15mm to compensate for evaporation during sprinkler irrigation. In Zimbabwe, 50 60mm irrigation at intervals of 2 3 weeks is recommended during periods of soil moisture deficit. Irrigation needs are usually calculated from climatic data and soil moisture measurements. An alternative 8

9 method developed at the Coffee Research Foundation (CRF), Ruiru, involves monitoring internal water potential of plants using cobalt chloride disc held against the leaf. Most of the recommendations on irrigation are however not adapted to smallholder systems in the ECA. Weed Control This is normally achieved through cultural methods or use of herbicides. Cultural methods recommended include digging with forked hoes, use of tractor mounted rotary or tined cultivators, slashing and use of mulch. Perennial grasses particularly, Digitaria Scalarum, Cynodon dactylon and Imperata cylindrica, and sedges, Cyperus rotundus and Cyperus esculentus are the most difficult weeds to eradicate. Recommendations are also available on the use of a range of herbicides for the control of specific types of weeds. Use of herbicides has the advantage of allowing greater efficiency in timing of farm operations. A wealth of information is available on testing procedures and use of herbicides. Methods adaptable to small-holder systems such as the use of hand-held targeted application of herbicides are still not available in the sub-region. Such methods are commonplace in the producing countries outside the continent of Africa. Variety improvement The main breeding objectives for Arabica coffee in the sub-region include improved quality; resistances to major diseases increased yields and better adaptability to abiotic stress. New varieties have been developed and released in Kenya, Ethiopia and Tanzania. These varieties combine resistance to Coffee Berry Disease (CBD) and coffee leaf rust (CLR) with improved yield and coffee quality. Among such varieties is Ruiru II, a compact CBD and CLR resistant hybrid developed and released in Kenya in 1955 (Agwanda, Owuor, 1989, Walyaro, 1997). In Ethiopia, 15 CBD resistant lines were selected and released in the original breeding programme (Belachew, 1997). The coffee improvement programme in Tanzania (Kilambo, 2003) has led to the development of disease resistant clonal hybrid varieties that are highly productive, and have good bean size and cup quality. These are already being released to coffee growers. Additional varieties including a number of selections and some hybrid varieties are in the process of being released in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. Unlike the other major disease of coffee, no advance has been made in breeding for resistance to Coffee Wilt Disease. The main objective in Robusta breeding is improved yield, bean size and cup quality. In Uganda, six elite high yielding clones developed at Kawanda (Kibirige-Sebanya et al., 1996) have already been released to coffee growers and a replanting programme is in progress. Four elite Robusta clones were also developed in Tanzania in 1997 and have been released for coffee growing in Kagera region in Tanzania. A somewhat different breeding strategy adopted in Cote d Ivoire, the reciprocal recurrent selection (Leroy et al 1993, Montagnon, 2000) has led to development of highly productive Robusta hybrid varieties. In general, the improved varieties have had little impact on the livelihoods of coffee farmers in the sub-region. Inadequate supply of seeds and seedlings of the improved varieties have hampered the rate of adoption of such innovations. Given that most of the new varieties are hybrids, existing mass propagation methods tend to be slow and cumbersome. It is therefore necessary to develop alternative strategies for propagating hybrid varieties such as in-vitro propagation. Management of coffee Pest 1. Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus hampei) Coffee Berry Borer is the most important insect pest in the whole of the Central and Latin America. The pest is present in most of the ECA countries with varying levels of economic significance. Several control methods exist including cultural and chemical control as well as mass trapping. Cultural control involves opening up coffee trees through pruning as well as thinning the shade trees after harvesting, coupled with sanitary harvesting. Recommendations on chemical control include using Dursban, Nuvelle in Kenya, Fenitrothion in Uganda and Endosulfan in Central America. CIRAD have developed and patented a mass trap, Bracovap (Dufour, 2002) whereas bio-control methods involving the use of Bouveria bassiana have been developed in Colombia. Bio-control methods and the use of traps are yet to be domesticated in the sub-region and should therefore be targets for adaptive research as part of a regional IPM strategy against the pest. 2. Antenstia (Antestiopsis spp.) This is a major pest on both Arabica and Robusta coffee in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Ethiopia and Rwanda. Control methods available include cultural, chemical and biological methods. Cultural practices involve opening up the coffee 9

10 bushes through pruning and chemical control measures include applying Fenitrothion, Dursbarn, Nuvelle and Cypermethrin. In Kenya a biological control system based on mass rearing and release of Antesia egg parasitoids is now available (Mugo, 2001). The economics of using biocontrol techniques in managing coffee pests is however still not known. Besides, facilities for mass rearing and protocols for potential cross-boarder transfers of the bio-pesticides are still a constraint to widespread use of the technology. Similar programmes are being developed in Ethiopia and Uganda. 3. Leaf Miner (Leucoptera spp. and Perileucoptera spp.) The pest is of major importance in coffee in Eastern Africa, Central and South America and the Caribbeans. Control measures recommended in Kenya include application of a range of insecticides such as Fenitrothion and ground applied Disyston and Dacamox, etc. Biological control through use of potential natural enemies is also under investigation. Transgenic modification of Robusta and arabica coffee plants to confer resistance to leaf miner was successfully achieved through the transfer of Cry1ac gene (for insect resistance) of Bacillus thuringiensis mediated via Agrobacterium tumefaciens to host coffee plants (Leroy et al, 1999). Work is also in progress in Brazil aimed at introducing resistance to leaf miner from Coffea racemosa into the cultivated coffee species. 4. Scale insects (Coccus spp. & Saissetia coffea) These are prevalent in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia and DR Congo. IPM methods for controlling the pest involves banding of tree trunks using a variety of environmentally safe insecticides. This keeps off attendant ants thus allowing parasites and predators to clean up the infestation. Three species of ladybird beetles Chilocorus nigripes, C. angolensis and Hyperapsis senegalensis have been found to be effective predators not only of green scales, but also on a range of other scales found on coffee. 5. White stem borer (Monochamus leuconotus) Insect borers offer perhaps the greatest challenge to pest management in coffee. These are widely distributed not only in tropical Africa but also in Central and South America and Asia. The white stem borer is probably the most serious stem borer in Kenya below 1524m, Kilimanjaro area in Tanzania and Malawi. Among the recommended control measures include highly targeted and selective application of pesticides with minimum non-target effects, applied as stem paints. The treatment starts just before the onset of rains and is repeated after 1 year and thereafter every second year. 6. Disease control Recommendations for disease control in Kenya are issued as technical circulars each year specifying the fungicides and spray timings based on rainfall distribution and cropping patterns. Some of the recommended fungicides for CBD control include Daconil (0.4%), Delan (0.3%), and Copper (0.7%) while those for CLR include Copper 50% Nordox or Kocide 101 at 0.35% and Bayleton 25% at 0.1% or 0.2%. Copper sprays are applied at 3 weekly intervals while Bayleton is at 4 weekly intervals. In Uganda, the use of 8kg/ha of 50% Copper fungicides applied at 3 weekly intervals is still the cheapest and most effective control measure for CBD and CLR on Arabica coffee. The same spray programme is also effective in the control of Bacterial blight of coffee. A slightly different chemical control regime for CLR exists in South and Central America. Control measures for CLR are based on three approaches (Avelino & Savary, 2002). The first is intervention threshold where spraying only starts when infection reaches 5% and if it is below 20% only Copper based fungicides are used while above this, more costly systematic fungicides are applied. The second approach is the development of epidemic, comprising three options i.e., 1) intensity dependent, where the number of spray rounds depends on cropping level and leaf area index, 2) Calendar spray programme, used in Colombia, where disease control depends on harvesting period and 3) controlling primary inoculum used in Brazil, where systemic fungicides are used for the first spray round before the epidemic sets in. The third approach is risk forecasting using mathematical formulae to predict severity or rate of development of CLR epidemic. The parameters used include environmental variables (rainfall & temperature), leaf area in index, cropping level and amount of primary inoculum. Coffee processing 1. Harvesting 10

11 Recommendations on handpicking are virtually the same throughout the sub-region, i.e. to obtain good quality coffee, harvest only red ripe cherries, through selective picking. Handpicking is labour intensive task and entails high labour costs. In Latin America because of labour scarcity, attempts have been made to mechanize the operation. Mechanised tree and branch shakers have been used in Puerto Rico and Hawaii while in Costa Rica there has been work to develop mechanized harvesting and pruning. In the case of Brazil, harvesting machines with vibrating fingers that comb through branches while shaking off the berries are now available. A pneumatic harvester (Lendaro & Belci, 1997) already in use in many other countries is claimed to be suitable for both small and large plantations and because its lashing can be regulated, it can be used for selectively harvesting ripe cherries giving an average 70% ripe cherries while only 15% green cherries are harvested. 2. Wet processing Detailed recommendations (Thomas & Brownbridge, 1964; Kulaba, 1979; Vincent, 1988) are available on conventional wet coffee processing using fixed disc/drum pulpers and hand pulpers from extensive work conducted in Tanzania, Kenya and elsewhere. These include factory organization, labour requirement, cherry inspection before pulping, the pulping process, factory hygiene, machinery adjustment, pre-grading, fermentation, and under water soaking. Coffee drying stages are also carefully described in the cited literature, where moisture content is progressively reduced from 53% to % both through sun drying and a combination of sun and artificial drying. Drying is a major constraint in coffee processing during peak picking periods, which usually coincides with adverse weather conditions of rainy days and overcast skies. Recommendations are also becoming available for more innovative coffee processing methods involving eco-friendly processing equipment such as the Colombian Penagos and the Brazilian Pinhalense, which integrates mechanical mucilage removal. The main constraint to adoption of this technology is the limited availability of information to demonstrate the utility of the equipment to the end users and to explore whether or not mechanical mucilage removal entails loss of quality of semi and fully washed coffees. Adaptive studies are therefore necessary to provide these answers thereby facilitating the adoption and use of the technology. Trials with pulpers integrating mechanical mucilage removers were initiated in Kenya in the late 90s but could not be pursued to conclusion due to shortage of funds. Water recirculation techniques which reduces usage and provides for purification of discharged water drains through a series of seepage pits are also available for processing plants using conventional techniques. The damage of coffee berry disease on a susceptible variety The Major gaps between existing technologies/innovative and prevailing constraints Although the list of available technologies in the sub-region and other coffee growing countries is impressive, a number of the technologies/innovations entail high input usage and are no longer tenable for most smallholder coffee production systems. It will be necessary to readjust a number of existing technologies/innovations to adapt them to prevailing circumstances of the smallholder farmers and to improve the competitiveness of the coffee systems in the sub-region. 11

12 Research on mixed cropping is still limited to only a few crops, and under rather restricted conditions. A wider range of intercrops need to be tested as well as integration of livestock in coffee-based farming systems to enhance sustainability of the system. Availability and affordability of some organic manure e.g. cattle manure need to be considered and recommendations on alternative more easily available and less costly organic/green manures availed to farmers for adoption. Recommendations on shade and agroforestry in coffee-based production systems are not available in many of the countries of the sub-region except for Ethiopia and previous work done in Lyamungu, Tanzania. Agroforestry and shade will not only improve environmental quality in the coffee-based farming systems, but will improve access to certain niche markets such as shade coffee and bird friendly markets. Disease resistant varieties have been developed in only a few countries in the sub-region. Even where improved varieties have been developed, they have made little impact because of shortages of planting materials due to inefficient multiplication systems. Availability/accessibility of improved germplasm is therefore a major gap in the subregion. This could be addressed by strengthening breeding programmes to ensure that resistant varieties are available for most of the economically important disease. An associated area where little has been achieved is the conservation, evaluation and characterisation of coffee germplasm. Alternative conservation methods to supplement the existing live gene banks need to be adopted to minimise genetic erosion due to tree loos. Integrated pest management strategies that emphasise biological control are available for only a few of the major coffee pests in the sub-region. This is a reflection of the fact that past efforts in insect pest control focused mainly on screening the efficacy of various insecticides. Where bio-control agents are already available, methods for their integration into the coffee-based farming systems and mass production/rearing are still lacking. Likewise knowledge on their short and long-term effects and benefits are absent. The sub-region should therefore strengthen research in the area of impact assessment. Control measures for a number of diseases in the sub-region are still not developed. In other cases, the methods rely on intensive use of chemicals. A case at hand is the coffee wilt disease for which no control method is yet available. More work is therefore needed to develop eco-friendly, cost effective integrated control methods for the major diseases such as the coffee wilt disease. Mechanical coffee harvesting technology is not yet available in the sub-region although such equipment has been developed in other countries. Adaptive studies will be necessary to integrate such technologies in the coffee systems given that labour cost is one of the main contributors to high cost of production. Similarly, evaluation of alternative and more innovative cost effective processing equipment and systems such as the aquapulpers will be required. Simple innovative grading mechanism for cherry/kiboko at point of delivery should also be developed to facilitate differentiation of smallholder coffee on the basis of quality and subsequently differential payments reflective of the level of quality. Except for Rwanda where mapping of coffee zones is currently under way, most of the other countries have not zoned their coffee production areas to facilitate technology recommendation. Coffee zonation at sub-regional level will facilitate cross-borded adoption of improved technologies and production of marketable quantities of speciality coffee from the sub-region. Other overarching issues which will require consideration in the whole coffee research set-up in the sub-region include mainstreaming participatory approaches to technology development and dissemination and capacity building in emerging areas such as coffee certification for improved market access. 12

13 Chapter 4: Constraints and Opportunity Analysis In order to address the falling farm-gate incomes and subsequently regional earnings from coffee, an in-depth assessment of the constraints to, and opportunity for, enhanced production of high quality coffee from the sub-region was conducted covering production to consumption. Declining production of high quality coffee from ECA was identified as the basic problem whereas husbandry practices and primary processing practices were identified as its main causes. The lower level constraints contributing to sub-optimal husbandry and processing were identified as discussed below. Low Net Incomes Low farm-gate prices are a major disincentive to improved husbandry and processing practices thereby limiting the production of high quality coffee from the sub-region. Farm-gate prices received in most of the sub-region in the last five to ten years have mostly been below a breakeven point. The low farm-gate realisations have reduced farmers disposable income and therefore discouraged investment in production and processing. Some of the main causal factors for low farm-gate earnings include world coffee prices, high costs of production, high deductions, diseconomies of scale either due to disintegration of farmer organisations or sub-division of land, and high marketing costs. Taking high cost of production as an example, it was noted that in Kenya, it is estimated that production costs increased two and a half times for small-holder sector, while it tripled for estates between 1987/88 and 1997/98 (CRF, 1999). The respective cost of production values for 2002 were US$ 56 49, for smallholders and US$ 106 for commercial estates, per 50kg clean coffee produced (Agroconsortium, 2002). Another example where the sub-regions performance is uncompetitive concerned statutory deduction, levies and cost of processing where Kenya s deductions for 2001/02 were just below US$ 0.60 per kg of clean coffee compared to other high quality, high cost producers like Colombia, with costs estimated at US$ 0.30 and Costa Rica at US$ 0.39 per kg of clean coffee, local deductions and levies are clearly exorbitant. Limited Availability of and Access to Appropriate Technology Lack of appropriate technologies is a major impedance to sustainable production of high quality coffee from the ECA. It reduces the systems competitiveness and is the result of lag or sluggishness in research response to current farmers needs, inefficient extension systems, low farmer capacity to access and use improved technology and non-innovative and non-proactive research systems. Inefficient Extension Service Ineffective and inadequate extension service in most countries of the sub-region is a major cause of declining coffee production and quality. The reasons for poor extension are many and varied but the most important ones include inadequate logistical support, poor information delivery, poor attitude and lack of experience, poor timing of information delivery and weak research extension farmer linkage and inadequate resources. Low Farmer Capacity to Access and Use of Technology Farmers in the sub-region are often beset by myriads of constraints limiting their capacity to access and use technology even if it is appropriate. These include, among others, risks and uncertainties in the coffee business, poor technology packaging which is often inappropriate and expensive, lack of affordable cost saving and appropriate technologies inadequate financial resources given that majority of smallholders have no access to affordable credit, poor extension and extension coverage and poor farmer perception of new technologies due to limitations related to farmer literacy, exposure traditions, attitudes and social obligations. 13

14 Non-innovative, Non-Proactive Research Systems Non-innovative, non-proactive research systems was identified as a cause to limited availability of and access to appropriate technology. This is often reflected in form of inadequate participation of stakeholders in research priority setting, leading to formulation of poor research programmes hence resulting in the development of technologies that are often not well adapted to the primary concerns of the farmers. The primary causes of non innovative, none proactive research include lack of sufficiently trained and experienced, Poor rewarding system and recognition for scientists - this is probably the single most important contributor to non-innovative and non-proactive research in the sub region, weak link between researchers and end users, poor strategic partnerships, inadequate and obsolete research facilities, poor access to research information, and poor strategic planning. Processing Practices The major causes of poor processing practices in the sub region include: inadequate incentives for quality coffee, poor crop husbandry and harvesting practices, prevailing low coffee prices and unpredictable fluctuations, lack of objective grading mechanisms, inability to enforce code of good factory practices, inappropriate and dilapidated processing facilities, poor extension service, high cost of establishment and maintenance of processing facility, lack of innovative processing systems and high cost of processing. Inadequate Price Incentives for High Quality Coffee This is among the most serious constraint to improved coffee processing practices among smallholders in all the countries of the sub-region. Although high quality coffees attract premium prices, the prevailing differentials are too low to compensate for the increased associated with production and processing of high quality coffee. Furthermore, these differential payments are often obscured by other factors including high operating costs, deductions along value chain, high processing costs and lack of objective and simple system for grading cherry or kiboko at the delivery point. Poor Coffee Harvesting Practices Non-selective picking is a common practice on smallholder farms in D. R. Congo, Uganda, Ethiopia and Madagascar and on some estates in Kenya, and Robusta coffee in Uganda and Madagascar. This practice is a contributor to poor quality coffee regardless of whether it is wet or dry processed. In addition, sorting and grading of coffee berries before further processing is a practice that is long forgotten among most smallholders because of low net earning, high cost of labour and lack of incentives for high quality coffees. Lack of Innovative and Dynamic Extension Approach This is a result of low morale, poor attitudes and aptitude of extension agents, the major causes being poor remuneration and working conditions, lack of frequent in-service training and poor linkage with research. Lack of logistical support is cited by most countries in the sub-region as among the major causes of ineffective extension. Lack of farmer participatory approach is another cause of non-innovative extension approaches and is as a result of lack of proper training in participatory approach and inadequate number of extension staff in coffee processing. The other causes include poor information delivery pathways, lack of communication facilities and poor timing of information delivery. High Cost of Establishment and Maintenance of Processing Facilities Limited use of locally available and inexpensive materials in coffee processing facilities increases the cost of establishment whereas lack of locally fabricated maintenance parts increases the cost of maintenance of processing factories. Lack of cheaper and/or alternative processing equipment and simpler factory layouts also contributes to high cost of establishment and maintenance. Only Kenya and Ethiopia have agricultural engineering departments where research on post harvest technology in coffee is conducted. In many instances, there is a mismatch between installed capacity of processing facilities and crop productivity. Inefficient processing chains Inefficient management of processing facilities is another cause of poor processing. Reasons for mismanagement along the processing chain vary from country to country and include lack of skilled and trained manpower in coffee processing and factory management, inefficient and ineffective extension services and limited participation by farmers in decision making processes with regard to coffee processing. Lack of skilled and well trained manpower is a fairly 14

15 high priority constraint in most countries of the sub region. And is the result of inadequate training programs and training facilities, high cost of training in the few available institutions, lack of interest by the youth in factory management, poor sourcing and recruitment of coffee processing staff and low investment in training of factory technicians. Lack of interest by young people in coffee processing is probably due to poor remuneration and lack of social welfare incentives, drudgery associated with working environment and negative attitudes of youth Inappropriate and or Dilapidated Processing Facilities This is a major constraint to improved coffee processing in all the countries except Ethiopia and Kenya. The causes of the problem include inefficient management of processing facilities, lack of more innovative and cost effective processing systems, lack of capital and archaic legislation hindering private sector investment in more innovative processing systems, e.g., private owned hand pulpers or mobile pulping units. Lack of Codes of Good Factory Practices This would include for example a list of precautions to be observed from picking, grading, pulping, fermenting, washing and drying, in addition to factory maintenance and factory hygiene. Lack of such a code in many societies and farmers organizations is a reflection of apathy among most growers given the present sorry state of the coffee industry, i.e. low coffee prices and widespread poor husbandry practices and mismanagement and laxity within the factories 15

16 Chapter 5: Determination of Sub-Themes In order to address the falling production and exports of coffee from the sub-region, and to increase the regions earnings from coffee, an in-depth assessment of the constraints to and opportunity for enhanced production was conducted to determine the root causes of the observed decline in production, productivity and farm gate earnings from coffee and to identify regional strategies for mitigating against such factors. The priority setting committee carried out the analysis of the main constraints based on the constraint tree procedure to provide the cause-effect relationships. The outcome of the constraint analysis was used by the committee to described best-case scenario for the coffee subsector in the ASARECA region by defining the positive aspects of the lowest level constraints. Objectives which if realised would enable the coffee sub-sector to move from its current depressed state to the desired situation were subsequently formulated. Five themes and 57 projects were formulated to respond to the identified constraints/opportunities. A document on research themes and sub-themes for coffee in the ECA sub-region was prepared for discussion by stakeholders. A regional stakeholders workshop was then organised at the Nairobi Safari Club between 27 th and 29 th October 2004 to deliberate on the outcome of the constraint analysis and build consensus on the constraints/opportunities within the regions coffee sub-sector and the requisite themes, sub-themes and projects to alleviate the constraints. The workshop was attended by 42 stakeholders representing farmers, processors, marketers, regulatory bodies, policy makers, civil society, and development partners. Keynote presentations on the three sub-sector studies: production processing and research systems, coffee markets and marketing systems and socio-economic analysis, provided the background information for the stakeholders. The themes and projects identified by the priority setting committee were then subjected to rigorous analysis through group and plenary discussions and consensus reached on priority constraints and opportunities. Testing and evaluation of coffee Based on the outcomes of the stakeholder discussions, the original 57 projects were merged into ten broad based subthemes as follows: Policy advice and advocacy Variety improvement and germplasm enhancement Coffee processing chain enhancement Coffee market intelligence and forecasting Information and communication management Coffee zonation for improved productivity and quality Coffee Information database Capacity building & Industry Partnership/Linkages Integrated Production and Pest Management systems Improved Coffee grading and marketing systems 16

17 Description of the Sub-themes 1. Policy advice and advocacy The thrust of the sub-theme was to formulate policy frameworks that facilitate cost effective production, processing and marketing of coffee from the sub-region. Issues considered under the sub-theme included availability of infrastructure for post harvest handling of coffee during transit and storage, improved market access, sustainable funding of coffee research and taxation policies. 2. Variety improvement and germplasm enhancement Variety improvement and germplasm enhancement concerned two principle aspects of variety development. The first aspect dealt with conservation and use of indigenous coffee germplasm. In this respect, the sub-theme focused on the comprehensive evaluation and characterisation of Coffea germplasm resident in the sub-region and to identify traits of economic significance for incorporation into the future coffee breeding programs. The second aspect of the sub-theme concerned the development of high yielding high quality improved varieties with resistance to diseases prevalent in the regional concern such as the coffee berry disease and the coffee wilt disease 3. Coffee processing chain enhancement The sub-theme targets efficiency of the processing chain in delivering quality coffee and in safeguarding the integrity environmental. It incorporates improvement of human and physical capacity in coffee processing, documentation of installed capacity vis-à-vis the regions production potential and promotion of better and environmentally friendly processing techniques for both the wet and dry systems. 4. Coffee market intelligence and forecasting The concern of the sub-theme is the provision of a futuristic outlook of the global coffee industry in terms of production, processing and marketing thus enabling proactive thereby giving the necessary support to researchers, policy makers and growers. It will entail monitoring indicators of potential diseases and pest epidemics, changes in economic and policy environment and potential changes in production and prices. 5. Information and communication management Information and communication management focused on the formulation of effective extension strategies for the coffee-based farming systems empowering farmers to seek, access and effectively use modern information and technologies/innovations. Documentation and management of indigenous knowledge on production, processing and marketing of coffee also formed part of the sub-theme 6. Coffee zonation and mapping The sub-theme was inspired partly by the success of the French wine industry through their marketing strategy based on controlled origins- Appellation d origine contrôle. Likewise, the need to develop scientific basis for scaling up of technologies across frontiers necessitates the development of maps for coffee production systems incorporating disease and pest prevalence, fertiliser recommendation zones and potential mixed cropping systems segregated for varieties, altitude, longitudes and coffee types Such maps would also act as a marketing tool by delineate zones producing coffee with unique characteristics and develop management systems for sustainable production of appellation coffee. 7. Coffee Information database The ECA sub-region does not have a reference source of information where growers, policy makers and scientist can source information hence facilitate more informed decision-making. Growers in the sub-region are particularly disadvantaged in this respect, making their bargaining power weak. The sub-theme therefore targeted generation and storage of information on cost of production of various coffee-based farming systems, optimum shade cover and sustainable systems, optimum carrying capacity for coffee and livestock in a mixed farming system, economic farm and society units in addition to the conventional production and market statistics. 8. Capacity building & Industry Partnership/Linkages 17

18 Lack of specialised human capacity is a universal feature of the coffee research systems in ECA. The institutions are particularly weak in the fields of processing and marketing. These specialisations are more frequently available in the private sector. This sub-theme was therefore formulated as a ways of catalysing public-private sector partnerships in coffee research and to make coffee research in the sub-region more market driven. 9. Integrated Production and Pest Management systems Sustainability is a crucial element of coffee business worldwide. Collapse in most of the coffee production systems in the sub-region resulting from the decade-long rock-bottom world coffee prices indicates that the high-input, high-output production systems in the sub-region are not sustainable. To correct this situation, the sub-theme targets Integrated Pest and Production Management (IPPM) system for sustainability and risk management in the smallholder sector. 10. Improved Coffee grading and marketing systems Except for the case of Uganda, Robusta coffee has benefited less in respect to bean and liquor quality control standards. The sub-theme therefore targets modalities for integrating liquor classification in the grading of Robusta coffee from the sub-region. Additionally, standardisation of coffee bean grading and liquor quality classification for the various types of coffees produced in the sub-region to facilitate exchange of information will be undertaken within the framework of the sub-theme. 18

19 Chapter 6: Priority-Setting among Sub-Themes Arising from the stakeholder discussions, the original five themes and 57 projects were condensed into ten broad subthemes. The ten sub-themes were then prioritised based on the ASARECA-wide criteria of Economic growth, Social welfare, Quality of the environment, Regionality and Capacity building. The following meanings were given to the various sub-criteria with respect of priority setting exercise for CORNET: 1. Increasing Value of production (farm-gate) means increase in payment received by a coffee grower in exchange for cherry, kiboko or parchment coffee (fully liberalsed systems) OR Increase in net earnings accrued from coffee sold through an auction system (partially liberalised markets) 2. Increasing value added (post farm) means increase in coffee value as a result of improved quality due to either wet of dry processing, handling, grading or classification 3. Increased food security means reduction in the risk of food shortages at household level either as a result of improved purchasing power or due to increased availability of home grown staple food 4. Improving equity means enhanced access to wealth by the less advantaged or vulnerable groups e.g. women or children/young adults 5. Increasing soil quality means enhancing the carrying capacity of soil through improved soil fertility and/or reduced soil degradation 6. Improved water management means reduced water wastage through conservation measures such as water harvesting and runoff. 7. Increasing research capacity means improved capacity to conduct appropriate research resulting from improved manpower capacity through training and improved research infrastructure 8. Increasing development capacity means increased in diversity of agro-industries in a coffee-based system 9. No. of countries currently/potentially affected means the number of countries in which given constraint/opportunity already exist OR the number of countries which would be affected by a given constraint if remedial measures are not effected OR the number of countries which stand to benefit from the results of a given interventions 10. Potential for improved regional integration means increase in free cross-boarder flow of goods and services resulting from given research interventions No additional sub-criteria were added. The sub-criteria on increased smallholder income was considered by stakeholders to be discriminatory against medium and large scale growers and was hence generalised to accommodate all categories of farmers. The sub-criteria on improved vegetative cover was considered irrelevant in most coffee technologies and was also removed. The workshop therefore adopted the score sheet and sub-criteria weights as shown in Table 4 Each sub-theme was scored against the given sub-criteria on a scale of with scores above 55 considered to be of high priority. 19

20 Table 4: Score sheet for priority setting among sub-themes Criteria Sub criteria Criteria Wt Subcriteria wt Group Name/Number Economic growth Social welfare Environmental quality Capacity development Regional integration Increasing value of production (farmgate) 16 Increasing value added (post farm) Increasing food security 11 Improved equity Increasing soil quality 9 Improved water management/use Increasing research capacity 6 Increasing development capacity Number of countries currently or potentially affected 2 Potential for improved regional integration Total scores 100 Scoring of the sub-themes against the agreed criteria was carried out in groups. Group scoring was considered advantageous over individual scoring since it allowed for closer discussions among stakeholders thereby improving the understanding of each group member in respect to each sub-themes. This improved the ability of individual stakeholders to assess the potential benefits of the sub-themes in respect to each sub-criteria. Consensus on the significance of the sub-themes was therefore built at two levels, the group level and at plenary. Provision was made for mid-term plenary presentation during which each group rapporteur presented the interim results of their respective group to the plenary. This provided the opportunity to assess the accuracy of the exercise and to redirect the process where necessary. Final scores by each group were presented to the plenary. This was followed by plenary discussions, during which necessary clarifications were provided and amendments proposed. Overall scores for each sub-theme were then weighted using the agreed sub-criteria weights and an overall score computed. The sub-themes were subsequently ranked based on the final overall scores and the results subjected to plenary discussions.