Lessons of a Bull Moose:

Transcription

1 Lessons of a Bull Moose: The Remarkable Leadership of Theodore Roosevelt Katie Davis Abstract Theodore Roosevelt once wittily referred to himself as a Bull Moose. Although he was not intentionally referring to his character or his leadership, this image vividly portrays his tenacity, strength, and dedication as a leader. His remarkable qualities transformed the office of the executive and initiated a new era of presidential leadership. Roosevelt s term as president provides a compelling example of a skillful leader s ability to enact positive change within an environment of opposition. Following a brief overview of Roosevelt, an in-depth analysis of Roosevelt s leadership qualities in terms of power sources, servant, moral, and charismatic leadership theories is made to demonstrate the unprecedented nature of his term in office. Katie Davis is a sophomore at Christopher Newport University. She is working toward a double major in History and Political Science, with a double minor in Leadership and American Studies. Katie is a member of the President's Leadership Program, the Honors Program, and the Campus Activities Board, and serves her community as a volunteer at the Mariners' Museum. ULR Volume I Issue 1 8

2 Introduction to Theodore Roosevelt Theodore Roosevelt, his striking personality, and his unconventional philosophy of power stormed into the office of the presidency on September 14, Prior to this date, Roosevelt s many interests gave him a varied resume of governmental service, including work in the New York legislature and the U.S. Civil Service Commission. In addition, he served as the assistant Secretary of the Navy, a soldier in the Spanish-American War, the governor of New York, and the Vice President of the United States (Burton, 1997; Riccards, 1995). Through each occupation, Roosevelt developed the skills which would characterize his leadership. As President of the United States, Roosevelt s interests and skills were most aptly applied, and his most remarkable traits were outstandingly displayed (Burton, 1997). Roosevelt served as vice president for William McKinley, who was assassinated by an anarchist on September 6, 1901 (Milkis & Nelson, 1994). To soothe the minds of Republicans, when Roosevelt was sworn in as president several days later, he announced he would continue McKinley s policies. Confident in his own abilities, Roosevelt later proclaimed, If a man is fit to be President he will speedily so impress himself in the office that the policies pursued will be his anyhow, and he will not have to bother as to whether he is changing them or not (p. 206). An examination of his daring, unusual actions in office provides compelling evidence that Roosevelt was indeed fit to be President. As president, Theodore Roosevelt greatly expanded the role of the executive in the United States government, making him the first modern president (Burton, 1997, p. 45). Roosevelt was considered a progressive because of his commitment to social and economic reform, which had been largely absent from the political platforms of previous Republican presidents. However, Roosevelt s divergence from traditional party values caused him to face immense opposition from Republicans in Congress. Roosevelt was particularly effective due to his ability to commit to his vision of moderate reform despite opposition from his own party members (Milkis & Nelson, 1994). In addition, Roosevelt s strong leadership provided direction to a changing conception of the United States in the international realm and the role of government in the lives of the people (Burton, 1997). In Roosevelt s expansion of the role of the president, he considered himself a steward of the people bound actively and affirmatively to do all he could for the people (Milkis & Nelson, 1994, p. 207). Roosevelt was confident that, in his role as president, it was his duty to pursue policies that were in the best interest of all Americans. Roosevelt pushed the limits of presidential power and was reigned in only by the clear limitations of the Constitution. Roosevelt s commitment to the American people led him to such revolutionary actions as the regulation of big business and the imperialistic assertion of American might throughout the world. Quite remarkably, Roosevelt upheld his promise not to run for a third term when the time came in Unlike many before him, Roosevelt loved his job, and lamented, The burdens will be laid aside with a good deal of regret (Riccards, 1995, p. 24). Roosevelt s decision to step down, despite his reluctance, illustrated his commitment to the Constitution and his respect for the American tradition of a two-term presidency (Milkis & Nelson, 1994). Despite stepping down, Roosevelt hand-selected his Republican successor, William Howard Taft. However, there were dramatic differences in personality and philosophy between Roosevelt and Taft, which would later cause Roosevelt to re-evaluate his decision to step down. Taft was trained in the law and had great respect for it, and he scoffed at Roosevelt s apparent disregard for the procedures and traditions of government. While Roosevelt believed the president could ULR Volume I Issue 1 9

3 do anything not expressly forbidden by the Constitution, Taft believed the president could do only what the Constitution or statutes expressly permitted (Riccards, 1995). While Roosevelt placed immense emphasis on the role of the president as a steward of the people, Taft proclaimed there is no undefined residuum of power which [the President] can exercise because it seems to be in the public interest (Milkis & Nelson, 1994, p. 225). These immense disparities led to Roosevelt s decision to run for president against Taft in 1912 as a candidate under the Progressive Party. This caused a split in Republican votes and ultimately secured the election of Democrat Woodrow Wilson. Despite losing the election, Roosevelt s decision to run again demonstrated his intense commitment to presidential stewardship, even in the face of revered national traditions. Roosevelt s extraordinary leadership provides a compelling example of an individual s ability to enact enormous change in a large nation. In particular, his strong dedication to the well-being of the American people demonstrates the potential of service-minded leaders to extend equity and fairness to an immensely diverse group. Roosevelt s willingness to go to great lengths to pursue higher purposes is still a relevant model of leadership in the modern world. As the first modern president (Burton, 1997, p. 45), Roosevelt had the foresight to recognize the future path of the United States and took the initiative to accomplish what he believed was in the country s best interest. An analysis of Roosevelt s leadership using modern leadership theory provides an exemplar of leadership that continues to be relevant for leaders in today s organizations. Overview of Leadership Models and Analysis of Theodore Roosevelt s Leadership Legitimate and Referent Power French and Raven (as cited in Hughes, Ginnett, & Curphy, 1995) identified certain bases of power, including legitimate and referent power, to explain the process by which one individual may be able to influence another. Legitimate power is derived from one s formal or official organizational role. Leaders in certain positions are vested with the power and responsibility to achieve particular objectives. Effective leaders can skillfully utilize their legitimate power to make significant achievements for the organizations they lead. Referent power, on the other hand, is the ability one has to influence others due to a relational bond between leaders and followers. When leaders foster strong relationships with their followers, followers are often more willing to trust and respect their leader s decisions. Theodore Roosevelt placed an immense emphasis on the power of his position as leader of the United States. Roosevelt s achievements would never have been possible without his legitimate power. As president, he was in the most beneficial position to achieve his vision for the United States: the transformation of the executive branch into an agent of social and economic reform (Milkis & Nelson, 1994, p. 208). In foreign affairs, Roosevelt used his legitimate power to its greatest extent, acting even more decisively and with greater authority than he did in domestic matters. Essentially, as Roosevelt himself said, When nobody else could or would exercise efficient authority, I exercised it (Milkis & Nelson, 1994, p. 220). He recognized the United States position as a rising world leader and believed the country would come to be greatly influential in world affairs (Riccards, 1995). However, when Roosevelt entered office, he was faced with international capabilities that included an unexceptional navy and an unorganized military establishment. According to ULR Volume I Issue 1 10

4 Milkis and Nelson (1994), Roosevelt realized that the role of the United States in international relations would require an expansion of the executive s power. Congressional actions are often long and tedious, but the actions of a powerful executive could be decisive and immediate. In Latin America, Roosevelt was committed to the vision of a canal which would connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. He was aware of the strategic benefits this would provide for the United States. In order to accomplish this goal, Roosevelt guaranteed Panamanian independence from Colombia, offering American support in this endeavor, which then ensured American control of the Panama Canal Zone. In Asia, Roosevelt mediated a conflict between Russia and Japan in the Russo-Japanese War. This was an unprecedented endeavor, for the United States had no official involvement in the conflict. Roosevelt s patient, tactful and brilliant diplomacy (Milkis & Nelson, 1994, p. 223) in this undertaking won him the Nobel Peace Prize (Riccards, 1995). Additionally, to further assert the position of the United States in international affairs, Roosevelt sent the American naval battle fleet on a tour around the world (Milkis & Nelson, 1994). This action sent a powerful message to the rest of the world, demonstrating America s new military and technological might. Roosevelt also fostered a relationship of referent power with the American people, never failing to attend to his position as a steward of the people (Milkis & Nelson, 1994, p. 207). Through Roosevelt s progressive philosophy of New Nationalism, he declared it was the responsibility of the government to secure the nation s social and economic welfare (Milkis & Nelson, 1994). As he explained the policy years later, I acted for the public welfare, I cared for the common well-being of all our people, wherever and in whatever manner was necessary, unless prevented by direct constitutional or legislative provision (Milkis & Nelson, 1994, p. 208). When he needed support for revolutionary policies, particularly those involving the regulation of big business, Roosevelt appealed to the public for their support. Throughout his presidency, Roosevelt sought to act in the best interest of all Americans, using whatever means required. This caused him to push the boundaries of constitutional and legislative provisions in order to achieve his goals. On this matter, Roosevelt commented, I did not usurp power, but I did greatly broaden the use of executive power (Riccards, 1995, p. 27). The distinguishing characteristic of republican government is the public election of representatives who are to pursue the will of those who selected them. However, it is also the role of the legislative branch to check the actions of the executive branch, especially when it seems to be asserting too much power. Although Roosevelt pushed the boundaries of his role as executive, the fact that he was pursing the will of the people placed immense pressure on Congress to yield. Roosevelt s unique relationship with everyday Americans bestowed greater legitimacy upon his unprecedented exercise of executive power. Servant Leadership Robert K. Greenleaf (1995) asserts the great leader is seen as servant first, (p. 19), which is the basis for a model of leadership known as servant leadership. According to Greenleaf, this dedication to service is the critical component of the success of many leaders. Servant leaders are ultimately successful because of their intense commitment to their constituents. They challenge pervasive injustice with greater force (p. 20) and are dedicated to pursing great visions through their service to a cause. Servant leaders are selfless, thoughtful individuals who put the needs of others before their own needs. Roosevelt was passionate about service and sought to serve Americans through the political offices he held throughout his career (Burton, 1997). The bold actions Roosevelt made ULR Volume I Issue 1 11

5 while in office were driven by his desire to uphold the will of the people and to extend equity and fairness to all Americans. As a steward of the people, Roosevelt proclaimed a Square Deal for all Americans. This policy pursed the maintenance of a just balance between the rich and the poor, the businessmen and the workers (Milkis & Nelson, 1994, p. 215). During the time of Roosevelt s presidency, the two major groups in contention were opulent big businessmen and poverty-stricken workers. While Roosevelt did not want to destroy business, he wanted to make conditions fairer for Americans at the bottom. Big business triumphed throughout the Gilded Age of the late 1800s. Now into the 20 th century, Roosevelt desired to curb this institution s excessive power and wealth. However, Roosevelt recognized big business was largely an inevitable reality and could be advantageous in the long run for American society (Riccards, 1995). To effectively respond to this force, he believed the government needed to abandon its laissez-faire economic policy and assume its rightful role in a new and changing economic environment. Roosevelt worried that if corrupt big businessmen were left unchecked, they would threaten the authority of the government and the precious connection between the citizens and their leaders. Such attacks, Roosevelt said, become inevitable if decent citizens permit rich men whose lives are corrupt and evil to domineer in swollen pride, unchecked and unhindered, over the destinies of the country (Milkis & Nelson, 1994, p. 207). As a strong advocate of the relationship between the president and the people, Roosevelt strove to do everything in his power to prevent this from happening. Roosevelt was a firm opponent of the vulgar wealth ostentatiously displayed by big businessmen. He said, Of all the forms of tyranny the least attractive and the most vulgar is the tyranny of mere wealth (Riccards, 1995, p. 8). Roosevelt and other members of his social class believed one s wealth should be used modestly to help the community in need. As president, Roosevelt recognized the average man has very little and struggles for a decent life, whereas the greatest hardship for the wealthy is the struggle for greater profits (Milkis & Nelson, 1994). In his efforts to curb the excesses of big business, Roosevelt enacted revolutionary reforms and regulation policies. The Hepburn Act of 1906 strengthened the power of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), allowing it to regulate railroad shipping rates for the first time. The ICC was also vested with the power to forcefully ensure compliance with its regulations (Milkis & Nelson, 1994). The Hepburn Act made it extraordinarily difficult for big businesses to set unreasonable shipping prices which would pressure already poor groups like farmers. The Hepburn Act is considered to be landmark legislation in the regulation of private industry. In the Northern Securities Case of 1904, Roosevelt became one of the first presidents to utilize the previously dormant Sherman Anti-Trust Act to break up a railroad monopoly (Riccards, 1995). In the Coal Strike of 1902, Roosevelt became the first president to recognize the rights of laborers in a business dispute (Milkis & Nelson, 1994). Furthermore, he used peaceful arbitration rather than military force to settle the strike. His unprecedented actions in this situation and his unwillingness to resort to violence provide a powerful image of Roosevelt s extraordinary leadership. Through his commitment to service, Roosevelt was able to make remarkable reforms which greatly furthered the well-being of many Americans. Moral Leadership James MacGregor Burns theory of moral leadership asserts leaders and led have a relationship not only of power but of mutual needs, aspirations, and values (Burns, 1995, p. 483). Moral leaders assume responsibility for the commitments they make, and take on a leadership role in the effort to bring about the change they promise to others. According to Burns, ULR Volume I Issue 1 12

6 moral leadership produces social change that satisfies the needs of followers. Individuals who pursue moral leadership aspire to serve the deepest needs of followers regardless of obstacles. Throughout history, there have been powerful leaders who have posed a great danger to the people they lead, with the horrors of the Third Reich serving as a particularly poignant example. However, while Roosevelt expanded executive power further than any previous president, he was extremely careful to use his power for positive, moral ends. Roosevelt never explicitly violated the law or the Constitution, though he did push legal boundaries in the interest of what he believed to be higher purposes (Gould, 1991). Despite his radical vision of reform, Roosevelt was careful to utilize prudent measures with the greatest potential for success. He utilized cautious strategies to achieve daring goals and conservative means to achieve radical ends. Roosevelt recognized the immense importance of developing visions, saying I too am a dreamer of dreams (Burns & Dunn, 2001, p. 102). However, he warned that such visions are worthless unless they can be realized. During Roosevelt s presidency, the corruption of food and drug companies and meatpacking plants became increasingly apparent. Roosevelt had already made a commitment to expanding the regulatory power of the federal government with the Hepburn Act of 1906, which regulated railroad shipping rates (Gould, 1991). Similar to the Hepburn Act, Roosevelt proposed the pure food and drug legislation to combat what he perceived as the immoral, corrupt actions of big businessmen. As with the Hepburn Act, this legislation faced opposition from many members of Congress. Both the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act were passed in 1906, largely due to Roosevelt s powerful appeals to the American people to gain their support for legislation which would have a clearly positive impact on them. The Pure Food and Drug Act made it unlawful to manufacture contaminated or mislabeled food and drugs, and the Meat Inspection Act regulated the appalling conditions of meat-packing plants (Milkis & Nelson, 1994). In this instance, Roosevelt exhibited the qualities of a moral leader by committing his efforts to satisfy one of the most basic needs of his followers, the need to have safe food and medicine. Roosevelt possessed a strong commitment to strength of character and what he perceived as the moral purpose of the presidency (Riccards, 1995). According to Roosevelt, character is the sum of qualities essential to moral efficiency [including] resolution, courage, energy, self-control, fearlessness in taking initiative and assuming responsibility, and a just regard for the rights of others (Burton, 1997, p. 47). Roosevelt s belief in the importance of strong character and morality caused him to initiate radical reforms in the civil service system. He strengthened the Civil Service Commission, giving it new powers to ensure employees were hired according to civil service regulations. Roosevelt used the expansion of the Civil Service Commission to strengthen the merit system for the hiring of civil service employees. Under the merit system, federal employees were hired based on their talents, abilities, and experience, not upon who they knew or how much money they had contributed to the political party in power. The Pendleton Act of 1883 had established the merit system, but Roosevelt pushed it almost to its limits. Roosevelt rejected the notion of a spoils system, where the president rewards party supporters with political jobs. By the end of Roosevelt s term in office, about 60 percent of the civil service was included in the merit system, and merit had begun to replace spoils entirely. Roosevelt s expansion of the merit system required presidential leadership to carefully manage the administration (Milkis & Nelson, 1994). Roosevelt stepped up to this challenge and successfully instilled new life the United States government (Gould, 1991). In this way, Roosevelt was committed to the bringing about of social change, which Burns (1995) asserts is a major responsibility of a moral leader. ULR Volume I Issue 1 13

7 The qualities Roosevelt portrayed as a moral leader also apply to another of Burns theories, that of transforming leadership. Burns (1995) asserts transforming leadership involves the elevation of both leaders and followers to higher levels of motivation and morality (, p. 101). Leaders and followers in this type of relationship are fused by a common purpose, which is often moral in nature. Roosevelt s commitment to moral actions through presidential stewardship had a profound effect on both the government and the American people. According to Gould (1991), Roosevelt was able to make the government an effective instrument in promoting the interests and needs of the people. Additionally, other individuals within the government were elevated due to Roosevelt s use of transforming leadership. Through use of the merit system, Roosevelt was able to trust the judgment and abilities of his subordinates, and bring many qualified individuals into government positions. Roosevelt was a strong and decisive administrator who evoked a high morale from his immediate subordinates, who relished the chance to work for such an inspiring executive (p. 222). As both a moral and a transforming leader, Roosevelt inspired his subordinates and everyday Americans, demonstrating the ability of the government to act as an agent of reform with the concerns and needs of every individual in mind. Charismatic Leadership David A. Nadler and Michael L. Tushman (1995) developed a model of charismatic leadership in which charisma is defined as an uncommon quality that enables a leader to mobilize and sustain activity within an organization (p. 108) through use of specific personal actions and characteristics. Nadler and Tushman divide charismatic leadership into three components: envisioning, energizing, and enabling. Envisioning requires the charismatic leader to develop a vision others can rally around. Energizing involves fostering action among followers to achieve the vision. Through enabling, the charismatic leader provides inspiration which facilitates the success of others regardless of obstacles. According to Burton (1997), charisma is a trait not easily analyzed, but a president lacking it is quickly identified as deficient, perhaps even unsuited to be a modern president (p.147). Roosevelt was a President who clearly exemplified charismatic qualities. Roosevelt s striking personality, temperament, and character contributed immensely to his national appeal (Gould, 1991). According to Riccards (1995), Roosevelt was a personality of the time; his family, his friends, his guests, his large teeth, his thick glasses, his big game hunting, and his horseback riding were sources of media attention and delight (p. 5). Roosevelt s fascinating personality significantly aided his effort to expand the responsibility and authority of the executive in the formation of public policy (Milkis & Nelson, 1994). Through his use of charismatic leadership, Roosevelt was able to appeal to the people and effectively guide public opinion. Roosevelt s term in office has been described (Milkis & Nelson, 1994) as the rhetorical presidency, during which he used popular rhetoric as an important technique in his leadership approach.. He is also considered the first president to use the bully pulpit, which involves the influencing of public opinion through the use of convincing, powerful speeches. According to Riccards (1995), Roosevelt used his public speeches to proclaim the gospels of good works, decent character, hard work, and social balance (p. 28). Roosevelt s charismatic qualities are possibly one of the most important aspects of his leadership. His ability to captivate an audience with his brash, unusual personality contributed greatly to the successes he achieved in office. His use of charismatic leadership was particularly advantageous for creating his important relationship of referent power with the American ULR Volume I Issue 1 14

8 people. While in office, Roosevelt faced immense resistance from Republicans in Congress who disliked his vision of reform. Once solidified through charismatic leadership, his relationship of referent power with the public allowed him to act as their steward, through which Roosevelt s stunning servant and moral leadership qualities were displayed. Ground-breaking legislation like the Hepburn Act, the Pure Food and Drug Act, and the Meat Inspection Act may not have been possible without Roosevelt s ability to enthrall the American people with his tremendous personality. Conclusion Theodore Roosevelt was immensely dedicated to the American people. Nowhere is his dedication more obvious than in a startling occurrence during his 1912 presidential campaign. On October 14, 1912 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Roosevelt was shot in the chest minutes before delivering a speech. Roosevelt resisted attempts to be rushed to the hospital and insisted on proceeding. It may be the last [speech] I shall ever deliver, he said, but I am going to deliver this one (Chace, 2004, p. 231). As he took the stage, he explained his condition to the audience, but defiantly declared, It takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose (p. 232). He proceeded to deliver a ninety minute speech. The Bull Moose image of Theodore Roosevelt is particularly fitting as it demonstrates his tenacity, strength, and dedication as a leader. Roosevelt s extraordinary notion of executive power significantly transformed the role of the modern presidency. He pushed presidential power to its limits in order to pursue what he perceived as the greatest needs of the American people. He had the foresight to recognize the changing role of the United States in world affairs, and acted decisively upon his observations. These unprecedented actions caused opposition from Congress, but Roosevelt used his remarkable leadership qualities to push forward. Through an unusual combination of legitimate power, a desire to serve the people, a strong commitment to morals, and outstanding charisma, Roosevelt was able to make significant social and economic reforms. He acted in a decisive, but considerate manner to repair the ills of American society and proclaim American might throughout the world. Most importantly, as a steward of the people, Theodore Roosevelt actively pursued the will of his followers, seeking their well-being in every decision he made. As the first modern president, Roosevelt left the office ultimately transformed, changing the notion of executive leadership from that of a meek figurehead, who stayed in his place, to an assertive, reform-minded leader who wasn t afraid to question precedent. ULR Volume I Issue 1 15

9 References Burns, J. M. (1995). Moral leadership. In J. T. Wren (Ed.), The leader s companion: Insights on leadership through the ages (pp. 483). New York: The Free Press. Burns, J. M. (1995). Transactional and transforming leadership. In J. T. Wren (Ed.), The leader s companion: Insights on leadership through the ages (pp ). New York: The Free Press. Burns, J. M., & Dunn, S. (2001). The three Roosevelts: Patrician leaders who transformed America. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. Burton, D. H. (1997). Theodore Roosevelt, American politician. London: Associated University Presses. Chace, J. (2004). 1912: Wilson, Roosevelt, Taft & Debs the election that changed the country. New York: Simon and Schuster. Gould, L. L. (1991). The presidency of Theodore Roosevelt. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. Greenleaf, R. K. (1995). Servant leadership. In J. T. Wren (Ed.), The leader s companion: Insights on leadership through the ages (pp ). New York: The Free Press. Hughes, R. L., Ginnett, R. C., & Curphy, G. J. (1995). Power, influence, and influence tactics. In J. T. Wren (Ed.), The leader s companion: Insights on leadership through the ages (pp ). New York: The Free Press. Milkis, S. M., & Nelson, M. (1994). The American presidency: Origins and development, Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly. Nadler, D.A., & Tushman, M. L. (1995). Beyond the charismatic leader: Leadership and organizational change. In J. T. Wren (Ed.), The leader s companion: Insights on leadership through the ages (pp ). New York: The Free Press. Riccards, M. P. (1995) The ferocious engine of democracy: A history of the American presidency. Lanham: Madison Books. ULR Volume I Issue 1 16