HANDBOOK ON SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE TREATMENT

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1 1 HANDBOOK ON SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE TREATMENT

2 2 SEWERAGE AND SEWAGE TREATMENT 1. PREAMBLE The standard specification prescribed in the Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment issued by Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation, Ministry of Urban Development, in December 1993, guidelines issued by Ministry of Environment and Forest Department, National River Conservation and guidelines prescribed by Chennai Metropolitan and Water Supply and Sewerage Board and TWAD Board on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment which are more useful for audit are given below: The Sewerage system consists mainly of :- i) Collection system (sewer, sewer appurtenances) ii) Conveyance system (pumping station, pumping main etc.) iii) Treatment plant 2. PLANNING (Chapter 1 of CPHEEO Manual) 1. Objective The objective of a public waste water collection and disposal system is to ensure that sewage or excreta and sullage discharged from communities is properly collected, transported, treated to the required degree and finally disposed of without causing any health or environmental problems. 2. Need for planning Planning is required at different levels; national, state, regional and community. Though the responsibility of various organizations in charge of planning public waste water disposal systems is different in each case, they still have to function within the priorities fixed by the national and state governments and to keep in view overall requirements of the area. The waste water disposal projects formulated by the various State sponsoring Authorities at present do not always contain all the essential elements for appraisal. When projects are assessed for their cost benefit ratio and for institutional or funding purposes, they are not amenable for comparative study and appraisal. Also at times different standards are adopted by the Central and State agencies regarding various design parameters. It is necessary therefore to specify appropriate standards and design criteria and to avoid different approaches 3. Basic Design considerations ( Para 1.3 of CPHEEO Manual) In designing waste water collection, treatment and disposal systems, planning generally begins from the final disposal point going backwards to give an integrated and optimum design Co suit the topography and the available hydraulic head, supplemented by pumping if essential.

3 3 Once the disposal points are tentatively selected, further design is guided by the following basic design considerations: a. Engineering b. Environmental c. Process d. Cost These considerations are discussed below in detail: a) Engineering Considerations ( Para of CPHEEO Manual) Topographical, engineering and other considerations which figure prominently in project design are noted below: 1. Design period, stage wise population to be served and expected sewage flow and fluctuations 2. Topography of general area to be served, its slope and terrain. Tentative sites available for treatment plant, pumping stations and disposal works 3. Available hydraulic head in the system up to high flood level in case of disposal to a nearby river or high tide level in case of coastal discharge or the level of the irrigation are to be commanded in case of land disposal 4. Ground water depth and its seasonal fluctuation affecting construction, sewer infiltration, structural design (uplift considerations) 5. Soil bearing capacity and type of strata expected to be met in construction 6. On site disposal facilities, including the possibilities of segregating the sullage water and sewage and reuse or recycle sullage water within the households b) Environmental Considerations: (Para of CPHEEO Manual) The environmental and socio-economic impacts of a sewage treatment plant may prove adverse during the operation stage. Therefore the following aspects should be considered during design. i) Surface water Hydrology and Quality ii) Ground water quality iii) Coastal water quality iv) Odour and Mosquito nuisance v) Public Health and vi) Land scaping c) Process Considerations: ( Para of CPHEEO Manual) Process considerations involve factors which affect the choice of treatment method, its design criteria and related requirements such as the following: i) Waste water flow and characteristics ii) Degree of treatment required iii) Performance characteristics iv) Other process requirements such as land, power operating equipments, skilled staff, nature of maintenance problems, extent of sludge production and its disposal requirements, loss of head through plant in relation to available head etc

4 4 d) Cost Considerations: ( Para of CPHEEO Manual) The overall costs (Capital and operating) have to be determined in order to arrive at the most optimum solution 4 Design Period ( Para 1.4 of CPHEEO Manual) Sewerage projects may be designed normally to meet the requirements over a thirty year period after their completion. The period between design and completion should also be taken into account which should be between three to six years depending on the type and size of the project. The thirty year period may however be modified in regard to certain components of the project depending on their useful life or the facility for carrying out extensions when required and rate of interest so that expenditure far ahead of its utilization is avoided. Necessary land for future expansion /duplication of components should be acquired in the beginning itself. Where expensive tunnels and large aqueducts are involved entailing large capital outlay for duplication, they may be designed for ultimate project requirements. The project components may be designed to meet the periods mentioned below: Design Periods For Components Of Sewerage System And Sewage Treatment (Table 1.1 of CPHEEO Manual) Sl. No. Component Recommended Design Clarification period in years 1 Collection System i.e. Sewer network 30 The system should be designed for the prospective population of 30 years, as its 2. Pumping stations (Civil Works) replacement is not possible during its use. 30 Duplicating machinery within the pumping station would be easier/cost of civil works will be economical for full design period. 3. Pumping Machinery 15 Life of pumping machinery is generally 15 years. 4. Sewage Treatment Plant 30 The construction may be in a phased manner as initial the flows may not reach the designed levels and it will be uneconomical to build the full capacity plant initially. (Refer Chapter 10.2). 5. Effluent disposal and utilization 30 Provision of design capacities in the initial stages itself is economical. 5. Population Forecast (Para 1.5 of CPHEEO Manual) The design population will have to be estimated with due regard to all the factors governing the future growth and development of the project area in the industrial, commercial, educational, social and administrative spheres. Special factors causing sudden immigration or influx of population should also be foreseen to the extent possible. A judgement based on these factors would help in selecting the most suitable method of deriving the probable trend of the population growth in the area or areas of the project from out of the following mathematical methods, graphically interpolated where necessary. The following are some of the methods prescribed by the CPHEEO for working out the projected population. a) Demographic method of Population Projection b) Arithmetical increase Method c) Incremental increase Method

5 5 d) Geometrical increase Method e) Decreasing rate of Growth f) Graphical method i) Graphical method based on single city ii) Graphical method based on cities with similar growth pattern g) Logistic Method h) Method of Density Note: Detailed procedure for estimating the population forecast given in Manual on Water Supply & Treatment may be referred to. Final Forecast: (Para of CPHEEO Manual) While the forecast of the prospective population of a projected area at any given time during the period of design can be derived by any one of the aforesaid methods appropriate to each case, the density and distribution of such population within the several areas, zones or districts will again have to be made with a discerning judgement on the relative probabilities of expansion within each zone or district, according to its nature of development and based on existing and contemplated town planning regulations. Wherever population growth forecast or Master plans prepared by town planning or other appropriate authorities are available, the decision regarding the design population should take their figures into account. The population estimate is guided by the anticipated growth rates of each community. These differ in different zones of the same town. A design period of 30 years (excluding construction period) is recommended for all types of sewers. (Para of CPHEEO Manual) Where a Master Plan containing land use pattern and zoning regulations is available for the town, the anticipated population can be based on the ultimate densities and permitted floor space index provided for in the Master Plan. In the absence of such information on population the following densities as suggested for adoption. (Para of CPHEEO Manual) Size of town (population) Density of population per hectare Up to 5, ,000 to 20, ,000 to 50, ,000 to 1,00, Above 1,00,

6 6 In cities where Floor Space Index (FSI) or Floor Area Ratio (FAR) limits are fixed by the local authority this approach may be used for working out the population density. FSI or FAR is the ratio of total floor area (of all the floors) to the plot area. The densities of population on this concept may be worked out as in the following example: Assume that a particular development plan rules provide for the following reservations for different land uses. Roads 20 % Gardens 15% Schools (including play grounds) 5% Markets 2% Hospital and Dispensary 2% Total 44% Area available for Residential Development (100 44) = 56 % Actual total floor area = Area for residential development x FSI Assuming an FSI of 0.5 and floor area of 9 m 2 /person Number of persons or density per hectare = 0.56x10,000x0.5 = Estimation of Waste Water Flow (Para 1.6 of CPHEEO Manual) There are two types of sewerage systems viz. i) Sanitary Sewer system, designed to receive domestic sewage and industrial wastes excluding storm water. Storm water sewers designed to carry 5 carry off storm water and ground water but excluding domestic sewage and industrial waste. ii) Combined sewer system is designed to receive domestic sewage, industrial wastes and storm water. The combined sewer system though economical initially suffers from several disadvantages and is normally not recommended. 1..Estimation of Sanitary Sewage: (Para 3.2 of CPHEEO Manual) The Sewer capacity to be provided must be determined from the analysis of the present and probable quantities expected at the end of design period. The estimation of flow is based upon the contributory population and the per capita flow of sewage both the factors being guided by design period as discussed below: a) Per capita Sewage flow : (Para of CPHEEO Manual) The entire spent water of a community should normally contribute to the total flow in a sanitary sewer. However, the observed Dry Weather Flow quantities (DWF) usually are slightly less than the per capita water consumption, since some water is lost in evaporation, seepage into ground, leakage etc. In arid regions, mean sewage flows may be as little as 40 percent of water consumption. In well developed areas, flows may be as high as 90 % due to industrial wastes, changed water use habits etc. Generally, 80 % of the water supply may be expected to reach the sewers unless there is data available to the contrary. However, the

7 7 sewers should be designed for a minimum waste water flow of 100 litres per cpaita per day. Industries commercial buildings often use water other than the municipal supply and may discharge their liquid wastes into the sanitary sewers. Estimates of such flows have to be made separately. The details of requirements of water for institutions and industries are discussed in Chapter 2 of Manual on Water Supply and Treatment. Industrial wastes have to be treated to the standards prescribed by the regulatory authorities before being discharged into sewers. For some areas, it is safe to assume that the future density of population for design purpose to be equal to the saturation density. It is desirable that all sewers serving a small area be designed on the basis of saturation density. Infiltration into sewer may occur through pipes, pipe joints and structures. The probable amount has to be evaluated carefully. b. Flow Assumptions : (Para of CPHEEO Manual) The flow in sewers varies considerably from hour to hour and also seasonally, but for the purposes of hydraulic design it is the estimated peak flow that is adopted. The peak factor or the ratio of maximum to average flow depends upon contributory population and the following values are recommended. These peak factors will be applied to the projected population for the design year considering an average wastewater flow based on allocation Contributory population Peak factor Up to 20, ,000 to 50, ,000 to 7,50, Above 7,50, The peak factors also depend upon the density of population, topography of the site, hours of water supply and therefore it is desirable to estimate the same in individual cases, if required. The minimum flow may vary from 1/3 to 1/2 of average flow. c Ground water infiltration : (Para of CPHEEO Manual) Estimate of flow in sanitary sewers may include certain flows due to infiltration of ground water through joints. The quantity will depend on workmanship in laying of sewers and level of the ground water table and permeability of the surrounding soil. Since sewers are designed for peak discharges, allowance for ground water infiltration for the worst condition in the area should be made. Suggested estimates for ground water infiltration for sewers laid below ground water table are as follows: Units Minimum Maximum Litres/Ha.d 5,000 50,000 Litres/Km.d 500 5,000 Lpd/manhole

8 8 With improved standards of workmanship and availability of various construction aids, these values should tend to the minimum, rather than the maximum. These values should not mean any relaxation on the water tightness test requirements. d. Effect of Industrial Waste Waste from industries can form an important component of sewage flow both in volume and composition. It is therefore necessary to collect detailed data about nature of industries, quantity and character of the waste and their variations, which may affect the sewerage system or the sewage treatment process. Quality and character of waste water are to be based on flow measurements and laboratory analysis of the composite samples. Estimation of Combined Sewer: : (Para 3.3 of CPHEEO Manual) Estimation of combined sewer includes flow of sanitary sewage and storm water run off Estimation of Storm water Run off Sanitary sewers are not expected to receive storm water. Strict inspection and vigilance and proper design and construction of sewers and manholes should eliminate this flow or bring it down to a very insignificant quantity. Storm runoff is that portion of the precipitation, which drains over the ground surface. Estimation of such runoff reaching the storm sewers therefore is dependent on intensity and duration of precipitation, characteristics of the tributary area and the time required for such flow to reach the sewer. The storm water flow for this purpose may be determined by using the rational method, hydrograph method, rainfall-runoff correlation studies, digital computer models, inlet method or empirical formulae. Of all these methods, the rational method is more commonly used. Rational Method (Para of CPHEEO Manual) The entire precipitation over the drainage district does not reach the sewer. The characteristics of the drainage district, such as, imperviousness, topography including depressions and water pockets, shape of the drainage basin and duration of the precipitation determine the fraction of the total precipitation which will reach the sewer. This fraction known as the coefficient of runoff needs to be determined for each drainage district. The runoff reaching the sewer is given by the expression, Q = 10 C I A Where Q is the runoff in m 3 /hr C is the coefficient of runoff I is the intensity of rainfall in mm/hr A is the area of drainage district in hectares 7 Survey and Investigation(Para 1.8 of CPHEEO Manual) Survey and investigation are pre-requisites both for framing of the preliminary report and the preparation of a detailed sewerage project. The engineering and policy decisions taken are dependent on the correctness of the data collected and its proper evaluation. It includes collection of basic information, project surveys and preparation of project report. 1. Basic information

9 9 It includes collection of datas relating to physical aspects (viz., topography, selection of sites for various components including disposal sites, subsoil conditions etc.,) developmental aspects (viz. type of land used, density of population, growth of population industries etc, existing drainage and sewerage facilities, flow characteristics, disposal rate etc) fiscal aspects (viz source of land, factors affecting the repayment of loan such as revenue etc) and other aspects likely to influence the project. 2. Project Surveys i) Preliminary project surveys This is concerned with the broad aspects of the project. Data on aspects such as capacity required, basic arrangement and size, physical features affecting general layout and design, availability of affluent disposal facilities, probable cost and possible methods of financing, shall be collected to prepare an engineering report describing the scope and cost of the project with reasonable accuracy. In framing such estimates, due consideration must be given to the escalation of prices of basic materials and their availability. While extreme precision and detail are not required in this phase all the basic data obtained must be reliable. ii) Detailed project surveys Surveys for this phase form the basis for the engineering design as well as for the preparation of plans and specifications for incorporation in the detailed project report. In contrast to preliminary survey this survey must be precise and contain contours of all the areas to be served giving all the details that will facilitate the designer to prepare design and construction of plans suiting the field conditions. It should include, interalia, network of benchmarks and traverse surveys to identify the nature as well as extent of the existing underground structures requiring displacement, negotiation or clearance. Such detailed surveys are necessary to establish rights of way, minimize utility relocation costs, obtain better bids and prevent changing and rerouting of lines. iii) Construction Surveys All control points such as base lines and bench marks for sewer alignment and grade should be established by the engineer along the route of the proposed construction. All these points should be referred adequately to permanent objects. a) Preliminary Layouts Before starting the work, rights-of-way, work areas, clearing limits and pavement cuts should be laid out clearly to ensure that the work proceeds smoothly. Approach roads, detours, by-passes and protective fencing should also be laid out and constructed prior to undertaking sewer construction work. All layout work must be completed and checked before construction begins. b) Setting Line and Grade The transfer of line and grade from control points, established by the engineers, to the construction work should be the responsibility of the executing agency till work is completed. 3) Project Report (1.9 of CPHEEO Manual) All projects have to follow distinct stages between the period they are conceived and completed. The various stages are:

10 10 a) Pre-investment Planning - Identification of a project - Preparation of project report b) Appraisal and Sanction c) Construction of facilities and carrying out support activities d) Operation and maintenance e) Monitoring and feed back Since project preparation is quite expensive and time consuming, all projects should normally proceed through three stages and at the end of each stage a decision should be taken whether to proceed to the next planning stage and commit the necessary manpower and financial resources for the next stage. Report at the end of each stage should include a time table and cost estimate for undertaking the next stage activity and a realistic schedule for all future stages of project development, taking into consideration time required for review and approval of the report, providing funding for the next stage, mobilizing personnel or fixing agency (for the next stage of project preparation) data gathering, physical surveys, site investigations etc. The basic design of a project is influenced by the authorities/organizations who are involved in approving, implementing, operating and maintaining the project. Therefore the institutional arrangements, through which a project will be brought into operation, must be considered at the project preparation stage. Similarly responsibility for project preparation may change at various stages. Arrangements in this respect should be finalized for each stage of project preparation. Some times more than one organization may have a role to play in the various stages of preparation of a project. It is therefore necessary to identify a single entity to be responsible for overall management and coordination of each stage of project preparation. It is desirable that implementing authority is identified and those responsible for operation of a project are consulted at the project preparation stage. Audit Approach Inter-alia the following points could arise: 1. Whether population forecast was worked out correctly and the estimate of waste water assessed correctly for the design period. Over estimation of population would lead to creation of infrastructure in excess of the actual requirement involving extra cost. Under assessment lead to creating additional infrastructure to meet the requirement of the full design life involving extra cost. 2. Cases where pump set designed for ultimate stage may be verified and extra cost involved on erection of pumpset and motor for ultimate stage instead of intermediate stage and also power consumption on higher capacity of motor may be worked out and commented. 3. Whether various components of sewerage system were designed and constructed for the stipulated designed period if not financial implication may be commented. 4. Whether detailed survey and investigation carried out and alignment for pumping main, sewer main fixed correctly taking into account topography of the ground and level difference needed for laying the sewers and location of outfall and disposal works. The following point could emerge (i) Cases where the sewage could not reach the collection well due to level differences

11 11 (ii) Cases of shifting the alignment due to various reasons (iii)cases where the pumping station and disposal site could not be located due to public objection or other reasons (iv) Whether investigation report specified the details of land required to be acquired or transferred to for the scheme. Cases where the schemes held up due to non assessment of the land required initially and incorporated in the Project report and subsequent delay thereof may be commented. 5. Whether funds for implementation of Project was identified before taking up the Schemes, cases where projects held up due to want of funds could be commented. 3. DESIGN OF SEWER AND APPURTENANTS 1 Design of Sewer(Chapter 3 of CPHEEO Manual) Sewerage system may be classified as sanitary sewers designed to receive domestic sewage and industrial waste excluding storm water. Storm sewers designed to carry off storm water and ground water but excluding domestic sewage and industrial wastes and Combined sewers designed to receive sewage, industrial waste and storm water. The combined system of sewerage though may be economical initially, suffer from several disadvantages such as sluggish flow during non-stormy days, leading to deposition of sewage, solids causing foul odours and increased cost of eventual sewage treatment or pumping cost, associated with disposal of sewage. In view of this, the combined system is normally not recommended. The design of sewer interalia included estimation of sanitary sewage, estimation of storm water runoff and hydraulic, of sewer; design of sewer system etc. The method for estimation of sewage and storm water runoff is discussed in the previous chapter. Hydraulics of Sewers (Para 3.4 of CPHEEO Manual) Flow in sewers is said to be steady if the rate of discharge at a point in a conduit remains constant with time and if the discharge varies with time it is unsteady. If the velocity and depth of flow are the same from point to point along the conduit, the steady open channel flow is said to be uniform flow and non-uniform if either the velocity, depth or both are changing. A properly functioning sewer has to carry the peak flow for which it is designed and transport suspended solids in such a manner that deposits in a sewer are kept to a minimum. The design for wastewater collection system presumes flow to be steady and uniform. The unsteady and non uniform waste water flow characteristics are accounted in the design by proper sizing of manholes Flow friction: (Para of CPHEEO Manual ) - The available head in waste water lines is utilized in overcoming surface resistance and in small part, in attaining kinetic energy for flow. For design purpose, Mannings formula for open channel flow and Hazen William and Darcy-Wcisback formula for closed conduit or pressure flow is used for working out the head loss due to friction Design criteria:- It is better practice to design sewers with partial full condition to provide ventilation and keeping sewage in fresh condition. Hence peak factor for design sewer shall range between 2 to 3.5. From consideration of ventilation in waste water flow, sewers should not be designed to run full. All sewers are designed to flow 80 percent of full ultimate flow. For design of sewer net work the slope and diameter of sewers should be decided to meet the following two conditions:

12 12 i. A self cleansing velocity is maintained at present peak flow ii. A sewer runs at 0.80 full at ultimate peak flow. Self cleansing velocity:- To ensure that deposition of suspended solids does not take place, minimum self cleansing velocities are required to be considered in the design. Hydraulic elements of circular sewers possess equal self cleansing properties at all depths. The self cleansing properties for different conduit are given below: i) Sanitary Sewer: For design peak flow 0.8 metre/sec For present peak flow 0.6 metre/sec ii) Open drain: to 0.9 metre/sec iii) Inverted siphon: metre/sec iv) Minimum velocity for force main: metre/sec Maximum permitted depth of flow: The pipes will be designed to flow at depth indicated below where the maximum permissible depth of flow in sewers for established velocity criteria: Diameter in Depth of flow which will convey mm (d) designed quantity Up to d 400 to d Above d Velocity: (Para of CPHEEO Manual) The flow in sewer varies from hour to hour and also seasonally. But for the purpose of hydraulic design, estimated peak flow is adopted. The size of Sewer is to have adequate capacity for the peak flow to be achieved at the end of design period so as to avoid steeper gradient and deeper excavation. It is desirable to design sewers for higher velocity wherever possible. The sanitary sewer is designed to obtain adequate scouring velocities at the average or at least at the maximum flow at the beginning of the design period for a given flow and slope. Velocity is little influenced by pipe diameter. The recommended slope for minimum velocity is given below which ensure minimum velocity of 0.60 metre/sec. Table 3.7 of CPHEEO Manual) Present peak flow (lps) Slope per 1000 m After arriving at slopes for present peak flows, the pipe size should be decided on the basis of ultimate design peak low and the permissible depth of flow. The minimum diameter of public sewer may be 150 mm. In hilly areas, where extreme slope are prevalent, the size of sewer may be 100 mm.

13 13

14 14 Maximum Permissible Velocity: Description Maximum permissible velocity Stoneware pipe 1.4 metre/sec Brick drain 1.8 to 2.1 metre/sec Concrete drain 2.5 metre/sec Cemented drain 3.0 metre/sec Cast Iron pipe 3.0 metre/sec Depth of cover: One meter cover on pipeline is normally sufficient to protect the pipelines from external damage. 2 Sewer Appurtenances (Chapter 4 of CPHEEO Manual) Sewer appurtenances are devices necessary in addition to pipes and conduits for the pipes functioning of any complete system of sanitary, storm or combined sewers. They include structures and devices such as various types of manholes, lamp holes, gully traps, intercepting chambers, flush tanks, ventilation shafts, catch basins, street inlets, regulators, siphons, grease traps, side float weir, leaping weir, venture-flumes and out fall structures. 1. Manhole: (Para 4.2 of CPHEEO Manual) A manhole is an opening constructed in the alignment of a sewer for facilitating a person to access the sewer for the purpose of inspection, testing, cleaning and removal of obstruction of the sewer line. Spacing : Manhole should be built at every change of alignment, gradient or diameter at the head of all sewers and branches and at every junction of two or more sewers. The maximum distance between manholes should be 30 m. Spacing of manhole in large sewers above 900 mm diameter to 1500mm may be of above 90 to 150 m in straight run sewer and spacing of manholes at 150 to 200 m may be allowed in straight run sewer of 1.5 to 2.0 m dia., which may further be increased up to 300 m for sewer of over 2 m diameter. A spacing allowance of 100 m per 1 m dia of sewer is a general rule in case of very large sewer. Manholes are of rectangular, arch type and circular type Circular manholes are stronger than rectangular and arch type manhole and hence circular manhole is preferred over other two types. The circular manholes can be provided for all depths, starting from 0.9 metres. Depending on the depth of manhole, diameter of manhole changes. The internal diameter of the manholes may be kept as follows for varying depths: (para of CPHEEO Manual) i) For depth above 0.90 m up to 1.65 m mm dia. ii) For depth above 1.65 m up to 2.30 m mm dia iii) For depth above 2.30 m up to 9.0 m mm dia iv) For depth above 9.0 m up to 14.0 m mm dia

15 15 The width/diameter of the manhole should not be less than the internal diameter of the sewer plus 150 mm benching on both sides (150 mm mm). Manhole covers: A minimum clear opening of 60 cm is recommended. Floor slab of manhole: RCC 150 mm thick to withstand uplift. Drop manholes: Required when the maximum difference in inverts between the shallowest incoming and the outgoing sewer of a manhole is more than 60 cm. 2. Flushing Tank: Located at the head of a sewer. They are designed for 10 minutes flow as a selfcleansing velocity of 0.6 m/sec. Capacities: 150 mm sewer litres 200 mm sewer litres 250 mm sewer litres The capacity of these tanks is usually 1/10 of the cubic capacity of sewer length to be flushed. House Service Connection (Para 4.4 of CPHEEO Manual) -- For large diameter of sewers, house service connections may be given through rider sewers, which should be connected through manhole or drop manhole. Where there is no Y or T left for new connection insertion of new Y or T is not prescribed. -- House service connection should be minimum size of 150 mm diameter sewer with minimum slope of 1:60 laid as far as possible to a straight line and grade. -- The House service connection sewer line has to be connected to the manhole and will be joined with sewer pipe already embedded within the wall of the manhole while constructing the manhole. The House service connection will be taken up to the property boundary. The property owner shall connect the sewer line laid up to the property boundary with House service connection.

16 16 3 Materials for Sewer Construction (Chapter 5 of CPHEEO Manual) Factors influencing the selection of materials for sewer construction are flow characteristics, availability size required including fittings and ease of handling and installations, water tightness and simplicity of assembly, physical strength, resistance to acids, alkalies, gases, solvents etc., resistance to scour, durability and cost including handling and installation. Type of materials (Para 5.1 & 5.2 of CPHEEO Manual) Factors influencing the selection of Material for sewer construction are flow characteristics, availability in the sizes required including fitting and case of handling and installation, water fighters and simplicity in assembling, physical strength, resistance to acids, alkalies, gases solvents etc. resistance to scour, durability and cost including handling and installation. No single material will meet all the conditions that may be encountered in sewer design. Selection should be made for the particular application and different materials may be selected for parts of a single project. According to CPHEEO Manual the following type of materials may be used for sewer construction. (i). Brick work is used for construction of sewer particularly for large diameters. Brick sewers shall have cement concrete or stone for invert and 12.5 mm thick cement plaster with neat finish. To prevent ground water infiltration, it is desirable to plaster the outer surface. (ii) In sewerage pumping system or Rising Main, the internal pressure is very high sometimes. There may be pressure fluctuations and occasional surge. Any failure or breakage in the Rising main will jeopardize the whole system since the Rising main is the most vital part of the sewerage system. At present for pressure mains Pre- stressed concrete (PSC), Cast Iron (CI) and Ductile Iron (DI) pipes are used. Use of MS pipes should be avoided since MS pipes are very much prone to chemical and septic corrosion. MS. pipe should not be used for partially full sewage. But for higher diameters in the range of 1200 to 1800 mm MS pipes /PSC pipes with Sulphate Resistant Cement (SRC) lining can be used. (iii)in case of gravity sewer system, Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) pipes, Stoneware pipes, CI pipes and DI pipes with SRC lining are usually adopted Stoneware or Vitrified clay (Para of CPHEEO Manual) The Vitrified clay pipes is advantageous over other pipe material on high resistance to corrosion and erosion due to grit and high velocities. Though a minimum crushing strength of 1600 kg/m is usually adopted for all sizes manufactured presently, vitrified clay pipes of crushing strength 2800 kg/m and over are manufactured in other countries. The strength of vitrified clay pipes often necessitates special bedding or concrete cradling to improve field supporting strength. The stoneware pipes and fittings shall withstand internal hydraulic test pressure of 0.3 Mpa and 0.15 Mpa respectively without showing sign of injury or leakage. The pressure shall be applied at a rate not exceeding Mpa in 5 seconds (IS 3006:1979).

17 17 Size of Pipe internal diameter in mm Wall thickness of stoneware pipe mm mm mm mm mm mm Jointing of Sewer pipes: From structural considerations of structural requirements joints may be classified as rigid and flexible joints. Joints such as cement mortar, lead, flanged and welded joints are under the category of rigid joints. All types of mechanical joints such as rubber gasket joints are flexible. Flexible joints are preferable to rigid joints particularly with granular bed. Width of Trenches : (Cause 3.2 of IS 4127:1967) The width of the trench corresponds to the depth of the trench is given. Depth of Trench Width of Trench 1. Upto an average depth of 120 cm Diameter of pipe + 30 cm 2. Above 120 cm Diameter of pipe + 40 cm Note: Width should not be less than 75 cm for depth exceeding 90 cm Back filling: Trench shall be divided into 3 zones Zone A: From bottom of trench to the level of center line of the pipe Zone B : From the level of the center line of the pipe to a level 30 cm above top of the pipe Zone C: From top of Zone B to the top of the trench Zone A shall be refilled with sand, fine gravel or other approved materials Zone B and Zone C shall be refilled with materials as prescribed by department.

18 18 4. STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF BURIED SEWERS (Chapter 6 of CPHEEO Manual) The structural design of a sewer is based on the relationship that the supporting strength of the sewer as installed divided by a suitable factor of safety must equal or exceed the load imposed on it by the weight of earth and any superimposed loads. The essential steps in the design and construction of buried sewers or conduits to provide safe installations are therefore: (i) Determination of the maximum load that will be applied to the pipe based on the trench and backfill conditions and the live loads to be encountered. (ii) Computation of the safe load carrying capacity of the pipe when installed and bedded in the manner to be specified using a suitable factor of safety and making certain the design supporting strength thus obtained is greater than the maximum load to be applied. (iii) Specifying the maximum trench widths to be permitted, the type of pipe bedding to be obtained and the manner in which the backfill is to be made in accordance with the conditions used for the design. (iv) Checking each pipe for structural defects before installation and making sure that only sound pipes are installed and (v) Ensuring by adequate inspection and engineering supervision that all trench widths, sub grade work, bedding, pipe laying and backfilling are in accordance with design assumptions as set forth in the project specifications. Proper design and adequate specifications alone are not enough to ensure protection from dangerous overloading of pipe. Effective value of these depends on the degree to which the design assumptions are realized in actual construction. For this reason thorough and competent inspection is necessary to ensure that the installation conforms to the design requirements. There are three type of construction of Sewer (a) embankment condition (b) trench condition and (c) tunnel condition. (Para 6.1 & 6.31 of CPHEEO Manual) Generally Sewers are laid in trenches by excavation of earth and refilling to the original ground level. Hence type of loads in trench condition are discussed below: Type of loads (Para 6.2 CPHEEO Manual) In a buried sewer, stresses are induced by external loads and also by internal pressure in case of a pressure main. The external loads are of two categories viz. load due to backfill material known as backfill load and superimposed load which again is of two types viz. concentrated load and distributed load. Moving loads may be considered as equivalent to uniformly distributed load. Sewer lines are mostly constructed of stoneware, concrete or cast iron which are considered as rigid pipes (while steel pipes, if used are not considered as rigid pipes). The flexibility affects the load imposed on the pipe and the stresses induced in it. Loads on conduits due to backfill: (Para 6.3 of CPHEEO Manual)

19 19 The vertical dead load to which a conduit is subjected under trench conditions is the resultant of two major forces. The first component is the weight of the prism of soil within the trench and above the top of the pipe and the second is due to the friction or shearing forces generated between the prism of soil in the trench and the sides of the trench produced by settlement of backfill. The resultant load on the horizontal plane at the top of the pipe within the trench is equal to the weight of the backfill minus these upward shearing forces. Computation of loads: The load on rigid conduits in trench condition is given by the Marston s formula in the form W c = C d w B 2 d W c = the load on the pipe in kg per linear metre.w = the unit weight of backfill soil in kg/m 3 B d = the width of trench at the top of the pipe in m and C d = the load coefficient which is a function of a ratio of height of fill to width of trench (H/B d ) H = Depth of refilling of soil from top of pipe to the ground level in metres. Weights of common filling materials (w) and values of C d for common soil conditions encountered are given in Table 1 and 2 respectively. The weights of common filling materials (w) are given in the table below Table 1 Materials Weight (kg/m 3 ) Dry sand 1600 Ordinary (Damp sand) 1840 Wet sand 1920 Damp clay 1920 Saturated clay 2080 Saturated top soil 1840 Sand and Damp soil 1600 Table 2 Ratio H/B Values of C d for calculating loads on pipes in trenches (W c =C d WB 2 d) Safe working values of C d

20 20 Minimum possible without cohesion Maximum for ordinary sand Completely saturated Top Soil Ordinary maximum for clay Extreme maximum for clay Very Great H- Depth of refill to top of pipe in metre B- Trench width at top of pipe in metres

21 21 2. Load on conduit due to super imposed loads: (Para 6.4 of CPHEEO Manuals) The type of super imposed loads which generally encountered in buried conduits may be (a) concentrated load and (b) distributed load. a) Concentrated Load: (Para of CPHEEO Manual ) The formula for load due to super imposed concentrated load such as a truck wheel is given in the following form by Holl s integration of Boussinesq s formula W sc = C s (PF/L) W sc = the load on the conduit in kg/m P = the concentrated load in kg acting on the surface F = the impact factor (1.0 for air field runways, 1.5 for highway traffic and air field taxi ways, 1.75 for railways traffic) and C s = the load coefficient which is a function of B c L and H 2H Where H = the height of the top of the conduit to ground surface in m B c = the outside width of conduit in m and L=the effective length of the conduit to which the load is transmitted in m Values of C s for various values of (B c /2H) and (L/2H) are obtained from Table 3 The effective length of the conduit is defined as the length over which the average load due to surface traffic units produces the same stress in the conduit wall as does the actual load which varies in intensity from point to point. This is generally taken as 1m or the actual length of the conduit if it is less than 1 m b) Distributed load : (Para of CPHEEO Manual For the case of distributed superimposed loads, the formula for load on conduit is given by W sd = C s p F B c Where W sd = the load on the conduit in kg/m.p = the intensity of the distributed load in kg/m 2 f = the impact factor B c = The width of the conduit in m C s = the load coefficient, a function of D/2H and L/2H from Table 3 H = the height of the top of conduit to the ground surface in m and D and L are width and length in m respectively of the area over which the distributed load Field supporting Strength (Para of CPHEEO Manual) The field supporting strength of a rigid conduit is the maximum load per unit length, which the pipe will support while retaining complete serviceability when installed under specified conditions of bedding and backfilling. The field supporting strength, however does not

22 22 include any factor of safety. The ratio of the strength of a pipe under any stated condition of loading and bedding to its strength measured by three edge bearing test is called the load factor. The load factor does not contain a factor of safety. Load factors have been determined experimentally and analytically for the commonly used construction condition for both trench and embankment conduits. Supporting strength in Trench conditions (Para of CPHEEO Manual) Classes of bedding: Four classes, A, B, C and D of bedding are used most often for pipes in trenches. Class A bedding may be either concrete cradle or concrete arch. Class B is a bedding having a shaped bottom or compacted granular bedding with a carefully compacted backfill. Class C is ordinary bedding having a shaped bottom or compacted granular bedding but with a lightly compacted backfill. Class D is on with flat bottom trench with no care being taken to secure compaction of backfill at the sides and immediately over the pipe and hence is not recommended. Class B or C bedding with compacted granular bedding is generally recommended. Shaped bottom is impracticable and costly and hence is not recommended. The pipe bedding materials must remain firm and not permit displacement of pipes which include Red gravel, coarse sand, crushed gravel etc. The material has to be uniformly graded or well graded. Well graded material is most effective for stabilizing trench bottom and has a lesser tendency to flow than uniformly graded materials. However, uniformly graded material is easier to place and compact above sewer pipes. Load factors (Para of CPHEEO Manual) LOAD FACTORS FOR DIFFERENT CLASSES OF BEDDING (Table 6.6 of CPHEEO Manual) CLASS OF BEDDING CONDITION LOAD FACTOR A a. concrete cradle plain concrete and lightly tamped backfill 2.2 A b. Concrete cradle plain concrete with carefully tampled backfill 2.8 A c. Concrete cradle RCC with P-0.4 % Upto 3.4 A d. Arch type plain concrete 2.8 RCC with P-0.4% Upto 3.4 RCC with P-1.0% Upto 4.8 (P is the ratio of the area of steel to the area of concrete at the crown) B Shaped bottom or compacted granular bedding with carefully compacted 1.9 backfill C Shaped bottom or compacted granular bedding with lightly compacted 1.5 backfill D Flat bottom trench 1.1 Note: C type of bedding is normally adopted. The granular material used must stabilize the trench bottom in addition to providing a firm and uniform support for the pipe. Well graded crushed rock or gravel with the maximum size not exceeding 25 mm is recommended for the purpose. Where rock or other unyielding foundation material is encountered bedding may be according to one of the Class A,B or C but with the following additional requirements. Class A: The hard unyielding material should be excavated down to the bottom of the concrete cradle.

23 23 Class B or C: The hard unyielding material should be excavated below the bottom of the pipe and pipe bell to a depth of atleast 15 cm. The width of the excavation should be atleast 1.25 times the outside dia of the pipe and it should be refilled with granular material. Total encasement of non-reinforced rigid pipe in concrete may be necessary where the required safe supporting strength cannot be obtained by other bedding methods. The load factor for concrete encasement varies with the thickness of concrete. Relation ship between the different element in structural Design: The basic design relationships between the different design elements for rigid pipes are as follows: Safe working strength = Ultimate three edge bearing strength Factor of safety Safe field supporting strength = safe working strength x load factor Note: The factor of safety recommended is `1.5 Problem: Determine the structural requirement of 200 mm dia stone ware pipe laid in a trench to a width of 0.8 m in depth of 1.30 metre in ordinary soil and wheel load of 6.25 tonnes. Solution: Pipe thickness t= 16 mm for 200 mm dia (i) Back fill load: BC = D + 2t = x16 = 232mm Bd=0.8 m H= =1.068 m H/Bd=1.068/0.8=1.335 Cd= 1.05 (From Table 2) W= 1840 (From Table 1) Wc=Cd W B 2 d =1.05 x 1840 x = 1237 kg/m (ii) Concentrated load L = 0.60 (normal length of Stoneware pipe) H= m L/2H=0.60/2 x = 0.28 BC/2H= 0.232/2x1.068 = 0.11 From Table 3 of CPHEEO Manual for values L/2H = 0.28 and BC/2H = -11 C s = Wsc = C S P F/L= x 1.5 /0.60 = 778 kg/m

24 24 (iii) Internal load ie Water Load at 75 % flow Water load = ---- x --- x --- x----x 1000 x 0.6x = 14 kg/m Total load WL o = = 2029 kg/m Safe supporting strtength of 200 mm stone ware pipe with `C clean bedding= 1650 x 1.5/1.5 = 1650 kg/m Audit Approach Interalia the following audit points could be seen 1. Cases where due to defective design and execution of sewer and sewer appurtenances, the designed quantity of sewer could not reach the collection well causing overflow or leakages. This untreated sewage water due to leakage would pollute the river or lake causing public ill health and pollution. This aspects may be analysed. 2. Though stoneware pipe were sufficient for collection sewer up to 350 mm dia, CI pipes are being used. The safety factor and design criteria for the sewer has to be examined and the extra cost on use of pipes other than stone ware for collection systems upto 350 mm dia may be commented. 3. Even in case of use of other pipes, the class of pipe used may be analysed with reference to designed pressure and extra cost on use of higher class of pipe may be commented. 4. Whether trenches were excavated to the specified width or not the extra cost due to higher width of trenches may be commented. 4. SEWAGE AND STORM WATER PUMPING STATION (Chapter 9 of CPHEEO Manual) Pumping stations handle Sewage/Storm water either for lifting the sewage so as to discharge into another gravity sewer or for treatment/disposal of the Sewage/effluent. The capacity of the pumping station has to be based on present and future sewage flow considering a design period of 15 years. The civil structures and pipelines of both dry sump and the wet well should be designed for a flow of 30 years. The needs of future expansion need special attention especially in respect of provision of additional space for replacing the smaller pumping units by larger area, increasing the capacity of the wet well and constructing new pumping station to cope with the increased flow. The initial flows are generally too small and the effect of the minimum flow should be studied before selecting the size of the pumps for the project to be commissioned in order to avoid too infrequent pumping operation and long retention of sewage wet wells. (Para 9.3) of CPHEEO) Pumping stations traditionally have two wells, the wet well receiving the incoming sewage and dry well housing the pumps.

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