Journal of. Adult Education

Transcription

1 Mountain Plains Adult Education Association Journal of Adult Education Information Series Number 1 Vol Issue Editors Jiuhan Huang, Ed. D. Assistant Professor, Regent University Deanna Nisbet, Ed. D. Associate Professor, Regent University Evie Tindall, Ed. D. Associate Professor, Regent University

2 Information Series Electronic publishing has dramatically changed how professional associations can provide services to their members. It provides a cost-effective way of providing information to the members. In order to expand its services to the members, the Mountain Plains Adult Education Association (MPAEA) is implementing with this issue a supplement to its traditional Journal of Adult Education. These supplements will form the journal s new Information Series. The Information Series of the Journal of Adult Education will be a series of publications on special topics to provide professionals with practical, research-based information that is focused on a specific topic. In addition to the regular publications of the journal, the Information Series expands the journal s purpose of serving as a voice for the translation of theory into practice for the membership of the Mountain Plains Adult Education Association (MPAEA). MPAEA is a professional association dedicated to the application of theory to practice in the learning-teaching transaction for adults. With the dissemination of the Information Series through sources such as EBSCO, ERIC, and ProQuest, the series also seeks to contribute to the knowledge base for other practitioners, researchers, and theorists working with adult learners. Each issue of the Information Series will focus on one central theme. With input from various sources, the editors of the Journal of Adult Education will select a topic for each issue of the Information Series. Authorities in this area then will be invited to be the editor for this issue. The special-edition-editor then contacts experts to author the various articles of the special issue and coordinates the development of the issue. The name of Information Series was specifically chosen for this series in order to honor two special adult educators who contributed much to the field and, more importantly, to the personal and professional development of their students and colleagues. These two outstanding individuals are John A. Niemi ( ) and Robert M. Smith ( ). As co-director of the ERIC Clearinghouse in Career Education with David V. Tiedeman at Northern Illinois University, Niemi created the Information Series as a publication to deal with special topics. The tenth publication in this series was Learning How to Learn in Adult Education by Robert M. Smith. Smith used this publication to initiate his formal inquiry of some of the components and implications of the "learning how to learn" concept. He later expanded these ideas in Learning How to Learn: Applied Theory for Adults, which received the first Cyril O. Houle World Award for Literature. Niemi and Smith were not only professional colleagues but also close personal friends. Together they encouraged others to constantly question the nature of the learning process and to systematically seek answers to intriguing questions. Although these two special men are no longer with us, this series is dedicated to their spirit of neverending personal, professional, and intellectual development. Gary J. Conti Rita C. Kolody Editors i

3 Editors Note Over the past 20 years, the immigrant population in the United States has experienced tremendous growth. According to a survey conducted by the Migration Policy Institute, immigrants comprised over 12% of U.S. residents and 15% of the workforce in As a result of the increase in the immigrant population, the need for adult educational services that provide English instruction has also increased. This increased need has presented many challenges to adult ESL teachers, who need to know how to help these learners acquire English proficiency and in many cases literacy. For adult English language learners, acquiring English can be a daunting task. These learners come from diverse backgrounds and have needs different from English language learners in K-12 settings. This special edition of the Journal of Adult Education aims to provide practical research-based strategies to ESL/EFL instructors who teach adults. Specifically, the articles in this special edition focus on research-based instructional practices that promote literacy for adult English language learners. Exploring the Essential Components of Reading provides an overview of the five foundational skills of reading. A description of the five components is accompanied by instructional considerations and recommendations for adult English language learners. The instructional recommendations found in the article can be easily adapted to any existing curriculum. Selection and Instruction of Vocabulary for Second Language Readers presents an overview of a framework which can be used by teachers to enhance and enliven vocabulary instruction in L2 reading classes. A Framework to Enhance Text Comprehension describes a structure designed to promote text comprehension. The components of the framework are interwoven with instructional principles for teaching English language learners. A comprehension-promoting instructional strategy is presented for each of the three components of the framework. In addition to the articles that outline research-based instructional practices related to reading comprehension and vocabulary development, we have also included two articles on strategies that specifically focus on form. Using Dialogue Journals to Focus on Form explains how dialogue journals can serve as a medium for both meaningful communication and focus on form. Specific strategies on how to provide an intensive focus on form as well as incidental corrective feedback are also provided. Grammar Instruction for Adult English Language Learners: A Task-Based Learning Framework explores using Willis task-based learning framework in grammar instruction for adults. This framework offers a grammar-instruction model for incorporating 10 principles of instructed language learning outlined by Ellis in It is our hope that the articles in this special ESL edition will provide teachers of adult English language learners with research-based strategies and best classroom practices that promote literacy. We encourage teachers to try them out in the classroom and adapt them to fit their particular teaching contexts. Jiuhan Huang Deanna Nisbet Evie Tindall Information Series Issue Editors ii

4 Journal of Adult Education Information Series, No. 1 Vol. 39, 2010 Table of Contents Exploring the Essential Components of Reading Evie Tindall, Deanna Nisbet This article presents an overview of the five essential components of reading accompanied by instructional considerations and recommendations for teaching adult English language learners Vocabulary Instruction for Second Language Readers Deanna Nisbet This article presents an overview of a framework which can be used by teachers to enhance and enliven vocabulary instruction in second language reading classes A Framework to Enhance Text Comprehension Evie Tindall This article presents a framework designed to guide reading instruction for teachers and enhance text comprehension for adult English language learners Using Dialogue Journals to Focus on Form Kimberly Miller Linnell This article describes how dialogue journals can serve as a medium for both meaningful communication and focus on form. Specific strategies on how to provide intensive focus on form as well as incidental corrective feedback using the dialogue journals are also provided Grammar Instruction for Adult English Language Learners: A Task-Based Learning Framework Jiuhan Huang This article first gives a historical perspective of grammar instruction. It then describes how using Willis Task-Based Learning Framework in grammar instruction is aligned with many of the 10 principles of instructed language learning outlined by Ellis. The article also includes sample task-based lesson outlines that incorporate the framework Copyright 2010 by the Mountain Plains Adult Education Association. The MPAEA Journal of Adult Education is an official publication of the Mountain Plains Adult Education Association. It is published twice annually with periodic special issues in its Information Series. Editorial office: Rita C. Kolody, Human Resource Training & Development, Campus Box 8081, Idaho State University, Pocatello, ID 83209; kolorita@isu.edu or (208) iii

5 Journal of Adult Education Information Series, No. 1 Vol. 39, 2010 Exploring the Essential Components of Reading Evie Tindall Associate Professor Regent University Deanna Nisbet Associate Professor Regent University Abstract Teachers of adult learners of English as a second language (ESL) have increasingly encountered students with limited literacy skills in their native language and/or in English. Yet, many of these practitioners are not adequately equipped to meet the challenge of teaching reading, especially beginning reading skills. Although there is a paucity of empirical research on teaching reading to adult ESL students, a body of research does indicate that research-based strategies that are effective for native speakers of English are also beneficial for second language learners, provided that appropriate modifications are made. In 2000, the National Reading Panel pinpointed five essential components for success in reading for native speakers as well as ESL students. This article provides a description of these components accompanied by instructional considerations and recommendations for teaching reading to adult English language learners. Essential Components of Reading Over the past two decades, teachers of adult learners of English as a second language (ESL) have increasingly encountered students who have limited literacy skills in their native language and/or in English (Burt, Peyton, & Adams, 2003; DelliCarpini, 2006). A recent report by the Center for Adult English Language Acquisition (CAELA) Network (2008) draws attention to the large number of lower proficiency learners enrolled in adult education ESL programs nationwide. According to this report, of the approximately 1.1 million adults who participated in federally-funded ESL programs across the U.S. during the academic year, 48% were enrolled in beginning or literacy-level ESL classes (CAELA Network, 2008). This statistic reveals the critical need for ESL reading instruction which is specifically designed to foster literacy development. Many ESL practitioners, however, have not been adequately prepared to meet the challenge of teaching beginning reading skills to adults (DelliCarpini, 2006). Because most Teaching of English to Speakers of Other Languages programs do not emphasize literacy instruction for adult second language learners, ESL teachers may find themselves having to search out resources on their own once they are faced with the need. A review of the literature reveals a lack of empirical research regarding effective practices for teaching lowliteracy adult ESL students to read. However, research regarding best practices in reading instruction for K-12 English language learners provides some important considerations. The National Reading Panel (2000) reports that research-based strategies which are effective 1

6 with native speakers of English are also beneficial for second language learners, provided that modifications are made to accommodate the unique strengths and needs of this population (see Goldenberg, 2008; Nation, 1993). In other words, it is recommended that teachers employ scientifically-based strategies and make adjustments to those strategies based on the unique linguistic and cultural distinctions of second language learners. In order to facilitate adult second language learners literacy development, ESL teachers need substantial understanding of the reading process. This article presents an overview of the five essential components of reading. Within the discussion of each component, instructional considerations and recommendations are offered for teaching adult second language learners. The five essential components of reading are interrelated and work in concert to extract the essence of reading, which is gaining meaning from text. These critical components of reading include (a) phonological awareness/phonemic awareness, (b) word study/ phonics, (c) vocabulary, (d) fluency, and (e) comprehension (National Reading Panel, 2000). Phonological/Phonemic Awareness Definition/Description Phonological awareness is an all-encompassing term for hearing sounds in spoken language. Specifically, it refers to combined sounds as found in compound words, rhyming words, syllables, and onset-rimes. Students listen for (a) the parts of compound words (/basket//ball/); (b) the rhyme in words (/h/ill/ and /m/ill/), (c) syllables in words (/de//fine/); and (d) onsets and rimes (/h/ /and/). Single sounds called phonemes are also included under the umbrella of phonological awareness. Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear and manipulate individual sounds in words. For example, the word, am, has two phonemes, /a/ /m/ while the word, look has three, /l/ /oo/ /k/. Phonemic awareness activities are totally auditory. Pictures can be used to represent the word, but print is never present. Students listen for the number of sounds, identify the first, middle, and last sounds in words, and manipulate sounds to make new words. Phonemic awareness, the most complex phonological skill, is important to the reading process because of its association with improvement in reading and spelling (Ehri, Nunes, & Willows, 2001). Significance for Second Language Learners Ample evidence points to the importance of phonemic awareness in promoting reading for second language learners of alphabetic as well as nonalphabetic languages (DelliCarpini, 2006; Wagner, Torgesen, & Rashotte, 1994). Learners who have acquired this skill in their native language can apply this ability to another language (Cicero & Royer, 1995; Comeau et al., 1999). Moreover, possession of phonemic awareness skills in one language predicts reading ability in another language (Lindsey, Manis, & Bailey, 2003). Instructional Considerations Although the acquisition of phonological skills is essential in learning to read in English, a number of barriers may exist: (a) limited or no exposure to English or sounds in English, (b) limited or no engagement with phonemic awareness activities, (c) possible presence of a reading difficulty, (d) absence of literacy in the native language, and (e) incongruence with English symbol system in the native language. Regarding the last two items, Antunez (2002) reports that second language learners who are not literate in their native language or those who have learned a different symbol system such as Chinese or Arabic may have difficulty learning the sounds of spoken English. Initially, these students may be unable to hear or produce the sound in English. Regardless of the aforementioned barriers, phonological/phonemic awareness can be taught. For adult learners, an efficient and effective way to incorporate these skills into an existing curriculum is to include phonological and/or phonemic awareness activities when explicitly teaching vocabulary. For example, if a targeted vocabulary word is carpenter, the 2

7 teacher would (a) say the word, carpenter; (b) provide a meaningful sentence with a picture: A carpenter built the table; (c) offer a user-friendly definition: A carpenter is one who builds with wood; and (d) conduct a phonological awareness activity: Listen to the word, carpenter: /car/ /pen/ /ter/. The teacher claps with each syllable as it is spoken. Then to maximize interaction with the word during the phonological activity, the following interactions with the word are recommended: (a) teacher model, (b) student responses with teachers, (c) student echo response, (d) student choral response, and (e) student partner response. If a vocabulary word is only one syllable, then a phonemic awareness exercise is appropriate. The instructional sequence and various interactions would be the same as for carpenter except that the focus would be on the single sounds and manipulating the sounds. For the word, tool, the teacher would say the word slowly, not stopping between each sound, (/t//oo//l/). A clap would be heard for each sound. Definition/Description Word Identification Reading words requires a number of word identification strategies such as phonics, onset/rimes, morphemic analysis, and contextual analysis. Phonics is a method of teaching the predicable relationship between English sounds (phonemes) and symbols (graphemes) to decode words. Phonics instruction usually occurs in the beginning stages of reading in English when students learn how sounds and letters correspond to one another and use this knowledge to read and spell. For example, when encountering the word, fish, students would recall the sound segments /f/ /i//sh/. Onsets and rimes are the predictable word patterns in English. The onset is a consonant or consonant cluster that precedes the rime or spelling pattern. For example, in the word, same, s is the onset and ame the rime. Onset and rime instruction focuses on predictable word patterns. Word building is accomplished by changing the onset to read or spell multiple words. For example, if the student knows the rime ack, he or she can read and spell many new words by manipulating the onset: back, sack, black, slack. Morphemic analysis is another word identification strategy employed to read unfamiliar multisyllabic words. A morpheme is the smallest word part with meaning. Prefixes, suffixes, and root words are considered morphemes. To illustrate, regaining has three morphemes: (a) the prefix, re; (b) the root word, gain; and (c) the suffix, ing. When encountering multisyllabic words, students recognize affixes and root words as an aid to word identification as well as word meaning. Yet another word identification strategy is contextual analysis. With this strategy, students use the clues in the surrounding context to determine the unfamiliar word and its meaning. Types of clues found embedded in the context include definitions, appositives, function indicators, examples, synonyms, antonyms, and descriptions. The following sentence illustrates the use of a descriptive definition as a context clue to read the word, neighbors: The Perez family lived next door to the Jones family; they were neighbors. Typically, the previously described word identification strategies operate automatically and in concert with one another. For example, a beginning reader in English may use phonics, onset and rime, contextual analysis, and pictures accompanying the text to read unknown word. A more mature second language reader may also draw from visuals but focus more on morphemic and contextual analysis. Significance for Second Language Learners Instruction in word identification strategies offers two major benefits for second language learners. To begin, it equips these learners with effective decoding strategies. Concerning phonics in particular, Denton, Antony, and Parker (2004) maintain that second language learners who receive phonics instruction as part of a comprehensive reading program usually develop stronger foundational reading skills. Continuing in this vein, Koda (1999) reports that phonics instruction should improve reading in general for adult 3

8 English language learners. Additionally, teaching word identification strategies provides an opportunity for second language learners to understand how the English language works. This is particularly helpful because of the many inconsistencies encountered when learning English. Instructional Considerations According to Robertson (2009), students who are literate in their native language have an advantage over students who are not. This is because similarities in learning to read transfer across languages. In this instance, teachers can help students make connections between the native language and the second language. Conversely, students who have not learned to read in their native language or students whose native language does not use a phonetic alphabet may have difficulty learning phonics. The differences in the orthography of the native language influence the degree of difficulty experienced by second language learners and the length of time required to learn to read in English (Linan- Thompson & Vaughan, 2007). For adults most word identification strategies are better taught in conjunction with teaching vocabulary in context. Words can be systemically analyzed by using the following multi-step Difficult Word Strategy. This strategy has two sections. The first section is intended for second language learners in the beginning stage of learning to read in English. The second segment targets learners who are in the primary and intermediate stages of reading in English. This multi-step strategy provides for variability of strategies and reading stages. When second language learners encounter unknown words, teachers can (a) model the strategy, (b) guide second language learners as they practice the strategy and internalize the steps, and (c) monitor second language learners as they use the strategy. Once learners have internalized the strategy and its appropriate use, they can apply the strategy as they work with partners or in small groups. The steps to The Difficult Word Strategy are as follows: The Difficult Word Strategy When encountering an unknown word, students can ask the following questions: For beginning readers: Analyze the Word (What do I know?) 1. What sounds do I know? (phonetic analysis) 2. What parts of the word do I know? (word patterns) Use Context (What can I use to help?) 1. Look at the pictures. 2. Take all the clues and read to the end of the sentence. 3. Does the word make sense in this sentence? (contextual analysis) For primary and intermediate readers: Analyze the Word (What do I know?) 1. What parts of the word do I know? (word patterns and morphemic analysis) Use Context and Other Resources (What can I use to help?) 1. Take all the clues including any visuals and read to the end of the sentence. Does the word make sense in this sentence? (contextual analysis) 2. Use a dictionary 3. Ask someone. (Adapted from the Variability Strategy, Gunning, 2004) Definition/Description Vocabulary Simply stated, vocabulary is knowledge of words and their meanings (Lehr, Osborn, & Hiebert, 2005). In reading, knowing a word involves being able to decode written text and comprehend its meaning. 4

9 Significance for Second Language Learners Researchers and practitioners alike attest to the critical role of vocabulary in reading comprehension for both native speakers and second language learners (Blachowicz, Fisher, Ogle, & Watts-Taffe, 2006; Coady, 1997; National Reading Panel, 2000). Without sufficient vocabulary, it is impossible to successfully read for meaning. Instructional Considerations Second language learners often benefit from the use of cognates in learning English. A cognate is a word which is similar in both form and meaning to a word in another language that originates from the same source (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992). For example, the following words are cognates of the English word adventure: Spanish, aventura; Italian, avventura; French, aventure; Romanian, aventura, and Portuguese, aventura. Since cognates are similar in regard to both spelling and meaning, learners who know the Portuguese word aventura, for example, can draw on prior knowledge from their native language when encountering the English word adventure for the first time in written text. Cognates are particularly beneficial for native speakers of Romance languages, which are derived from Latin (e.g., French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, and Spanish). This is due to the many borrowings of Latin in the English language. It is important to note, however, that transfer of cognate knowledge is not automatic; that is, teachers need to make learners aware of the powerful tool that is at their disposal and demonstrate how native language vocabulary knowledge can be applied in figuring out the meaning of related English words (August, Carlo, Dressler, & Snow, 2005; August & Shanahan, 2008; Goldenberg, 2008). In addition, teachers and students need to recognize that not all words which appear to be similar in the native language and second language are actually cognates; some are false cognates. False cognates are similar in form but have different meanings, as illustrated in the pairs of Spanish/English words below: Spanish bizarro (meaning brave ) and English bizarre (meaning strange ) Spanish éxito (meaning success ) and English exit (meaning departure ) These types of words can be a significant source of confusion for second language learners; therefore, it is recommended that teachers provide explicit instruction on commonly-occurring false cognates in addition to teaching cognates. The procedure outlined below was developed by Rodriguez (2001) as a means of helping ESL students learn to identify cognates and use context clues in reading English texts. While the procedure was designed for use with native speakers of Spanish, it can be effectively implemented with learners from other language backgrounds that share cognates with English as well. 1. Have students read the text silently or aloud to a partner, and then discuss the meaning of the text with the partner. (Note: Alternatively, the read aloud and discussion can be done in a small group.) 2. Discuss the vocabulary of the text with the whole class, focusing on cognates and other words figured out through context. Have students discuss strategies or clues that they used to determine meaning. Point out common spelling patterns in the two languages (e.g., English words that end in the suffix -tion in English end in -cion in Spanish, as in conversation / conversacion). 3. Discuss grammatical differences between the two languages (such as word order and placement of adjectives) and make generalizations about English (e.g., adjectives come before the noun in English whereas they come after the noun in Spanish). 4. Read the text aloud while students follow along. Have students listen for words that they recognize orally. Note: In this step, the teacher models pronunciation, and students have the opportunity to simultaneously hear and see the words, some of which may be in their oral vocabulary. 5

10 5. Read a similar text with Germanic-based words in place of the cognates. Compare the two texts, discussing vocabulary. 6. Direct students attention to non-cognates and other words that cannot be figured out by using context clues. Provide additional clues to help students guess the meaning; then clarify any points that remain unclear. (Rodriguez, 2001) Definition/Description Fluency According to the National Reading Panel report (2000), fluency is reading accurately, quickly, and expressively. These three critical elements work together to produce fluent readers. Fluent readers recognize and comprehend words simultaneously while making sense of the text as they read. Significance for Second Language Learners Fluency is important to second language learners for three main reasons. First, it is the critical connection between word reading and comprehension. Second, fluency is an essential aspect of reading comprehension (Robertson, 2009). Students who labor over reading words and determining word meaning have little attention and energy left to devote to extracting meaning from the text. Lastly, fluency practice may promote increased reading achievement (Kruidenier, 2002). Instructional Considerations Learning to speak English first positively influences reading fluency (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). Interestingly, second language learners can be fluent readers while retaining a native language accent. On this note, Atunez (2002) warns teachers against confusing fluency with accent. Fluency problems may be more common with second language learners because they are apt to have more difficulty with word meaning. Thus, second language learners may be slower readers (Linan- Thompson & Vaughn, 2007). Fluency in oral reading in adults may be made more difficult by native language interference at each level of reading, from letter-sound relationship, to stress, intonation, and rhythm (Burt, Peyton, & Van Duzer, 2010). For this reason, many second language learners need numerous opportunities to hear English read aloud. Additionally, these students require plenty of practice and support as they attempt to improve reading fluency. Two strategies that develop fluent reading are repeated oral readings and tape-recorded readings. These strategies can be easily incorporated into an existing adult curriculum. Repeated readings involve students rereading phrases, sentences, or designated short passages of text numerous times. The material selected for rereading should be interesting to the students and should be on their independent reading level, which means they are able to read 95% of the words accurately. With second language learners, repeated readings require teacher support through (a) modeling fluent oral reading, (b) having the students read orally with the teacher, (c) having students orally echo read, and (d) having students orally read alone accompanied by monitoring with a designated feedback routine. The second strategy, tape-recorded readings, involves learners listening to a carefully selected recording and then reading along with the tape. One benefit of the tape recording is that students can listen to a native speaker reading and practice reading with the tape as many times as they deem necessary. Definition/Description Comprehension Reading comprehension, or extracting meaning from text, is the focus of all reading engagement. Individuals must read print with fluency, possess adequate prior knowledge and vocabulary, and own and appropriately apply research-based comprehension strategies. Irvin (1986) conceptualizes comprehension as the interaction between the reader and the text; the reader activates prior knowledge and experiences in addition to drawing from clues within the text to make 6

11 meaning. To arrive at meaning, good readers intentionally interact with what they already know and activate comprehension strategies that enable them to extract meaning from text. Significance for Second Language Learners Second language learners who comprehend what they have read are then able to engage in verbal interactions as well as write about what they have read. This provides opportunities to use academic language and engage in higher order thinking. Both English language proficiency and content knowledge are enhanced. Instructional Considerations August (2003) suggests that limited word knowledge, unfamiliar language structures, and unfamiliar content affect reading comprehension for second language learners. Interestingly, unfamiliar content impedes comprehension more than unfamiliar language structure (Carrell, 1994). Because values, beliefs, experiences, and concepts vary across cultures, cultural factors may also interfere with comprehension of text (Burt, Peyton, & Van Duzer, 2010). To address linguistic barriers, Hiebert et al. (1998) suggests previewing student texts to ascertain unfamiliar critical vocabulary and language structures and then preteaching and discussing unfamiliar features including literal and figurative meanings. Regarding cultural factors, Burt, Peyton, and Van Durez (2010) recommend discovering what adult second language learners know, need to know, and want to know and at every opportunity building on ideas and concepts from students cultures and experiences. Whenever possible, teachers should provide culturally familiar materials. Comprehension is enhanced for both young and adult learners when they read culturally familiar content (August, 2003). Conclusion The five areas of reading addressed in this article (phonological awareness/phonemic awareness, word study/phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension) are foundational components of the reading process. For native speakers and second language learners alike, the skills underlying each of these areas are critical to reading success. It is important to note that some learners, particularly those with a literacy foundation in their native language, will benefit primarily from targeted instruction in specific areas of difficulty. To that end, the recommendations and strategies presented here are designed to be easily integrated with existing instruction and curriculum. The content of this article can serve as a resource for teachers who desire to more effectively address the reading challenges of the everincreasing population of low-literacy adult second language learners. References Antunez, B. (2002). Implementing reading first with English with English language learners (Directions in Language and Education #15). Washington, DC: National Institute of Education. August, D. (2003). Supporting the development of English literacy in English language learners: Key issues and promising practices. Baltimore, MD. Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed At Risk. August, D., & Shanahan, T. (Eds.). (2008). Developing reading and writing in second-language learners: Lessons from the report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. New York: Routledge, the Center for Applied Linguistics, and the International Reading Association. August, D., Carlo, M., Dressler, C., & Snow, C. (2005). The critical role of vocabulary development for English language learners. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 20(1), Blachowicz, C., Fisher, P., Ogle, D., & Watts-Taffe (2006). Vocabulary: Questions from the classroom. Reading Research Quarterly, 41(4), Burt, M., Peyton, J. K., & Adams, R. (2003). Reading and adult English language learners: A review of the 7

12 research. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics. (ERIC Document No. ED ) Burt, M., Peyton, J., & Van Duzer. (2010). How should adult ESL reading instruction differ from ABE reading instruction? Washington, DC. Center for Adult English Language Acquisition (CAELA) at the Center for Applied Linguistics. Carrell, P. (1994). Schema theory and ESL reading: Classroom implications and applications. Modern Language Journal, 68, Center for Adult English Language Acquisition (CAELA) Network. (2008). Education for adult English language learners in the United States: Trends, research, and promising practices. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement. (2001). Put reading first: The research building blocks for teaching children to read. Washington, DC: The Partnership for Reading: National Institute for Literacy; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development; and U.S. Department of Education. Cicero, C., & Royer, J. (1995). The development of cross-language transfer of phonological awareness. Journal of Contemporary Education Psychology, 20, Coady, J. (1997). L2 vocabulary acquisition through extensive reading. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition (pp ). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Comeau, L., Cormier, P., Grandmaison, E., & Lacroix, D. (1999). A longitudinal study of phonological processing skills in children learning to read in a second language. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, DelliCarpini, M. (2006). Early reading development in adult ELLs. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 10(2), Denton, C., Anthony, J., & Parker, R. (2004). Effects of two tutoring programs on the English reading development of Spanish-English bilingual students. Elementary School Journal, 104, Ehri, L.C., Nunes, S. R., Willows, D.M., Schuster, B. V., Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T. (2001). Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel s meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36, Goldenberg, C. (2008, Summer). Teaching English language learners: What the research does - and does not - say. American Educator, 32(2), Gunning, T. G. (2004). Creating literacy instruction for th all children (5 ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Harris, T. L., & Hodges, R. E. (Eds.). (1995). The literacy dictionary: The vocabulary of reading and writing. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Hiebert, E. H., Pearson, P.D., Taylor, B.M., Richardson, V., Paris, S.G. (1998). Every child a reader: Applying reading research to the classroom. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement, University of Michigan School of Education. Hinkel, E. (2006). Current perspectives on teaching the four skills. TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), Irvin, J. W. (1986). Teaching reading comprehension processes. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Koda, (1999). Development of L2 intraword orthographic sensitivity and decoding skills. Modern Language Journal, 83, Kruidenier, J. (2002). Research-based principles for adult basic education reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy. Retrieved April 8, 2010 from publications/pdf/applyingresearch.pdf. Lehr, F., Osborn, J., & Hiebert, E. H. (2005). A focus on vocabulary. Research-Based Practices in Early Reading Series Product #ES0419. Retrieved Feb 5, 2010 from ES0419. htm. Lindsey, K., Manis, F., & Bailey, C. (2003). Prediction of first-grade reading in Spanish-speaking English language learners. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, Linan-Thompson, S. & Vaughn, S. (2007). Researchbased methods for reading instruction for English language learners (Grades K-4). Alexandria, VA: 8

13 Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Marshall, B. (2002). Preparing for success: A guide for teaching adult English language learners. Washington, DC & McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics & Delta Systems. Nagy, W. E., & Scott, J. A. (2000). Vocabulary processes. In M.L. Kamil, P.B. Mosenthal, P.D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 3, pp ). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Nation, I. S. P. (1993). Vocabulary size, growth, and use. The Bilingual Lexicon, 6, Robertson, K. (2009). Reading 101 for English language learners. Retrieved April 8, 2010 from Rodriguez, T. A. (2001). From the known to the unknown: Using cognates to teach English to Spanish-speaking literates. The Reading Teacher, 54(8), Snow, C., Burns, S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Wagner, R., Torgesen, J., & Rashotte, C. (1994). Development of reading related phonological processing abilities: New evidence of bidirectional causality from latent variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 30, Evie Tindall is an associate professor in the TESOL Program at Regent University, Virginia Beach, VA. Deanna Nisbet is an associate professor and the director of the TESOL Program at Regent University, Virginia Beach, VA. 9

14 Journal of Adult Education Information Series, No. 1 Vol. 39, 2010 Vocabulary Instruction for Second Language Readers Deanna L. Nisbet Associate Professor Regent University Abstract Over the past 20 years, research has consistently affirmed the importance of explicit vocabulary instruction for adult learners of English as a second language (ESL). Given the significant vocabulary demands faced by adult second language readers, ESL teachers must carefully target their instruction for maximum impact and to foster meaningful connections for learners. This practical resource guide for designing and implementing effective vocabulary instruction provides an overview of a three-tiered vocabulary framework, followed by specific recommendations for selecting and teaching vocabulary in the adult second language classroom. Examples of strategies for brief instruction and elaborate instruction are given. Introduction The strong connection between vocabulary and reading comprehension among second language learners is well documented and enduring (Nation, 2005; National Reading Panel, 2000). Researchers, English as a second language (ESL) teachers, and students have long recognized the importance of vocabulary development as a foundation for second language reading. Over the past 20 years, research regarding effective teaching practices has consistently shown that second language learners actually benefit more from explicit vocabulary instruction than from incidental vocabulary learning through wide reading (Hinkel, 2006; Nation, 2005; Sokmen, 1997). This is partially explained by the fact that the language demands of wide reading are substantial and potentially overwhelming for second language learners. In fact, Hu and Nation (2000) report that a second language reader needs to know 98% of the words in a text in order to be able to read it unassisted (i.e., without the aid of a dictionary or other resource) and to effectively guess the meanings of unknown words from context. This means that second language learners can normally succeed in navigating passages containing 1 unknown word in 50. Nation (2006) verified the above findings and determined that a vocabulary base of word families is typically necessary for comprehension of written text such as a novel or newspaper. These statistics, though daunting, clearly portray the enormous task that lies before second language readers. The reality is that teachers simply cannot directly teach all of the words that their second language students need to master in order to become proficient readers. An additional consideration is that word knowledge is complex, multi-faceted, and incremental; thus, depth of understanding unfolds over time (Nagy & Scott, 10

15 2000). To illustrate, in order to truly know a word, a learner must be able to (a) define it, (b) decode and spell it, (c) pronounce it, (d) know its multiple meanings (including common and specialized meanings), and (e) be able to ascertain and apply the appropriate meaning in a particular context (Calderon, 2007; Nagy & Scott, 2000). ESL teachers, then, need to carefully target their instruction for maximum impact. This article is designed as a practical resource for teachers of adult second language learners in that regard. Specifically, the article provides an overview of a three-tiered vocabulary framework, followed by specific recommendations for selecting and teaching vocabulary in the adult second language classroom. A Vocabulary Framework Beck, McKeown, and Kucan (2002) present a useful framework for classifying vocabulary and making instructional determinations regarding which words to teach and how to effectively teach them. According to this model, vocabulary within a given reading selection can be grouped into three tiers with Tier 2 words being the most productive for explicit, in-depth instruction. Tier 1 words are the commonly-occurring, basic words of English; these are lexical items that native speakers of a language easily recognize, such as map, uncle, tall, sing, and dog. Tier 2 words are academic vocabulary and other lexical items which appear frequently across a variety of domains. Words such as coincidence, industrious, and investigate fall into this category. Tier 2 words are typically essential for understanding the meaning of a text. Finally, Tier 3 words are lowfrequency words such as amoeba, isotope, or lathe, which are often discipline-specific. A more detailed overview of the three tiers of words, with specific commentary regarding the language of second language learners (Calderon, 2007) is provided below. Tier 1 Words Tier 1 words are the most basic, commonlyoccurring words in English. Many of the Tier 1 words are easily recognized by native speakers of English but not necessarily by second language learners. Adult second language learners typically know the concepts of these words, as well as the labels for them in their native language. They may not, however, know the English labels. To illustrate, consider the word, dog, which is translated as perro in Spanish. A native speaker of Spanish who knows the word perro simply needs to learn the corresponding English label, dog. The meaning of Tier 1 words can often be conveyed using visuals, realia, gestures, or demonstration. Teachers can also provide or allow students to obtain a native language translation. A key consideration here is that the meaning of Tier 1 words should be conveyed quickly and clearly so that connections between students native language and second language knowledge are fostered. Tier 2 Words Tier 2 words are high-frequency words in the speech of mature, proficient users of English. This category includes academic vocabulary and other words which appear across a variety of domains (e.g., analyze, redundant, significant). Multiple-meaning words, which have specialized meanings in particular disciplines, also fall within this category. Examples include table, cell, and ring. Adult second language learners may be familiar with the common or general meaning of these words, but they may need to learn the specialized meaning. Tier 2 words are typically critical for comprehending the meaning of a text. Additionally, these words add richness and depth to a learner s vocabulary and, therefore, powerfully impact the verbal functioning of second language learners. For these reasons, Tier 2 words are ideal choices for explicit, elaborate instruction. Tier 3 Words Tier 3 words are low-frequency words, often associated with specific disciplines. They tend to be highly technical and precise in meaning. As such, they may be essential words for second language learners to 11

16 understand when reading technical or expository material, but they do not have broad, general utility. Thus, Tier 3 words should be directly taught only in relation to a specific reading selection and only when they are essential for comprehension of that particular text. With adult learners, native language translations can be used to quickly convey the meaning of Tier 3 words. Selecting Vocabulary for Explicit Instruction Clearly, different words within a given text require varying degrees of instructional focus in the classroom; some words warrant in-depth teaching, whereas others can be adequately addressed with a brief demonstration and/or explanation. To illustrate, because Tier 2 words are often critical for comprehension of a reading selection, they are optimal choices for elaborate instruction. At the same time, however, some Tier 1 and 3 words which are crucial to understanding a particular text should also be directly taught. With these points in mind, Beck, McKeown, and Kucan (2002) propose the following procedure for selecting vocabulary words for classroom instruction: 1. Identify a text or passage to be read by your students. 2. List all of the vocabulary that will likely be unfamiliar to your students, and classify each one according to tier. 3. Analyze the word list, using the following questions as a guide: (a) Which words are Tier 2 words? (b) Which Tier 2 words are the most necessary for comprehension of the text? (c) Does the reading selection contain other words (Tier 1 and/or Tier 3) that are needed for comprehension? If so, which ones? 4. On the basis of your analysis, determine which words you will teach, prioritizing those words that are critical for comprehension of the text and of high utility to your students. 5. From this list, decide which words will require only brief instructional attention and which ones warrant more elaborate instruction. (p. 30) As outlined above, it is recommended that teachers first identify all vocabulary that needs to be taught and then determine the type of instruction that is appropriate for each word (i.e., brief vs. elaborate instruction). When making these instructional determinations, it is beneficial for teachers to consider the following set of questions about each word which needs to be taught, regardless of tier: 1. Is the word concrete? Can it be demonstrated? 2. Is it a cognate in the language(s) of your second language learners? Note: A cognate is a word which is similar in both form and meaning in two or more languages (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992). Consider the following cognates for the English word, territory: Spanish, territorio; Portuguese, territorio; Italian, territorio; Romanian, teritoriu; and French, territoire. For native speakers of Romance languages, many Tier 2 and Tier 3 words are cognates in English. Some Tier 1 words are also cognates. 3. Is it a high utility word? (Will students likely encounter it in other written text?) 4. Is it a polysemous (multiple-meaning) word? If yes, is a common meaning used in the text, or is a more technical or specialized meaning being used? 5. How does this word relate to other vocabulary, or to ideas/themes that students know or have been learning about? (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002; Calderon, 2007) Words which are concrete and can be demonstrated, as well as words which are cognates in the language(s) of your students are good choices for brief instruction. On the other hand, high utility words, polysemous words with specialized meanings, and words which relate to other vocabulary or content in a particular class should be considered for elaborate instruction. Recommended strategies for the two types of instruction are presented in the section to follow. 12

17 Recommended Strategies Strategies for Providing Brief Instruction Nation (2005) recommends the following techniques for quickly drawing attention to the meaning of words: (a) using an L1 [native language] translation, (b) using a known synonym, (c) showing an object or picture, (d) giving a quick demonstration, (e) drawing a simple picture or diagram, (f) breaking the word into parts and giving the meaning of the parts and the whole word (the word part strategy), (g) giving several example sentences with the word in context to show the meaning, (h) commenting on the underlying meaning of the word and other referents. (p. 47) One additional possibility is to model the use of an online dictionary or similar resource (e.g., to look up a particular word. Using dictionary.com, for example, teachers and students can quickly access the meaning of a word, hear it pronounced, view lists of synonyms and antonyms, read usage information, and view sample sentences using the word in context. Many Tier 1 words and some Tier 2 words can easily be addressed using the above techniques. When students know a particular word in their native language, learning an English label is a relatively straightforward, easy process. A second way in which learners can benefit from brief, explicit instruction is through the direct teaching of cognates (August, Carlo, Dressler, & Snow, 2005; Calderon, 2007). Teachers can provide a quick focus on cognates that occur in a reading passage by using the following procedure: (a) identify a list of any known cognates from the reading selection, (b) write the list of cognates on the board (in the native language), and (c) ask students to search for the English cognate within the reading selection. Alternatively, teachers can ask students to identify and jot down possible cognates themselves while reading a selection of text or listening to the teacher read aloud (Colorin Colorado, 2007). Students lists can then be discussed in class with the teacher prompting learners to share their own insights regarding similarities and differences between the English word(s) and the native language word(s). Strategies for Providing Elaborate Instruction The following procedure, which is adapted from Beck, McKeown, and Kucan (2002) and from Calderon (2007), is highly effective for teaching Tier 2 words and other lexical items which warrant elaborate instruction: 1. Say the word in English (and in the primary language in bilingual classes). 2. State the word in context (as it appears in the text). 3. Provide a learner-friendly definition for the word. Note: Teachers should create this definition by (a) thinking about what specific elements make the word different from other words and (b) using everyday language which is comprehensible to students. 4. Provide an additional example of a phrase or sentence using the word in order to clarify meaning. 5. Ask students to repeat the word (at least 3 times) to build a phonological representation of the word. 6. Have students become engaged with the word through brief, lively activities which deal with the word s meaning(s). Note: These activities can take many forms, provided that all students are required to use the word and demonstrate that they comprehend its meaning(s). Calderon (2007) recommends that each student be required to say the word aloud and hear it several times spoken by others. 7. Have students say the word again as a group, first in isolation and then in context (as stated within the text). At this point, students may also be asked to spell the word. 8. Plan to incorporate the newly-learned word in post-reading activities. (See the Tindall article in this volume for an overview of the reading framework.) (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002; Calderon, 2007) This procedure can be incorporated into the regular 13

18 routine of a daily or weekly class session. Calderon (2007) recommends teaching 6-7 vocabulary words per day (or class session) using this method, varying the oral language activities to maintain learners interest and provide ongoing challenge. Of course, the exact number of words selected for instruction will depend on students overall English proficiency, reading abilities, and difficulty level of the text to be read that day. Examples of activities for engaging second language learners with the word (step #6 above) include thinkpair-share, choral response to targeted questions, wholeclass discussion (with learners responding quickly as answers come to mind), and more. A few sample activities recommended by Beck, McKeown, and Kucan (2002) are provided below (pp ). Idea Completions Have students complete sentence stems which require them to draw on their knowledge of the word s meaning to explain a situation. To illustrate, for the word virtuoso, students might be asked to complete the sentence, The audience asked the virtuoso to play another piece of music because Similarly, for the word alarmed, the following prompt might be used: The accountant was alarmed when she opened the safe because Applause, Applause Have students clap to indicate how much they would like to be described by a particular adjective (not at all, a little, or a lot). A few examples are miserly, gregarious, and gullible. Students then explain why they responded as they did. Have You Ever Students respond to a prompt such as, Describe a time when you might ( refuse something, negotiate with someone, or commend someone ). In an alternate version of this technique, students respond to the question, Have you ever ( had an outlandish idea? or felt ambivalent? ). Students then elaborate and explain their responses. In either version of this activity, students have the opportunity to connect the new word with their own experiences and begin to integrate it into their working vocabulary. Other similar types of questions, prompts, and activities can be developed by teachers, based on the specific learning needs and interests of their adult second language readers. Questions beginning with when, why, or how are particularly effective for helping students make connections to their own prior knowledge. Conclusion Beck, McKeown, and Kucan s (2002) three-tiered vocabulary framework is a valuable tool for teachers use in identifying words for explicit instruction in adult ESL classes. By classifying words into the three tiers, teachers can then make informed decisions regarding the type of instruction that is warranted (either brief or elaborated), and select appropriate strategies. The recommendations provided in this article can help teachers streamline their instruction and maximize their impact in the vital area of vocabulary development for adult second language learners. References August, D., Carlo, M., Dressler, C., & Snow, C. (2005). The critical role of vocabulary development for English language learners. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 20(1), Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: The Guilford Press. Calderon, M. (2007). Teaching reading to English language learners, Grades Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Colorin Colorado (2007). Using cognates to develop comprehension in English. Retrieved from background/cognates. Hinkel, E. (2006). Current perspectives on teaching the four skills. TESOL Quarterly, 40(1),

19 Nagy, W. E., & Scott, J. A. (2000). Vocabulary processes. In M.L. Kamil, P.B. Mosenthal, P.D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 3, pp ). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (NIH Publication No ). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Nation, I. S. P. (2005). Teaching vocabulary. Asian EFL Journal, 7(3), Nation, I. S. P. (2006). How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? The Canadian Modern Language Review, 63(1), Nation, I. S. P. (2008). Teaching vocabulary: Strategies and techniques. Boston, MA: Heinle. Sokmen, A. (1997). Current trends in teaching second language vocabulary. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp ). New York: Cambridge University Press. Deanna L. Nisbet is an associate professor and the director of the TESOL program at Regent University in Virginia Beach, VA. 15

20 Journal of Adult Education Information Series, No. 1 Vol. 39, 2010 A Framework to Enhance Text Comprehension Evie Tindall Associate Professor Regent University Abstract Adult learners of English as a second language attend classes with various goals in mind with the most common being gainful employment. To obtain their goals, these learners must successfully acquire language and literacy in English. This can be a daunting task for English language learners as well as their teachers. Goal-oriented adult learners may be interested in learning to read in English and highly motivated to read; yet, they still require skillful and informed instruction. This literacy-based article addresses text comprehension, which is the culmination of all reading engagements. The article describes a threefold reading framework, which is accompanied by instructional principles and research-based strategies known to enhance text comprehension for English language learners. Introduction For adult learners of English as a second language, learning to read in English is a type of passepartout or master key to open doors leading to the attainment of their various goals. The most common of these aspirations is gainful employment. Other goals include (a) involvement in their children s education, (b) acquisition of U. S. citizenship, (c) participation in community activities in English, and (d) pursuit of further education (Marshall, 2002). According to Comings, Parella, and Soricone (2000), adult English language learners with specified literacy goals are highly interested in reading and motivated to read. Teachers of English language learners have a unique opportunity to help these learners meet their literacy goals by providing skillful and research-based instruction in reading, particularly in the area of text comprehension. With this in view, this article presents an instructional framework designed to enhance text comprehension. Additionally, each section of the framework includes specific guidelines for teachers and a research-based instructional strategy designed to promote text comprehension for adult English language learners. Overview of the Reading Framework The reading framework is a teaching structure consisting of three main components. The first is a preparation phase for teachers and students. The second involves student reading, and the third includes all that follows student reading. Typically, the three sections are referred to as pre-reading, during reading, and postreading. These components function interdependently and flow one to another to complete a total reading 16