Energy Savings Toolbox An Energy Audit Manual and Tool

Eergy Savigs Toolbox A Eergy Audit Maual ad Tool This maual has bee developed uder the auspices of the aadia Idustry Program for Eergy oservatio (IPE), a joit iitiative of aadia idustry ad the Office of Eergy Efficiecy of Natural Resources aada. Further, the maual was developed i cojuctio with the provices ad territories. ommets, questios ad requests for additioal copies of this D should be e-mailed to ifo.id@rca.gc.ca. Table of otets XLS Spreadsheet Tool Sectio A: A Overview of Eergy Auditig 1 1 Itroductio to Eergy Auditig i Idustrial Facilities 2 1.1 What Is a Eergy Audit?...................................................... 2 1.2 I-House Eergy Audit........................................................ 2 1.3 Systems Approach to Eergy Auditig......................................... 3 1.4 Defiig the Eergy Audit..................................................... 4 1.5 How to Use This Guide........................................................ 5 1.6 A Practical Auditig Methodology............................................. 5 2 Preparig for the Audit 7 2.1 Developig a Audit Pla..................................................... 7 2.2 oordiatig With Various Plat Departmets................................. 7 2.3 Defiig Audit Resources...................................................... 8 3 A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE AUDIT METHODOLOGY 9 3.1 Diggig Deeper.............................................................. 13 3.2 Referece.................................................................... 14 Sectio B: Eergy Aalysis Methods 15 1 The oditio Survey 16 1.1 Itroductio................................................................. 16 1.2 A Systematic Approach....................................................... 16 1.3 Spreadsheet Templates for the oditio Survey.............................. 19 1.4 Fidig Eergy Maagemet Opportuities (EMOs)........................... 20 1.5 Referece.................................................................... 20 2 Establish the Audit Madate 21 2.1 Itroductio................................................................. 21 2.2 Audit Madate hecklist...................................................... 22

E e r g y S av i g s To o l b o x A E e r g y A u d i t M a u a l a d To o l Ta b l e o f o t e t s ii 3 Establish Audit Scope 24 3.1 Itroductio................................................................. 24 3.2 Audit Scope hecklist........................................................ 25 4 Aalyse Eergy osumptio ad osts 28 4.1 Itroductio................................................................. 28 4.2 Purchased Eergy Sources................................................... 28 4.3 Purchasig Electrical Eergy.................................................. 29 4.4 Tabulatig Eergy Purchase Data............................................. 30 4.5 Referece.................................................................... 34 5 omparative Aalysis 35 5.1 Itroductio................................................................. 35 5.2 Tabulatig Other Data........................................................ 35 5.3 Iteral ompariso by Eergy Moitorig................................... 39 5.4 Target Settig................................................................ 46 5.5 Referece.................................................................... 50 6 Profile Eergy Use Patters 51 6.1 Itroductio................................................................. 51 6.2 What Is a Demad Profile?.................................................... 51 6.3 Obtaiig a Demad Profile.................................................. 54 6.4 Aalysig the Demad Profile................................................ 57 6.5 Opportuities for Savigs i the Demad Profile.............................. 59 6.6 Other Useful Profiles......................................................... 60 7 Ivetory Eergy Use 62 7.1 Itroductio................................................................. 62 7.2 The Electrical Load Ivetory................................................. 62 7.3 The Thermal Eergy Use Ivetory Idetificatio of Eergy Flows............ 65 7.4 Eergy Ivetories ad the Eergy Balace.................................... 71 7.5 Fidig EMOs i the Eergy Ivetory........................................ 72 7.6 Referece.................................................................... 75 8 Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities 76 8.1 Itroductio................................................................. 76 8.2 A Three-Step Approach to Idetifyig EMOs.................................. 76 8.3 Special osideratios for Process Systems.................................... 81 8.4 Summary....................................................................84 8.5 Refereces...................................................................84 9 Assess the osts ad Beefits 85 9.1 Itroductio................................................................. 85 9.2 A omprehesive Assessmet................................................ 85 9.3 Ecoomic Aalysis........................................................... 89 9.4 Evirometal Impact........................................................ 97 9.5 Summary.................................................................... 98 9.6 Refereces................................................................... 98

E e r g y S av i g s To o l b o x A E e r g y A u d i t M a u a l a d To o l Ta b l e o f o t e t s iii 10 Report for Actio 99 10.1 Itroductio................................................................. 99 10.2 Some Geeral Priciples for Good Audit Report Writig....................... 99 10.3 A Template for the Audit Report............................................. 101 Sectio : Techical Supplemet 103 1 Eergy Fudametals 104 1.1 Itroductio................................................................104 1.2 Eergy ad Its Various Forms................................................104 1.3 Electricity: From Purchase to Ed-Use........................................106 1.4 Thermal Eergy: Purchase to Ed-Use........................................107 1.5 Uits of Eergy..............................................................108 1.6 Electricity Basics.............................................................108 1.7 Thermal Basics.............................................................. 114 1.8 Heat Trasfer: How Heat Moves.............................................. 120 1.9 Heat Loss alculatios....................................................... 123 1.10 Referece................................................................... 139 2 Details of Eergy-osumig Systems 140 2.1 Boiler Plat Systems.........................................................140 2.2 Buildig Evelope...........................................................144 2.3 ompressed Air Systems.................................................... 147 2.4 Domestic ad Process Hot Water Systems.................................... 151 2.5 Fa ad Pump Systems...................................................... 155 2.6 Heatig, Vetilatig ad Air-oditioig Systems........................... 159 2.7 Lightig Systems............................................................163 2.8 Process Furaces, Dryers ad Kils........................................... 167 2.9 Refrigeratio Systems....................................................... 171 2.10 Steam ad odesate Systems............................................. 175 3 oditio Survey hecklists 180 3.1 Widows....................................................................180 3.2 Exterior Doors.............................................................. 181 3.3 eiligs.....................................................................182 3.4 Exterior Walls...............................................................183 3.5 Roofs.......................................................................184 3.6 Storage Areas...............................................................185 3.7 Shippig ad Receivig Areas...............................................186 3.8 Lightig....................................................................187 3.9 Food Areas..................................................................189 3.10 Heatig ad Boiler Plat.....................................................190 3.11 Heat Distributio............................................................ 191

E e r g y S av i g s To o l b o x A E e r g y A u d i t M a u a l a d To o l Ta b l e o f o t e t s iv 3.12 oolig Plat............................................................... 192 3.13 oolig Distributio......................................................... 193 3.14 Electrical Power Distributio.................................................194 3.15 Hot Water Service...........................................................195 3.16 Water Service...............................................................196 3.17 ompressed Air............................................................. 197 3.18 Process Heatig.............................................................198 3.19 hecklist Template..........................................................199 4 Istrumetatio for Eergy Auditig 200 4.1 Itroductio................................................................200 4.2 Uderstadig Measuremet for Eergy Auditig............................200 4.3 The Auditor s Toolbox.......................................................203 4.4 Electric Power Meter........................................................203 4.5 The ombustio Aalyser...................................................208 4.6 Light Meters................................................................ 212 4.7 Temperature Measuremet.................................................. 213 4.8 Humidity Measuremet..................................................... 217 4.9 Airflow Measuremet....................................................... 219 4.10 Ultrasoic Leak Detectors...................................................220 4.11 Tachometer.................................................................221 4.12 ompact Data Loggers......................................................221 5 Electrical Ivetory Method 223 5.1 How to ompile a Load Ivetory............................................223 5.2 Load Ivetory Forms.......................................................224 5.3 ollectig ad Assessig Lightig Iformatio...............................234 5.4 ollectig ad Assessig Motor ad Other Data..............................234 5.5 Recocilig the Load Ivetory with Utility Bills..............................235 6 Guide to Spreadsheet tool 241 6.1 Geeral Istructios......................................................... 241 6.2 oditio Survey............................................................244 6.3 Electricity ost..............................................................245 6.4 Gas ost....................................................................249 6.5 Fuel ost....................................................................251 6.6 omparative Aalysis........................................................253 6.7 Profile......................................................................257 6.8 Load Ivetory.............................................................259 6.9 Fuel Systems...............................................................262 6.10 Thermal Ivetory...........................................................264 6.11 Evelope....................................................................269 6.12 Assess the Beefit...........................................................273 6.13 Fiacial Base ase, Pessimistic ase ad Optimistic ase.....................275 6.14 GHG Factors................................................................276

E e r g y S av i g s To o l b o x A E e r g y A u d i t M a u a l a d To o l Ta b l e o f o t e t s v Disclaimer: The iformatio cotaied i Eergy Savigs Toolbox A Eergy Audit Maual ad Tool, icludig the iteractive spreadsheets i Appedix, is iteded to be used solely as a educatioal tool to help compaies assess their eergy use ad idetify eergy-savig opportuities. This iformatio is ot iteded to provide specific advice ad should ot be relied o as such. No actio or decisios should be take without idepedet research ad professioal advice. The iformatio is ot iteded to replace the fidigs of a formal eergy audit. Natural Resources aada does ot represet or warrat the accurateess, timeliess or completeess of the iformatio cotaied i the Eergy Savigs Toolbox A Eergy Audit Maual ad Tool ad Natural Resources aada is ot liable whatsoever for ay loss or damage caused by or resultig from ay iaccuracies, errors or omissios i such iformatio.

Eergy Savigs Toolbox A Eergy Audit Maual ad Tool

A A Overview of Eergy Auditig

A A O ve r v i e w o f E e r g y Au d i t i g I t r o d u c t i o to E e r g y Au d i t i g i I d u s t r i a l Fa c i l i t i e s 1 Itroductio to Eergy Auditig i Idustrial Facilities 1.1 What Is a Eergy Audit? A eergy audit is key to developig a eergy maagemet program. Although eergy audits have various degrees of complexity ad ca vary widely from oe orgaizatio to aother, every audit typically ivolves data collectio ad review plat surveys ad system measuremets observatio ad review of operatig practices data aalysis I short, the audit is desiged to determie where, whe, why ad how eergy is beig used. This iformatio ca the be used to idetify opportuities to improve efficiecy, decrease eergy costs ad reduce greehouse gas emissios that cotribute to climate chage. Eergy audits ca also verify the effectiveess of eergy maagemet opportuities (EMOs) after they have bee implemeted. Although eergy audits are ofte carried out by exteral cosultats, there is a great deal that ca be doe usig iteral resources. This guide, which has bee developed by Natural Resources aada, presets a practical, user-friedly method of udertakig eergy audits i idustrial facilities so that eve small eterprises ca icorporate auditig ito their overall eergy maagemet strategies. 1.2 I-House Eergy Audit osider the followig simple defiitio of a eergy audit: A eergy audit is developig a uderstadig of the specific eergy-usig patters of a particular facility. arl E. Salas, p.eg. Note that this defiitio does ot specifically refer to eergy-savig measures. It does, however, suggest that uderstadig how a facility uses eergy leads to idetifyig ways to reduce that eergy cosumptio. Audits performed exterally ted to focus o eergy-savig techologies ad capital improvemets. Audits coducted i-house ted to reveal eergy-savig opportuities that are less capital itesive ad focus more o operatios. Orgaizatios that coduct a eergy audit iterally gai cosiderable experiece i how to maage their eergy cosumptio ad costs. By goig through the auditig process, employees come to regard eergy as a maageable expese, are able to aalyse critically the way their facility uses eergy, ad are more aware of how their day-to-day actios affect plat eergy cosumptio. Table of otets

A A O ve r v i e w o f E e r g y Au d i t i g I t r o d u c t i o to E e r g y Au d i t i g i I d u s t r i a l Fa c i l i t i e s By coductig a i-house audit before elistig outside experts, orgaizatios will become more eergy aware ad be able to address eergy-savig opportuities that are readily apparet, especially those that require o extesive egieerig aalysis. Exteral experts ca the focus o potetial eergy savigs that are more complex. The i-house audit ca arrow the focus of exteral auditors to those systems that are particularly eergy itesive or complex. 1.3 Systems Approach to Eergy Auditig 1.3.1 Structure of a Eergy-osumig System A eergy-cosumig system is a collectio of compoets that cosume eergy. Eergy audits ca examie systems that may be as extesive as a multi-plat ad multi-process idustrial site or as limited as a sigle piece of equipmet, such as a boiler. Figure 1.1 illustrates the geeric structure of a eergy-cosumig system at a idustrial site. For simplicity, Figure 1.1 shows oly oe brach for each subordiate level i the system hierarchy. Real systems have may braches from each compoet to various lower levels. The cocept of a eergy-cosumig system ca be applied to a site, plat, departmet, process or piece of equipmet, or ay combiatio of these. Figure 1.1 Structure of a Eergy-osumig System ompay/site Plat A Departmet A Process A Equipmet A Equipmet B Departmet B Process B Equipmet Plat B Departmet Process Equip... Departmet... Process... Equip... Equip... Process... Equip... Equip... Thermodyamics of Eergy Systems Eergy auditig applies a simple atural law: the first law of thermodyamics, also kow as the law of coservatio of eergy. It simply meas that we ca accout for eergy because it is either created or destroyed i the facilities ad systems we operate. Traslated ito practical terms, this law meas What comes i = What goes out Table of otets

A A O ve r v i e w o f E e r g y Au d i t i g I t r o d u c t i o to E e r g y Au d i t i g i I d u s t r i a l Fa c i l i t i e s The challege of a eergy audit is to defie the system beig cosidered measure eergy flows ito ad out of the system The first of these challeges is to defie a system s boudary. As already oted, by system we mea ay eergy-cosumig buildig, area withi a buildig, operatig system, collectio of pieces of equipmet or idividual piece of equipmet. Aroud these elemets we ca place a figurative boudary. I a schematic diagram (Figure 1.1), a lie draw aroud the chose elemets rus iward from the facility level to specific pieces of equipmet. The secod challege is more difficult techically because it ivolves collectig eergy flow data from various sources through direct measuremet. It also likely ivolves estimatig eergy flows that caot be directly measured, such as heat loss through a wall or i veted air. Keepig i mid that the oly eergy flows of cocer are those that cross the system boudary, cosider the followig whe measurig eergy flows: 1.4 select coveiet uits of measuremet that ca be coverted to oe uit for cosolidatio of data (for example, express all measuremets i equivalet kwh or MJ) kow how to calculate the eergy cotaied i material flows such as hot water to drai, cooled air to vet, itrisic eergy i processed materials, etc. kow how to calculate heat from various precursor eergy forms, such as electricity coverted to heat through the operatio of a electric motor Defiig the Eergy Audit There is o sigle agreed-upo set of defiitios for the various levels of eergy audits. We have chose the terms macro-audit ad micro-audit to refer to the level of detail of a audit. Level of detail is the first sigificat characteristic of a audit. The secod sigificat characteristic is the audit s physical extet or scope. By this we mea the size of the system beig audited i terms of the umber of its subsystems ad compoets. The macro-audit starts at a relatively high level i the structure of eergy-cosumig systems perhaps the etire site or facility ad addresses a particular level of iformatio, or macro-detail, that allows EMOs to be idetified. A macro-audit ivolves a broad physical scope ad less detail. The micro-audit, which has a arrower scope, ofte begis where the macro-audit eds ad works through aalysis to measure levels of greater detail. A micro-audit might be a productio uit, eergy-cosumig system or idividual piece of equipmet. Geerally, as a audit s level of detail icreases, its physical scope decreases. The opposite is also true: if the scope is icreased, the level of detail of the aalysis teds to drop. Table of otets

A A O ve r v i e w o f E e r g y Au d i t i g I t r o d u c t i o to E e r g y Au d i t i g i I d u s t r i a l Fa c i l i t i e s The auditig method preseted i this guide applies to both the macro- ad the microaudit. Data collectio ad aalysis steps should be followed as closely as it is possible ad practical to do so, regardless of the audit s scope or level of detail. Whe usig i-house resources, orgaizatios are more likely to carry out macro-audits tha micro-audits. Micro-level aalysis ca require expertise i egieerig ad aalysis that is beyod the scope of this guide. 1.5 How to Use This Guide This is a guide for self-audits of idustrial facilities. It cosists of three parts: Sectio A: A Overview of Eergy Auditig provides a overview of eergy auditig ad a theoretical framework. It also defies a systematic approach to the eergy audit ad the steps ivolved. Sectio B: Eergy Aalysis Methods provides detailed istructios o how to carry out the 10 steps of the audit process as defied i Sectio A-1, page 6. Sectio : Techical Supplemet offers backgroud iformatio, icludig a overview of the basic priciples ivolved i eergy aalysis ad the tools used to coduct a audit. It also provides descriptios of spreadsheet tools ad forms that accompay this guide ad checklists ad templates that will help you collect ad aalyse eergy iformatio. Some readers may choose to read the guide from begiig to ed; others who are carryig out a audit will fid it helpful to use the audit process table o page 9 i Sectio A-3 as a startig poit ad refer to the descriptios of the audit steps i Sectio B, as directed by the process table. Eergy Fudametals i Sectio explais terms ad cocepts regardig eergy ad eergy-cosumig systems. The audit spreadsheets i Sectio B are user-friedly tools for data collectio ad aalysis. Istructios o how to use them are provided i Sectio -6, Guide to Spreadsheet Tool. 1.6 A Practical Auditig Methodology The eergy audit is a systematic assessmet of curret eergy-use practices, from poit of purchase to poit of ed-use. Just as a fiacial audit examies expeditures of moey, the eergy audit idetifies how eergy is hadled ad cosumed, i.e. how ad where eergy eters the facility, departmet, system or piece of equipmet where it goes ad how it is used ay variaces betwee iputs ad uses how it ca be used more effectively or efficietly Table of otets

A A O ve r v i e w o f E e r g y Au d i t i g I t r o d u c t i o to E e r g y Au d i t i g i I d u s t r i a l Fa c i l i t i e s Figure 1.2 summarizes the sequece of steps as a flow chart. Figure 1.2 The Audit Flow hart The key steps i a eergy audit are as follows: oditio Survey 1. oduct a coditio survey Assess the geeral level of repair, housekeepig ad operatioal practices that have a bearig o eergy efficiecy ad flag situatios that warrat further assessmet as the audit progresses. Establish Audit Madate 2. Establish the audit madate Obtai commitmet from maagemet ad defie the expectatios ad outcomes of the audit. Establish Audit Scope 3. Establish the audit scope Defie the eergy-cosumig system to be audited. 4. Aalyse eergy cosumptio ad costs ollect, orgaize, summarize ad aalyse historical eergy billigs ad the tariffs that apply to them. 5. ompare eergy performace Determie eergy use idices ad compare them iterally from oe period to aother, from oe facility to a similar oe withi your orgaizatio, from oe system to a similar oe, or exterally to best practices available withi your idustry. 6. Profile eergy use patters Determie the time relatioships of eergy use, such as the electricity demad profile. 7. Ivetory eergy use Prepare a list of all eergycosumig loads i the audit area ad measure their cosumptio ad demad characteristics. 8. Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities (EMOs) Iclude operatioal ad techological measures to reduce eergy waste. 9. Assess the beefits Measure potetial eergy ad cost savigs, alog with ay co-beefits. 10. Report for actio Report the audit fidigs ad commuicate them as eeded for successful implemetatio. Each step ivolves a umber of tasks that are described i the followig sectios. As illustrated i Figure 1.2, several of the steps may result i idetifyig potetial EMOs. Some EMOs will be beyod the scope of a macro-audit, requirig a more detailed study by a cosultat (i.e. a exteral micro-audit). Other EMOs will ot eed further study because the expected savigs will be sigificat ad rapid; such EMOs should be acted o right away. Table of otets EMOs Aalyse Eergy osumptio ad osts EMOs omparative Aalysis EMOs Profile Eergy Use Patters EMOs Ivetory Eergy Use EMOs Idetify EMOs Noe, Immediate Implemetatio EMO Assessmet Required Detailed Aalysis I-House Implemet Assess the Beefits Exteral Micro-Audit Macro-Audit Report for Actio Micro-Audit Report

A A O ve r v i e w o f E e r g y Au d i t i g P r e p a r i g f o r t h e Au d i t 2 Preparig for the Audit 2.1 Developig a Audit Pla A audit pla is a livig documet that outlies the audit s strategy ad process. Although it should be well defied, a audit pla must be flexible eough to accommodate adjustmets to allow for uexpected iformatio ad/or chaged coditios. A audit pla is also a vital commuicatios tool for esurig that the audit will be cosistet, complete ad effective i its use of resources. Your audit pla should provide the followig: the audit madate ad scope whe ad where the audit will be coducted details of the orgaizatioal ad fuctioal uits to be audited (icludig cotact iformatio) elemets of the audit that have a high priority the timetable for major audit activities ames of audit team members the format of the audit report, what it will cotai, ad deadlies for completio ad distributio 2.2 oordiatig With Various Plat Departmets oordiatig with productio departmets, egieerig, plat operatios ad maiteace, etc. is critical to a successful audit. A good iitial meetig with staff, represetig all plat departmets ivolved i the audit, ca form a foudatio for developig cofidece i the process ad, ultimately, the audit s fidigs. osider the followig whe coordiatig the audit with plat departmets: review the audit purposes (objectives), scope ad pla adjust the audit pla as required describe ad esure uderstadig of the audit methodologies defie commuicatios liks durig the audit cofirm the availability of resources ad facilities cofirm the schedule of meetigs (icludig the closig meetig) with the audit s maagemet group iform the audit team of pertiet health, safety ad emergecy procedures aswer questios Table of otets

A A O ve r v i e w o f E e r g y Au d i t i g P r e p a r i g f o r t h e Au d i t esure that everyoe is thoroughly familiar ad comfortable with the audit s purposes ad outcomes Aother optio is to create a audit team at the outset, ot oly to solicit iput at the plaig stages but also to garer support ad resources throughout the audit. Whatever method you use, assure all affected departmets that they will be give the audit results ad ecourage their ivolvemet i the audit process. 2.3 Defiig Audit Resources You should decide early o whether to carry out the audit usig i-house expertise or a outside cosultat, as the auditor eeds to be ivolved i the process right from the start. That perso will drive work o determiig the audit scope ad criteria ad other preparatios. (Note: It is uderstood that the use of auditor i this guide ca mea a etire team of auditors, as appropriate to the circumstaces.) Of course, the auditor must be a competet professioal, oe who is familiar with eergy auditig process ad techiques. Whe cosiderig outside cosultats, it pays to shop aroud ad obtai refereces. I order for the audit results to be credible, choose a auditor based o his or her idepedece ad objectivity, both real ad perceived. The ideal auditor will be idepedet of audited activities, both by orgaizatioal positio ad by persoal goals be free of persoal bias be kow for high persoal itegrity ad objectivity be kow to apply due professioal care i his or her work The auditor s coclusios should ot be iflueced by the audit s possible impact o the busiess uit cocered or schedules of productio. Oe way to esure that the auditor is idepedet, ubiased ad capable of brigig a fresh poit of view is to use a idepedet cosultat or iteral staff from a differet busiess uit. Table of otets

A A O ve r v i e w o f E e r g y A u d i t i g A Ste p - b y -Ste p G u i d e t o t h e A u d i t M e t h o d o l o g y 9 3 A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO THE AUDIT METHODOLOGY Table 3 1 Audit Methodology oduct a oditio Survey Establish the Audit Madate Establish the Audit Scope Aalyse Eergy osumptio ad osts omparative Aalysis Profile Eergy Use Patters Ivetory Eergy Use Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities (EMOs) Assess the osts ad Beefits Report the Audit s Fidigs for Actio Descriptio Idetifies the most likely locatios for the audit Idetifies EMOs that could be implemeted without further aalysis Helps to set priorities for the audit s madate ad scope Establishes ad articulates the purpose of the audit Secures stakeholder iput ad commitmet to the audit madate Specifies the physical extet of the audit by settig the terms of the boudary aroud the audited eergycosumig system Idetifies eergy iputs that cross the boudary to be audited Tabulates all eergy iputs purchased ad otherwise Establishes the aual patter of eergy cosumptio ad total aual cosumptio ompares curret eergy performace with iteral historical performace ad exteral bechmarks Provides isight ito what drives the eergy cosumptio of a facility ad what relative savigs potetial may exist Develops a uderstadig of the time patters i which the system cosumes eergy Provides a clear picture of where eergy is beig used Helps to prioritize possible EMOs ad reveal opportuities for reductio by elimiatig uecessary uses Ivolves critical assessmet of systems ad levels of eergy cosumptio Methods rage from ope-eded aalyses to closeeded checklists Helps to determie whether a more detailed microaudit is eeded Prelimiary assessmet of eergy savigs opportuities Accouts for iteractio betwee EMOs whe several are possible, i.e. determies et savigs Reports the audit s fidigs i a way that facilitates takig actio (applies to all levels of EMOs, from o-cost housekeepig items to capital-itesive retrofit EMOs)

A A O ve r v i e w o f E e r g y A u d i t i g A Ste p - b y -Ste p G u i d e t o t h e A u d i t M e t h o d o l o g y 10 oduct a oditio Survey Establish the Audit Madate Establish the Audit Scope Aalyse Eergy osumptio ad osts omparative Aalysis Profile Eergy Use Patters Ivetory Eergy Use Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities (EMOs) Assess the osts ad Beefits Report the Audit s Fidigs for Actio Data Required Visual ispectio of represetative areas ad equipmet Iput from seior maagemet ad productio ad maiteace staff ostraits i timig, resources ad access to facilities Resources Results from coditio survey Locatio of all eergy iputs to the system Lists of all major eergy-cosumig systems Utility bills for each purchased eergy source Metered data for other eergy iputs Applicable utility rate structures Periodic eergy cosumptio data Periodic data for relevat cosumptio drivers (or impact variables) such as productio, weather ad occupacy Logged data over itervals from oe miute to oe hour to oe day for electrical power gas flow temperature humidity light level airflow or pressure other pertiet ad measurable factors Facility ad equipmet drawigs ad specs Equipmet ivetory ad ameplate data Power ad fuel cosumptio Measured flow rates, temperatures, etc. Equipmet coditio ad performace Eergy ivetories ad balaces Notes from walk-through tour Selected measuremets Existig vs. proposed eergy cosumptio Icremetal cost of eergy Optioal measuremets of existig cosumptio ad coditios Results from each precedig step, from the iitial cost aalysis to the EMO fiacial beefit Templates ad hecklists oditio Survey hecklists (Sectio -3) Audit Madate hecklist (Sectio B-2) Audit Scope hecklist (Sectio B-3) N/A N/A N/A Load Ivetory Forms (Sectio -5) EMO hecklists (Sectio -2) N/A Report Template (Sectio B-10)

A A O ve r v i e w o f E e r g y A u d i t i g A Ste p - b y -Ste p G u i d e t o t h e A u d i t M e t h o d o l o g y 11 oduct a oditio Survey Establish the Audit Madate Establish the Audit Scope Aalyse Eergy osumptio ad osts omparative Aalysis Profile Eergy Use Patters Ivetory Eergy Use Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities (EMOs) Assess the osts ad Beefits Report the Audit s Fidigs for Actio Spreadsheet templates Templates oditio Survey.xls N/A oditio Survey.xls Electricity ost.xls Gas ost.xls Fuel ost.xls omparative Aalysis.xls Profile.xls Load Ivetory.xls Thermal Ivetory.xls Fuel Systems.xls Evelope.xls N/A Assess the Beefit.xls Assess the Beefit.xls Aalysis ad Methods oditio Survey (Sectio B-1) Audit Madate (Sectio B-2) Audit Scope (Sectio B-3) Aalyse Eergy osumptio ad osts (Sectio B-4) omparative Aalysis (Sectio B-5) Profile Eergy Use Patters (Sectio B-6) Istrumetatio for Eergy Auditig (Sectio -4) Electrical Load Ivetory Method (Sectios B-7 ad -5) Thermal Eergy Use Ivetory Method (Sectios B-7 ad -1) Simple Eergy Balaces (Sectio B-7) Istrumetatio for Eergy Auditig (Sectio -4) Fidig EMOs i the Eergy Ivetory (Sectio B-7.5) A Three-Step Approach (Sectio B-8) EMO hecklists (Sectio -2) Assess the osts ad Beefits (Sectio B-9) Writte Report (Sectio B-10) Assess the osts ad Beefits (Sectio B-9)

A A O ve r v i e w o f E e r g y A u d i t i g A Ste p - b y -Ste p G u i d e t o t h e A u d i t M e t h o d o l o g y 12 oduct a oditio Survey Establish the Audit Madate Establish the Audit Scope Aalyse Eergy osumptio ad osts omparative Aalysis Profile Eergy Use Patters Ivetory Eergy Use Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities (EMOs) Assess the osts ad Beefits Report the Audit s Fidigs for Actio Exteral Resources N/A Natural Resources aada (NRa) techical publicatios osultats N/A Utilities ofte provide historical eergy cosumptio data tabulatio ad aalysis osultats that specialize i eergy accoutig or eergy moitorig ad targetig (M&T) Eergy cosultats providig meterig services Electrical utilities Gas utilities N/A Sector-specific eergy efficiecy guides IPE Eergy Efficiecy Plaig ad Maagemet Guide Exteral cosultat Exteral cosultats NRa Dollars to $ese workshops Results A relative assessmet of the coditio of each eergy-cosumig system preset i the facility Statemet of the audit outcome: Audit locatio Extet ad types of aalysis Type of EMOs ad extet of savigs aalysis required Other related outcomes of the audit, e.g. productivity, operatios ad maiteace (O&M), evirometal co-beefits Specificatio of the audit boudary i terms of iput eergy flows, eergy-cosumig systems ad, idirectly, eergy outflows Relative aual cost of each purchased form of eergy Icremetal (margial) cost of electrical demad ad electrical eergy atural gas other fuels Relatioships betwee eergy use ad sigificat drivers Treds i cosumptio Prelimiary reductio targets Savigs potetial i reducig the variability of eergy cosumptio Abormal eergy use coditios ot otherwise evidet Dis-aggregatio of eergy use whe combied with eergy ivetory haracterizatio of facility, system ad equipmet operatio A breakdow of eergy cosumptio by major area of use (e.g. gas cosumptio for productio vs. space heat; electricity cosumptio for process, vetilatio, compressed air, lightig ad coveyace) A list of EMOs prioritized for immediate actio further aalysis by micro-audit ad raked to harmoize iteractios betwee EMOs EMO savigs EMO implemetatio costs EMO fiacial beefit A succict ad compellig presetatio of the audit fidigs, icludig Executive summary Aalysis of existig eergy cosumptio Descriptio of EMOs idetified Savigs assessmet for selected EMOs Actio pla for implemetatio

A A O ve r v i e w o f E e r g y A u d i t i g A Ste p - b y -Ste p G u i d e t o t h e A u d i t M e t h o d o l o g y 13 3 1 Diggig Deeper If a more detailed audit is beig coducted, take the followig poits ito cosideratio i additio to the steps outlied above. oditio survey: I a more detailed audit or a equipmet micro-audit, checklists with more detail tha those provided i this guide will be required. It may be more effective to elist the support of people with expertise i exteral systems or equipmet to assess the geeral coditio of the systems ad equipmet ivolved. Audit madate: A micro-audit ivolves a greater level of detail, ad its madate must defie the extet of the ivestigatio. This will be drive i part by the desired level of certaity or, coversely, the ucertaity that ca be accepted i the result. The detail required i order to secure fiacig for proposed measures will eed to be provided as well. A micro-audit will ofte be carried out by a exteral cosultat. I this case, the audit madate ad the subsequet step developig the audit scope form a itegral part of the cosultat s terms of referece. Audit scope: The micro-audit will ofte have a scope withi the boudaries of a site or withi the walls of a buildig. The scope may be a specific process or piece of equipmet. I this situatio, defiig the audit boudary ad the associated eergy iputs will be a more difficult udertakig. Eergy cosumptio ad cost aalysis: The boudary for a micro-audit may ot iclude utility-metered eergy iputs. I some cases, direct measuremet of eergy iputs may be available from sub-meters for electricity, gas, fuel or steam. I each of these cases, it will be ecessary to assess a iput cost for each eergy form. The icremetal or margial cost may be applied to these iputs. omparative aalysis: The comparative aalysis performed i a macro-audit typically deals with mothly utility metered data ad impact data. A micro-audit provides a opportuity to perform similar types of aalysis o metered data for idividual processes ad equipmet o a much shorter time scale, possibly weekly or daily. Eergy use profile: The electrical demad profile measured at the service etrace is a commo profile used i a macro-audit. Such profiles ca be measured for virtually ay sigle electrical load or group of loads. The micro-audit ca use detailed profiles to fully describe the operatio of may processes, systems or pieces of equipmet. More detailed profiles iclude subsystem power (process system, air compressors, refrigeratio, etc.) compressed airflow ad pressure steam flow ad pressure illumiatio level ad occupacy

A A O ve r v i e w o f E e r g y A u d i t i g A Ste p - b y -Ste p G u i d e t o t h e A u d i t M e t h o d o l o g y 14 Eergy use ivetory: The level of detail to which the ivetories are coducted will icrease from the macro-audit to the micro-audit. A more detailed breakdow will require more measuremets, meterig equipmet ad expertise. EMO idetificatio: The micro-audit madate ad scope may be developed from the list of EMOs ad will require further aalysis. The micro-audit will further defie EMO actios, costs ad resultig savigs. osts ad beefits: A detailed assessmet of savigs for specific EMOs is usually the primary purpose of the micro-audit. I this case, the macro-audit may ivolve a cursory assessmet of savigs ad begi to assemble the data required for more detailed aalysis. Report for actio: Presetig audit fidigs i a covetioal writte report is more appropriate to the tightly focused micro-audit. The cotets, icludig specific data ad iformatio arisig from the audit, required i a micro-audit report may be specified by the providers of project fiacig. Such requiremets should be clearly specified i the micro-audit madate. 3.2 Referece Eergy Efficiecy Plaig ad Maagemet Guide, Natural Resources aada, 2002 oee.rca.gc.ca/publicatios/ifosource/pub/cipec/efficiecy/idex.cfm

B Eergy Aalysis Methods

B 16 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s T h e o d i t i o S u r ve y 1 The oditio Survey oditio Survey EMOs 1.1 Itroductio The oditio Survey a iitial walk-through of the facility is essetially a ispectio tour. Attetio should be give to where eergy is obviously beig wasted where repair or maiteace work is eeded where capital ivestmet may be eeded i order to improve eergy efficiecy Establish Audit Madate Establish Audit Scope The oditio Survey has at least three purposes: It provides the auditor ad/or audit team with a orietatio of the etire facility to observe its major uses of eergy ad the factors that ifluece those uses. It helps to idetify areas that warrat further examiatio for potetial eergy maagemet opportuities (EMOs) before establishig the audit s madate ad scope. It idetifies obvious opportuities for eergy savigs that ca be implemeted with little or o further assessmet. Ofte these are istaces of poor repair or housekeepig that ivolve o sigificat capital expediture. 1.2 A Systematic Approach It is importat for the oditio Survey to be comprehesive ad systematic. Although the iformatio obtaied by the survey will be primarily qualitative, it ca be useful to give a umerical score to each survey observatio to help determie the scope ad urgecy of ay corrective actios. Below is a checklist template for collectig iformatio. It icludes a poit ratig system. The checklist template ca be readily modified ad adapted to your facility; for example, i a survey of lightig, a lie ca be created for each room or distict area i your facility. Table of otets

17 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s T h e o d i t i o S u r ve y Fuel Meter Make-up Water Meter Prevetive Maiteace 2 1 Mai Boiler Room 1 2 West Plat Boiler 1 0 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 17 9 1 2 Total Poits for Sectio 11 Ratig for Boiler Plat Systems = ( 100 Total Poits ) = ( 100 11 ) Number of Items Maximum Score ( 2 17 ) 32% After each checklist is completed, a score is calculated [i.e. accordig to the formula give i the above example]. Table of otets Total Poits Steam Meter Maximum Score Some Leaks 1 No Leaks 2 Flages Isulated No. Isulatio Poor Isulatio Average Locatio/Poits ommets: Ecoomizer otrols Stadard Operatig Procedure 1 Auditor: SD Eergy Recovery Automatic otrols 0 Date: _31 May 2002_ Fix as Required May Leaks The ratig is based o a three-poit system i which 3 represets a coditio reflectig high eergy efficiecy ad 0 represets a coditio reflectig low eergy efficiecy. The ratig idicates the urgecy of corrective actio. Isulatio Good B

B 18 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s T h e o d i t i o S u r ve y This score is the used to idicate the urgecy of corrective actio, based o the followig scale: Rage of Score Actio Required 0 20 Immediate corrective actio required 20 40 Urget corrective actio required 40 60 orrective actio required 60 80 Evaluatio for potetial improvemet required 80 100 No corrective actio required hecklists i Part : Techical Supplemet address the followig: 1. Widows 2. Exterior Doors 3. eiligs 4. Exterior Walls 5. Roofs 6. Storage Areas 7. Shippig ad Receivig Areas 8. Lightig 9. Food Areas 10. Heatig ad Boiler Plat 11. Heat Distributio 12. oolig Plat 13. oolig Distributio 14. Electrical Power Distributio 15. Hot Water Service 16. Water Service 17. ompressed Air 18. Process Heatig I each case, oly the template headigs are show, alog with the scorig structure. At the ed of the sectio, there is a blak template that ca be customized to specific systems i your facility ad others ot icluded i the above list. I the latter case, cosider usig a scorig structure similar to the oe show above. Table of otets

B 19 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s T h e o d i t i o S u r ve y 1.3 Spreadsheet Templates for the oditio Survey Part : Techical Supplemet icludes a spreadsheet template for the oditio Survey (oditio Survey.xls). A sample spreadsheet customized for a survey of lightig systems is show i Figure 1.1. We suggest that the auditor create a customized spreadsheet for each of the systems ad pieces of equipmet i the facility. From the checklists i Sectio -3, items ad scores ca be etered ito the spreadsheet. Figure 1.1 Spreadsheet Template for the oditio Survey Table of otets

B 20 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s T h e o d i t i o S u r ve y 1.4 Fidig Eergy Maagemet Opportuities (EMOs) Although the oditio Survey precedes the mai audit, it ca also idetify EMOs. The survey ratig system helps to idetify ad prioritize areas of the facility that should be assessed more extesively. However, direct observatios of housekeepig, maiteace ad other procedures ca lead to EMOs that eed o further assessmet ad that ca be acted o right away. For example, fixig leaks i the steam system, broke glazig ad shippig dock doors that wo t close will pay off immediately i reduced eergy cosumptio. 1.5 Referece Eergy Efficiecy Plaig ad Maagemet Guide, Natural Resources aada, 2002 oee.rca.gc.ca/publicatios/ifosource/pub/cipec/efficiecy/idex.cfm Table of otets

B 21 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s E s t a b l i s h t h e Au d i t M a d a t e 2 Establish the Audit Madate oditio Survey EMOs 2.1 Itroductio It ca be temptig to move quickly ito the audit itself, especially for auditors who are techically orieted. However, kowig the groud rules i advace will help auditors to use their time to maximum effect ad will esure that the eeds of the orgaizatio commissioig the audit are met. The terms of referece preseted to the eergy auditor are as follows: audit madate this should make the audit s goals ad objectives clear ad outlie the key costraits that will apply whe the audit s recommedatios are implemeted audit scope the physical extet of the audit s focus should be specified, ad the kids of iformatio ad aalytical approaches that will comprise the auditor s work should be idetified Establish Audit Madate Establish Audit Scope The followig checklist ca help articulate a clear ad cocise audit madate. A similar approach to defiig the audit s scope follows i Sectio 3. Table of otets

B 22 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s E s t a b l i s h t h e Au d i t M a d a t e 2.2 Audit Madate hecklist Audit Madate hecklist Audit Objectives: Ivestmet ad Operatioal Needs/Desires To save Eergy cosumptio/costs Specific fuel type (details) Maximum demad To accommodate icreased load i the buildig To pass o eergy costs directly to teats/departmets To limit maual operatio of facility/processes Other (specify) Time Lie ompletio date required Date prelimiary fidigs required Resources I-House Staff Techical lerical Other (specify) Exteral osultats Utilities Govermet orgaizatios otractors Other (specify) Table of otets

B 23 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s E s t a b l i s h t h e Au d i t M a d a t e Buildig oditios Note all problems related to the followig: omfort Breakdows Lack of capacity Appearace Noise Operatioal practices Maiteace practices Other (specify) Implemetatio Factors ad ostraits Housekeepig EMOs time lie Low-cost EMOs time lie Fiacial costraits Retrofit EMOs time lie Fiacial costraits Applicable grats, subsidies ad tax advatages Possibility of Audit Recommedatios Beig Applied to Other Buildigs/Areas Yes No Details Reportig Format Required Level of detail Fiacial aalysis/criteria required Payback period/criterio acceptable Table of otets

B 24 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s E s t a b l i s h Au d i t S co p e 3 Establish Audit Scope Establish Audit Madate 3.1 Itroductio A systematic approach to eergy auditig specifically defies the boudaries that apply (as defied i the exploratio of the thermodyamic basis for eergy auditig). The audit scope provides this detailed defiitio of the system to be audited. Establish Audit Scope I additio, the audit scope is a scope of work statemet; i.e. it defies the sources of iformatio ad the aalysis that will be applied to them. Figure 3.1 illustrates a sample audit scope. Aalyse Eergy osumptio ad osts EMOs As oted earlier, the system may be aythig from a etire plat to a piece of processig equipmet. Figure 3.1 illustrates the hierarchy of a audit scope ad the pertiet levels of iformatio. Figure 3.1 Sample Audit Scope for a Simplified Eergy-osumig System Aggregated Utility Ivoices Utility Ivoices & Meter Data Sub-Meter Data Sub-Meter or Portable Meter Data Equipmet Specs & Spot Measuremet Equipmet A Departmet A Process A Equipmet B Table of otets ompay/site Plat A Plat B Departmet B Process B Equipmet Departmet Process Equipmet D Equipmet E Departmet... Process... Equipmet F Process... Equip... Equip...

B 25 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s E s t a b l i s h Au d i t S co p e 3.1.1 Defie the System to Be Audited This step defies the audit s boudaries ad the specifics of the eergy systems withi those boudaries. Although details o the eergy load ivetory will emerge from the audit process itself, it is useful to defie the areas to be examied, as outlied i the Audit Scope hecklist (see Sectio 3.2). 3.1.2 Idetify Eergy Iputs ad Outputs Usig a schematic diagram of the area beig audited, you should be able to list eergy iputs ad outputs. It is importat to idetify all flows, whether they are iteded (directly measurable) or uiteded (ot directly measurable). Obvious eergy flows are electricity, fuel, steam ad other direct eergy iputs; ad flue gas, water to drai, veted air ad other apparet outputs. Less obvious eergy flows may be heat loss though the buildig evelope or the itrisic eergy i produced goods. 3.1.3 Idetify Subsystems Each of the systems to be cosidered i the audit should be idetified, as outlied i the Audit Scope hecklist below. 3.2 Audit Scope hecklist Audit Scope hecklist Areas to Be Examied Whole site Idividual buildigs (details) Departmet/processig uit (details) Exteral Site Subsystems Lightig Heatig mais Other (describe) Table of otets

B 26 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s E s t a b l i s h Au d i t S co p e Idividual Subsystems Boiler plat Steam distributio Domestic/process water Process refrigeratio Lightig HVA Buildig evelope Productio/process operatios (describe) Other (details) Types of Iformatio Electricity billigs Fuel billigs Productio data Weather data Facility specificatios ad drawigs Sub-sector bechmarks Other (specify) Aalysis orrelatio of cosumptio with productio ad weather Iteral ad/or exteral bechmark aalysis Electrical demad aalysis Load ivetory aalysis Payback aalysis of EMOs ad other fiacial criteria Other (specify) Table of otets

B 27 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s E s t a b l i s h Au d i t S co p e Sample Eergy Audit Scope of Work 1 Historical ost ad osumptio Aalysis 1.1 Regressio aalysis of gas versus weather ad productio 1.2 Regressio of electricity versus productio 1.3 Summary breakdow of eergy use from historical data 2 Electrical omparative Aalysis 2.1 Electrical eergy versus weights by batch data aalysis 2.1.1 Mothly historical from existig data 2.1.2 By batch for audit test period 2.2 Estimate potetial savigs from ogoig moitorig 2.3 Prepare spreadsheet for ogoig aalysis 3 Natural Gas omparative Aalysis 3.1 Gas eergy versus batch weights aalysis 3.1.1 Mothly historical by ove, by product 3.1.2 By batch for audit test period by ove, by product 3.2 Estimate potetial savigs from ogoig moitorig 4 Ove Preheat 4.1 ombustio testig (existig gas pressure) 4.2 Eergy balace 4.3 Estimate savigs for appropriate fial temperatures 5 Air Exhaust/Make-up 5.1 Review air balace ad determie eergy ad cost figures for estimated flows 5.2 oduct combustio testig of uit heater uder egative pressures 5.2.1 Estimate savigs for operatio at balaced pressures 5.3 Estimate savigs for direct air make-up at workstatios Table of otets

B 28 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A a l y s e E e r g y o s u m p t i o a d o s t s 4 Aalyse Eergy osumptio ad osts oditio Survey EMOs 4.1 Itroductio Iformatio i eergy billigs ad cost records ca lead to EMOs, especially whe it is aalysed with key eergy use drivers such as productio. You should aalyse eergy cosumptio ad costs before comparig eergy performace with iteral ad exteral bechmarks. Tabulatig historical eergy cosumptio records provides a summary of aual cosumptio at a glace. EMOs idetified i this step may ivolve the reductio of eergy cosumptio ad/or cost, both of which are importat outcomes. Iformatio i eergy billigs begis with the rate structures or tariffs uder which eergy is purchased. It is importat for the auditor to uderstad the structure of tariffs ad cost compoets fully because these will greatly ifluece savigs calculatios whe EMOs are beig assessed. Because the facility may use several eergy sources, it is also importat to uderstad the per-uit eergy cost of these sources ad their icremetal cost (as opposed to just the average cost of eergy). Establish Audit Madate Establish Audit Scope Aalyse Eergy osumptio ad osts EMOs omparative Aalysis EMOs I this sectio we outlie the basic termiology ivolved i readig eergy bills ad show the reader how to tabulate billigs i order to quatify past cosumptio levels ad begi to idetify cosumptio patters. 4.2 Purchased Eergy Sources Eergy is purchased i a variety of commodities with varyig eergy cotet (see Table 4.1). This iformatio is useful for aalysig the uit cost of eergy from various sources ad makig savigs calculatios. Table 4.1 Eergy otet of Various Fuels Fuel SI Uits Imperial Uits Propae 25.3 MJ/L 109 000 Btu/gal. (UK) Buker oil 42.7 MJ/kg 40.5 MJ/L 18 380 Btu/lb. 174 500 Btu/gal. (UK) No. 2 oil 45.3 MJ/kg 38.7 MJ/L 19 500 Btu/lb. 166 750 Btu/gal. (UK) Wood 19.9 MJ/kg 8 600 Btu/lb. Natural gas 37.6 MJ/m³ 1 008 Btu/cu. ft. Electricity 3.6 MJ/kWh 3 413 Btu/kWh Table of otets

B 29 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A a l y s e E e r g y o s u m p t i o a d o s t s 4.3 Purchasig Electrical Eergy The ext step i coductig a eergy audit is to uderstad how your orgaizatio purchases electricity. I part, this relates to meterig by the supply utility. Although there are a umber of meterig techologies i use, the key issues for all are essetially the same: whether or ot demad is metered which demad rate (kw or kva) is measured how the iformatio is measured, stored ad displayed, i.e. thermal (dials) or electroic (digital display) See Eergy Fudametals (Part, Sectio 1) for a discussio of utility meterig. The followig outlies the termiology used i electric ad gas bills. A basic uderstadig of the structure of the bill is required to extract data for tabulatio. 4.3.1 The Electricity Bill The iformatio i a electricity bill icludes the followig: Kilowatt-hours (kwh) used: Eergy cosumed sice the previous meter readig (also referred to as cosumptio ). Metered demad (kw ad/or kva): Actual metered values of maximum demad recorded durig the billig period. If both are provided, the power factor at the time of maximum demad ca be calculated ad may also be provided. Billig demad (kw ad/or kva): Demad value used to calculate the bill. It is the metered demad or some value calculated from the metered demad, depedig o the utility rates. Rate code or tariff: Billig rate as applied to the eergy ad demad readigs. Days: Number of days covered by the curret bill. This is importat to ote because the time betwee readigs ca vary withi ±5 days, makig some mothly billed costs artificially higher or lower tha others. Readig date: I the box called Service To/From. The days used ad readig date ca be used to correlate cosumptio or demad icreases to productio or weatherrelated factors. Load factor: Percet of eergy cosumed relative to the maximum eergy that could have bee cosumed if the maximum demad had bee costatly maitaied throughout the billig period. Power factor: Ratio of recorded maximum kw to kva (usually expressed as a decimal or percetage). Table of otets

B 30 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A a l y s e E e r g y o s u m p t i o a d o s t s 4.3.2 The Natural Gas Bill Gas compaies use terms that ca have differet meaigs withi differet rates. The followig defiitios are fairly stadard. For specific terms ad clauses, cotact your gas utility represetative, or refer to the latest rate tariffs for the appropriate rate ad to the cotract betwee your compay ad the utility. Days: Number of days covered by the curret bill. This is importat to ote because the time betwee readigs ca vary aywhere withi ± 5 days, makig some mothly billed costs artificially higher or lower tha others. Readig date: I the box called Service To/From. The days used ad readig date ca be used to correlate cosumptio or demad icreases to productio or weather factors. otracted demad (D): The pre-egotiated maximum daily usage, typically i m³/day. Overru: The gas volume take o ay day i excess of the D (e.g. 105%). Block rate: A rate where quatities of gas ad/or D are billed i preset groups. The first block is usually the most expesive; subsequet blocks are progressively less expesive. ustomer charge: A fixed mothly service charge idepedet of ay gas usage or D. Demad charge: A fixed or block mothly charge based o the D but idepedet of actual usage. Gas supply charge: The product charge (cets per m³) for gas purchased; commoly called the commodity charge. This is the competitive compoet of the atural gas bill. If you purchase gas from a supplier (ot the gas utility to which you are coected), this charge will be set by that cotract or supplier. The gas utility will also offer a default charge i this category. Delivery charge (re D): A fixed or block mothly charge based o the D but idepedet of actual usage. Delivery (commodity) charge (for gas delivered): The fixed or block delivery charge (cets per m³) for gas purchased. Overru charge: Rate paid for all gas purchased as overru. 4.4 Tabulatig Eergy Purchase Data Eergy cosumptio data is available from your ow accoutig records. Utility ad fuel supplier ivoices also cotai valuable iformatio about cosumptio that ca be tabulated. The techical supplemet to this maual icludes a set of spreadsheet templates for tabulatig, graphig ad aalysig historical eergy cosumptio ad purchase data. Table of otets

B 31 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A a l y s e E e r g y o s u m p t i o a d o s t s Templates are available for electricity, atural gas ad other fuel or eergy sources. See the followig templates: Electricity ost.xls Gas ost.xls Fuel ost.xls 4.4.1 Tabulatio of Electricity Data Figure 4.1 is a sample of the first sheet of the electricity cost spreadsheet. It cotais cosumptio data collected from bills or ivoices ad derived umbers that form part of the aalysis. Also illustrated is a graphical presetatio of the key data ad derived values. Figure 4.1 Sample Electricity osumptio Data Spreadsheet (from Electricity ost.xls) Startig with the basic historical billig data, a umber of calculatios ca be performed. Here are some of the major calculatios. kwh/day: kwh i period days. Sice readig periods ca vary, kwh/day is more useful for spottig cosumptio treds tha for determiig billed kwh. Table of otets

B 32 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A a l y s e E e r g y o s u m p t i o a d o s t s Load factor (LF): kwh (kw days 24 hrs./day). If metered i kva ad the power factor (PF) is kow, substitute kva PF for kw. If the PF is ot kow, assume 90%. LF is a idicatio of the percetage of time the plat is operatig at peak. Electrical LF is the eergy cosumed relative to the maximum eergy that could have bee cosumed if the maximum (kw) demad had bee maitaied throughout the billig period. All the iformatio required for this calculatio ca usually be foud i the electricity bills. Mathematically, it is writte as follows: Load factor (%) = kwh used i period 100 Peak kw 24 hrs. per day No. days i period A high, short-duratio peak demad will lower the LF, whereas a more cosistet rate of eergy cosumptio will raise the LF. Let us assume that the two sample facilities cosume 25 000 kwh over a billig period of 28 days. Their respective LFs ca be calculated as follows: Facility A Load factor (%) = 25 000 kwh 100 = 15% 250 kw 24 hrs. per day 28 days i period Facility B Load factor (%) = 25 000 kwh 100 = 75% 50 kw 24 hrs. per day 28 days i period Facility A has a LF of 15% ad a average eergy cost of 10.5 per kwh. Facility B has a LF of 75% ad a average eergy cost of 6.4 per kwh. Thus, LF is iversely proportioal to the average cost per kwh for similar facilities o the same rate. LF ca be used as a barometer of a facility s use of electricity by revealig excessive demad for the eergy cosumed. The followig sectio provides more detail o how LF ca be aalysed with other operatig characteristics of the facility. Load Factor vs. Utilizatio Factor: A Idicator of Potetial The utilizatio factor (UF) is the percet of use (occupacy, productio, etc.) of a facility. For comparative purposes, it should be calculated over the same period of time as the electrical LF (24 hours, oe week, oe moth, etc.). ompletig this exercise is a iitial step i determiig the preset use of electricity ad is a good place to start your search for savigs opportuities. If there is a sigificat differece betwee the UF ad the LF, further ivestigatio is probably warrated. Table of otets

33 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A a l y s e E e r g y o s u m p t i o a d o s t s Example: UF/LF calculatios ca be made without ay demad profile meterig. All that is required is oe or more electricity bills ad kowledge of facility operatios. For example, a typical school is occupied for 11 hours per day, five days a week. The UF o a weekly basis would be 55 hrs./168 hrs., or 33%. Assume that the LF calculatios yield a LF of 45%. The fact that the LF is roughly oe third higher tha the UF would be cause for further ivestigatio ad more questios: Are systems operatig whe ot required? Is the school beig used loger tha first thought? a system cotrols be adjusted or retrofitted to trim the usage closer to the occupacy hours? 4.4.2 Graphical Aalysis of Historical Eergy Use Patters Tabulatig historical bills also facilitates a graphical aalysis of cosumptio patters of all purchased eergy forms. Figure 4.2 illustrates the patters of gas ad electricity use by four differet buildigs. The overall usage patter should be drive to some extet by a facility s type of equipmet, systems ad process. Look for these patters i your data. Ofte these patters are as expected, ad this simply cofirms that there are a umber of drivers of eergy use i a facility. This relatioship is explored further i Sectio 5. Sometimes the patters foud are uexpected ad ca lead to opportuities to modify usage ad save eergy. For example, oe might ot ormally expect a heavy process idustry to exhibit a seasoal variatio i eergy use. If a seasoal patter does exist, however, this may suggest ivestigatig the buildig evelope ad exhaust/make-up air systems. Figure 4.2 Historical Eergy Use Patters for Four Differet Facilities Buildig " A" Buildig " B" Gas Space Heat & Gas Domestic Hot Water, Electric A/ Electric Space Heat, Electric A/, Gas Domestic Hot Water 16,000 Equivalet kwh Equivalet kwh 14,000 12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 Ja Feb Mar Apr May Jue July Aug Sept Oct Mothly Electricity osumptio 18,000 16,000 14,000 12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 Nov Dec Ja Feb Mar Apr May Jue July Aug Sept Oct Mothly Gas osumptio Mothly Electricity osumptio Buildig " " Nov Dec Mothly Gas osumptio Buildig " D" Gas Space Heat & Domestic Hot Water, o A/ Gas Space Heat & Process Heat, 2-Week August Shutdow 12,000 12,000 10,000 10,000 Equivalet kwh Equivalet kwh B 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 0 Ja Feb Mar Apr May Jue July Aug Sept Oct Mothly Electricity osumptio Table of otets Nov Dec Mothly Gas osumptio Ja Feb Mar Apr May Jue July Aug Sept Oct Mothly Electricity osumptio Nov Dec Mothly Gas osumptio

B 34 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A a l y s e E e r g y o s u m p t i o a d o s t s 4.4.3 Summary We ca use the overall patters of cosumptio to help direct our focus i later stages of the audit. A basic aalysis of historical eergy bills provides isight ito the uit cost of all purchased eergy iformatio we will eed to evaluate cost savigs i the fial stages of the audit. 4.5 Referece For more iformatio o gas, electricity ad fuel prices ad rates, cotact your local utilities or suppliers. Table of otets

B 35 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s o m p a r a t i ve A a l y s i s 5 omparative Aalysis 5.1 Itroductio How does your orgaizatio s level of eergy cosumptio compare with other similar idustries, facilities ad sites? What level of eergy cosumptio is achievable with the best operatig practices ad idustry bechmarks? How does your eergy cosumptio this year compare with last year? How does the eergy performace of site A compare with that of site B? Aalysig historical eergy cosumptio ad costs, as described i Sectio 4, is oly the begiig i that it orgaizes billig iformatio ad provides a basis for more i-depth aalysis of eergy performace. I particular, it provides the data eeded for comparig performace iterally period to period, site to site ad/or productio uit to productio uit exterally to stadards of performace established i the relevat idustrial subsectors Aalyse Eergy osumptio ad osts EMOs omparative Aalysis EMOs Profile Eergy Use Patters EMOs The approach to comparative aalysis outlied i this sectio icludes moitorig ad targetig (M&T). This method of statistical aalysis cosiders eergy use determiats such as productio or weather factors ad geerates maagemet iformatio o eergy use treds ad relatioships that ca be used to aalyse performace historically ad cotrol future performace. osider the followig questios: How does the preset level of eergy cosumptio i your plat compare with that of last moth or last year? Do you use more or less eergy to maufacture your products or operate your facility tha the average for your idustry? The aswers to these questios will give you a iitial idicatio of the extet of the overall eergy savigs potetial for your plat ad will allow you to set realistic savigs targets for your eergy maagemet program. The spreadsheet template omparative Aalysis.xls implemets the aalysis described i this sectio. 5.2 Tabulatig Other Data I Sectio 4 we discussed tabulatio of eergy cosumptio ad cost data. It is also ecessary to determie what factors ifluece eergy usage ad what data, if ay, ca be gathered regardig these factors or drivers. The factors may iclude those show i Table 5.1. Table of otets

B 36 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s o m p a r a t i ve A a l y s i s Table 5.1 Factors Ifluecig Eergy Use Factor Data Uits Product Product quatities Quatities, volumes, etc. Weather Outside air temperature Degree-days Occupacy Occupied time Hours, shifts, days, schedules, etc. otiuig the example of fuel cosumptio first used i Sectio 4, we ca determie that weather ad productio are the oly two factors that ifluece the fuel cosumptio tabulated. The weather (heatig degree-day data from the local weather office) ad productio data (umber of widgets) for the period correspodig to the fuel data are gathered ad etered i the table (see Table 5.2). Table 5.2 Thermal Eergy Use Data Aalysis AB Widgets Ic. Thermal Eergy Data ad Driver Data Purchased Natural Gas (m3) Total Eergy (GJ) Weather (heatig degree-days) Jauary 2001 531 000 20 521 723.2 48 February 2001 559 000 21 599 658.3 64 March 2001 520 000 20 081 589.6 59 April 2001 420 000 16 609 379.5 64 May 2001 445 000 17 182 262.8 89 Jue 2001 237 000 9 137 75 July 2001 256 000 9 868 81 August 2001 284 000 10 964 90 September 2001 193 000 7 431 61 October 2001 354 000 13 651 280.3 55 November 2001 497 000 19 183 419.8 79 December 2001 507 000 19 557 678.6 45 4 803 000 185 783 3992.1 810 Date Totals Product (000 of uits) Weather data i this example (i the form of heatig degree-days) for Jue to September is igored, based o the assumptio that, for a facility i the orther hemisphere, space heatig is ot used durig this period. I this example, the effect of warm weather, which is ofte represeted by coolig degree-days, is ot cosidered either, because the oil cosumed is used oly to geerate heat for process ad space heatig. Table of otets

B 37 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s o m p a r a t i ve A a l y s i s 5.2.1 Aalysis of Data The beefits of tabulatig eergy bills ad key drivers over time ad makig these simple calculatios are as follows: To make a iitial correlatio betwee the eergy ad demad figures ad the operatio of the plat. A example of the correlatio is provided later i this sectio. To set a savigs objective or target. To reveal ad flag ay uexpected icreases i demad ad/or cosumptio. Later, we ca track dow ad, where ecessary, correct the coditio that is causig the icrease ad thereby idetify a EMO. To cofirm the savigs expected from ay eergy coservatio measures that have bee implemeted. For example, we should be able to esure that ew process cotrol systems are deliverig ogoig savigs. To evaluate ad compare the eergy use ad demad of oe buildig to aother or to stadards (bechmarks) o the basis of area or eergy desity. Additioal iformatio must be kow, such as size of heated or cooled areas (sq. ft. or m2) ad type of heatig fuel. The types of calculatios ivolved are also kow as eergy use itesity, eergy budget ad demad desity. 5.2.2 Bechmark ompariso osumptio ad productio data, as i Table 5.3, ca be used to calculate a importat parameter: specific eergy cosumptio (SE). SE is simply the relevat eergy cosumptio divided by the productio for the same period. Its uits deped o the circumstaces, with the productio uit beig characteristic of the plat ad process (e.g. toes, kilograms or some other mass uit; uits set out for assembly; etc.). ommo eergy uits used are kwh, MJ ad GJ. For the data i Table 5.3, specific eergy cosumptio is as follows: Maximum week: 2098 kwh/toe Miimum week: 744 kwh/toe Average for period: 1000 kwh/toe These figures highlight the rage of variatio preset ad provide a poit of compariso with a exteral bechmark. For example, the followig idustry data may be available for this type of plat: Idustry average: 850 kwh/toe Best practice: 700 kwh/toe Best practice represets the specific eergy use achievable with the best-kow operatioal ad equipmet practices. By comparig these values with our ow, we ca draw simple coclusios: O average we may be able to achieve a 15% reductio i cosumptio. Usig best practice, which may require extesive operatioal ad techological improvemets, we could achieve savigs of up to 30%. Table of otets

B 38 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s o m p a r a t i ve A a l y s i s It is wise to be cautious whe makig this type of compariso sice we do t kow what the idustry average practice is, ad our plat may ever be able to achieve best practice stadards. But it does provide a startig poit. O the other had, ivestigatig the differeces betwee our plat ad the bechmark i terms of practices ad techology employed may well eable us to idetify both operatioal ad techological opportuities. What is clearly demostrated by both of the comparisos iteral ad exteral is that there is some opportuity for improvemet. I this case, a modest target of 5% may be a good startig poit. Table 5.3 Sample Eergy Use ad Productio Data Week Productio (toes) Eergy (kwh) Specific Eergy (kwh/toe) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 150 80 60 50 170 180 120 40 110 90 40 50 140 155 165 190 40 55 150 80 63 110 70 170 190 160 120 190 80 90 180 70 50 155 167 120 140 726 103 223 90 764 87 567 146 600 154 773 121 575 81 436 115 586 105 909 83 916 86 272 125 892 138 966 139 922 152 274 77 788 82 711 124 317 94 677 84 628 108 041 89 115 136 388 141 428 141 215 118 319 152 506 99 267 94 468 140 188 91 262 78 248 128 005 131 003 109 192 938 1290 1513 1751 862 860 1013 2036 1051 1177 2098 1725 899 897 848 801 1945 1504 829 1183 1343 982 1273 802 744 883 986 803 1241 1050 779 1304 1565 826 784 910 Table of otets

B 39 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s o m p a r a t i ve A a l y s i s 5.3 Iteral ompariso by Eergy Moitorig Eergy moitorig serves to aalyse iformatio o eergy cosumptio i order to idetify EMOs. By defiitio, moitorig is the regular collectio of iformatio o eergy use. Its purpose is to establish a basis for maagemet cotrol, determie whe ad why eergy cosumptio is deviatig from a established patter, ad form a basis for takig maagemet actio where ecessary. Moitorig is essetially aimed at preservig a established patter. Eergy moitorig may be coducted over a short period as part of the eergy audit. Subsequetly, data ca be aalysed to help ucover opportuities (i.e. EMOs), especially those that are possible through improved operatig practices ad process cotrol. Eergy moitorig ca be applied to a variety of systems ad types of eergy ad driver data: mothly plat gas cosumptio versus weather ad productio daily gas cosumptio versus daily productio for a bakery electricity cosumptio versus toage melted i a electric furace weekly or daily steam cosumptio versus fabric productio for a dye-house daily fuel cosumptio versus productio ad weather for a cemet or lime kil A iteral comparative aalysis methodology suggested for the audit would ivolve the followig: collect ad record eergy ad driver data use regressio aalysis to ivestigate what drives eergy use ad establish a baselie relatioship for eergy cosumptio use cumulative sum (USUM) aalysis to ivestigate deviatios i eergy use from the baselie set a target for reduced eergy cosumptio levels The followig sectios give details o each step, alog with samples from the comparative aalysis spreadsheet template i this guide s Techical Supplemet. 5.3.1 Eergy Moitorig Eergy moitorig is used to fid out how eergy cosumptio relates to key drivers such as productio or weather. It is a techique that relies o ot oly quatitative but also qualitative iformatio about eergy use. There are also qualitative idicators: i a buildig, huma comfort is such a sesitive idicator of chage that, if the basic eergy eeds of the buildig vary by more tha a small percetage, the occupats will otice it immediately. I may maufacturig processes, the characteristics of the product are determied by the chages that the iput of eergy brigs about for example, the colour of a loaf of bread or the dryess of ik. Table of otets

B 40 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s o m p a r a t i ve A a l y s i s These qualitative idicators are sesitive ad detectable, but they are ot easily quatified ad ofte deped o subjective impressios. Eergy moitorig requires quatitative iformatio, usually measured, such as eergy billig data, icludig electrical demad ad cosumptio, fuel cosumptio ad costs cosumptio measuremets at some level (e.g. the etire buildig, a productio departmet or a idividual eergy-cosumig system, such as a furace) key idepedet variables that ifluece eergy cosumptio, such as productio of a maufacturig system, occupacy of a buildig i terms of persos ad hours, ad/or weather factors such as heatig degree-days I essece, eergy moitorig as a techique etails quatitatively relatig cosumptio iformatio to the critical idepedet variables. 5.3.2 Eergy Use ad Productio Eergy used i productio processes typically heats, cools, chages the state of, or moves material. Obviously, it is impossible to geeralize because idustrial processes are complex ad vary widely. However, a theoretical assessmet of specific processes that is similar to the oe carried out for degree-days will yield a similar coclusio that is, there is reaso to expect that eergy plotted agaist productio will also produce a straight lie of the geeral form y = mx + c (Equatio 5.1) where c, the itercept (ad o-load or zero-productio eergy cosumptio), ad m, the slope, are empirical coefficiets, characteristic of the system beig aalysed. We have established the priciple that eergy use data by itself is of limited use i uderstadig the ature of the eergy system, i idetifyig opportuities for efficiecy improvemet or i cotrollig future eergy use. Refiig data to obtai iformatio that facilitates these fuctios ivolves aalysis followig the steps described here. The first step is to determie the fuctioal relatioship betwee eergy cosumptio ad the key determiig parameters, a relatioship of the form of equatio 5.1. This is illustrated with referece to the productio situatio for which data was give i Table 5.3. 5.3.3 Regressio Aalysis The fuctioal relatioship betwee productio ad eergy cosumptio ca usually be determied by liear regressio, i.e. by fidig the best fit of a straight lie usig the least squares method to the plot of eergy cosumptio vs. productio. Figure 5.1 shows the regressio plot for the sample productio situatio. Table of otets

41 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s o m p a r a t i ve A a l y s i s Figure 5.1 Regressio Aalysis 180 000 160 000 y = 476.48x + 59 611 R² = 0.957 140 000 120 000 Electricity (kwh) B 100 000 80 000 60 000 40 000 20 000 0 0 50 100 150 200 Productio (toes) For the etire data set, the fuctioal relatioship that we are lookig for is Electricity (kwh) = 476.48 productio (toes) + 59 611 (Equatio 5.2) However, this relatioship may or may ot represet cosistet performace that is uaffected by improvemets or breakdows. What is eeded is a baselie agaist which all other performace ca be measured. I the example, the first 12 weeks are just such a case: the performace was cosistet, o improvemets were istalled, ad o breakdows occurred. (Without iformatio o performace, fidig the baselie is a trial-ad-error process.) Whe a liear regressio is doe for the first 12 poits, Figure 5.2 results, ad the fuctioal relatioship is Electricity (kwh) = 515.8 Productio (toes) + 60 978 (Equatio 5.3) Table of otets

42 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s o m p a r a t i ve A a l y s i s Figure 5.2 Regressio o the Baselie Period 180 000 160 000 y = 515.8x + 60 978 R² = 0.9968 140 000 120 000 Electricity (kwh) B 100 000 80 000 60 000 40 000 20 000 0 0 50 100 150 200 Productio (toes) It is this relatioship that ca be used as a stadard of performace agaist which subsequet ad future performace ca be compared. Figure 5.3 Regressio Aalysis Spreadsheet Template (from omparative Aalysis.xls) Figure 5.3 shows the regressio aalysis spreadsheet from the omparative Aalysis template. Table of otets

B 43 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s o m p a r a t i ve A a l y s i s The data set i Table 5.3 ca be expaded by predictig cosumptio based o this relatioship ad the variace betwee the actual ad calculated predicted values, as Table 5.4 shows. Table 5.4 ompariso of Predicted to Actual osumptio Week Productio (toes) Eergy kwh 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 150 80 60 50 170 180 120 40 110 90 40 50 140 155 165 190 40 55 150 80 63 110 70 170 190 160 120 190 80 90 180 70 50 155 167 120 140 726 103 223 90 764 87 567 146 600 154 773 121 575 81 436 115 586 105 909 83 916 86 272 125 892 138 966 139 922 152 274 77 788 82 711 124 317 94 677 84 628 108 041 89 115 136 388 141 428 141 215 118 319 152 506 99 267 94 468 140 188 91 262 78 248 128 005 131 003 109 192 Table of otets Specific Eergy Predicted Differece (kwh/toe) Eergy (kwh) (kwh) 938 1290 1513 1751 862 860 1013 2036 1051 1177 2098 1725 899 897 848 801 1945 1504 829 1183 1343 982 1273 802 744 883 986 803 1241 1050 779 1304 1565 826 784 910 138 020 102 250 92 030 86 920 148 240 153 350 122 690 81 810 117 580 107 360 81 810 86 920 132 910 140 575 145 685 158 460 81 810 89 475 138 020 102 250 93 563 117 580 97 140 148 240 158 460 143 130 122 690 158 460 102 250 107 360 153 350 97 140 86 920 140 575 146 707 122 690 2 706 973 1 266 647 1 640 1 423 1 115 374 1 994 1 451 2 106 648 7 018 1 609 5 763 6 186 4 022 6 764 13 703 7 573 8 935 9 539 8 025 11 852 17 032 1 915 4 371 5 954 2 983 12 892 13 162 5 878 8 672 12 570 15 704 13 498

B 44 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s o m p a r a t i ve A a l y s i s 5.3.4 USUM USUM is a powerful techique for developig maagemet iformatio o, for example, a buildig, a plat or a eergy-cosumig system, such as a ove or furace. It distiguishes betwee sigificat evets that affect performace (i.e. faults or improvemets) ad oise. USUM stads for Umulative SUM of differeces, where differeces refers to the discrepacy betwee actual cosumptio ad the cosumptio expected i light of a established patter. If cosumptio cotiues to follow the established patter, the differeces betwee the actual cosumptio ad the established patter will be small ad be radomly positive or egative. The cumulative sum, or USUM, of these differeces over time will stay ear zero. Oce a chage i patter occurs because of a fault or a improvemet i the process beig moitored, the distributio of the differeces above or below zero becomes less symmetrical, ad their cumulative sum USUM icreases or decreases with time. The USUM graph therefore cosists of straight sectios separated by kiks; each kik shows a chage i patter, ad each straight sectio idicates a time whe the patter is stable. USUM is calculated by accumulatig the differeces betwee predicted ad actual performace, as show i the fial versio of the sample data set (see Table 5.5). The USUM values are the plotted as a time series, yieldig a graph as show i Figure 5.4. Table of otets

B 45 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s o m p a r a t i ve A a l y s i s Table 5.5 Productio Data with USUM Week Productio (toes) Eergy kwh Specific Eergy Predicted (kwh/toe) Eergy (kwh) 1 150 140 726 938 138 020 2 80 103 223 1290 3 60 90 764 1513 4 50 87 567 5 170 6 Differece (kwh) USUM (kwh) 2 706 2 706 102 250 973 3 679 92 030 1 266 2 413 1751 86 920 647 3 060 146 600 862 148 240 1 640 1 420 180 154 773 860 153 350 1 423 2 843 7 120 121 575 1013 122 690 1 115 1 728 8 40 81 436 2036 81 810 374 1 354 9 110 115 586 1051 117 580 1 994 640 10 90 105 909 1177 107 360 1 451 2 091 11 40 83 916 2098 81 810 2 106 15 12 50 86 272 1725 86 920 648 633 13 140 125 892 899 132 910 7 018 7 651 14 155 138 966 897 140 575 1 609 9 260 15 165 139 922 848 145 685 5 763 15 023 16 190 152 274 801 158 460 6 186 21 209 17 40 77 788 1945 81 810 4 022 25 231 18 55 82 711 1504 89 475 6 764 31 995 19 150 124 317 829 138 020 13 703 45 698 20 80 94 677 1183 102 250 7 573 53 271 21 63 84 628 1343 93 563 8 935 62 206 22 110 108 041 982 117 580 9 539 71 745 23 70 89 115 1273 97 140 8 025 79 770 24 170 136 388 802 148 240 11 852 9 122 25 190 141 428 744 158 460 17 032 10 854 26 160 141 215 883 143 130 1 915 11 069 27 120 118 319 986 122 690 4 371 11 440 28 190 152 506 803 158 460 5 954 12 094 29 80 99 267 1241 102 250 2 983 12 377 30 90 94 468 1050 107 360 12 892 13 669 31 180 140 188 779 153 350 13 162 14 931 32 70 91 262 1304 97 140 5 878 15 509 33 50 78 248 1565 86 920 8 672 16 481 34 155 128 005 826 140 575 12 570 17 751 35 167 131 003 784 146 707 15 704 19 255 36 120 109 192 910 122 690 13 498 20 653 Table of otets

B 46 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s o m p a r a t i ve A a l y s i s The critical poits o the USUM graph are the chages i the slope of the lie. These ca be easily see ad more precisely located by layig straight lies over the sectios that have a more or less costat slope. We see that these slope chages occurred at weeks 12, 18, 25 ad 30. Figure 5.4 Example of USUM Graph for Productio 50 000 - USUM Electricity (kwh) 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35-50 000-100 000-150 000-200 000-250 000 Week Specifically, i terms of the process beig aalysed, the graph idicates the followig: There have bee two measures to reduce cosumptio; oe took effect i week 12, the other i week 18. The first measure had saved 73 500 kwh, ad the secod measure had saved 36 800 kwh by the time it broke dow i week 25. The secod measure was restored i week 30; ad by the ed of data series, the combied measures had saved 201 300 kwh. The omparative Aalysis spreadsheet (omparative Aalysis.xls) provides USUM aalysis tools that ca be adapted to virtually ay data set similar to the precedig example. 5.4 Target Settig I the cotext of a eergy audit, a reductio target may have bee established at the outset, with the audit beig udertake to fid ways to achieve it. Alteratively, the iformatio derived from the audit may provide a basis for settig a realistic target. Target settig is more of a art tha a sciece, but there are techiques that ca be used to esure that targets are ot trivial but are still achievable. Table of otets

B 47 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s o m p a r a t i ve A a l y s i s Performace Bechmarks Earlier, we saw that iteral ad exteral comparisos of eergy performace ca be used to set performace targets. The comparative aalysis of processes or the buildigs i the ower s portfolio i.e. the compariso of curret ad past eergy cosumptio is a form of bechmarkig i which the stadard is a iteral oe rather tha a sectoral or idustry-wide oe. This approach is suitable for buildigs ad idustry. It is usually take i graphical format, where a bar graph or colum chart is used to compare the data from the curret period with a similar previous period. Normalized Performace Idicator (NPI) Kowig how the idustry at large performs may lead to more aggressive eergyreductio targets. Ufortuately, bechmarks of this kid may ot be available, although some idustry associatios accumulate ad commuicate sectoral performace iformatio. Data o the performace of specific kids of buildigs is geerally available for compariso. The NPI is a techique for quatifyig buildig eergy performace. It provides a yardstick figure for eergy cosumptio, such as kwh/m2/year (although, i the case of the health care sector, it is more usually based o buildig volume, i.e. m3). The calculatio requires a total aual eergy cosumptio figure ad a floor area or buildig volume. The eergy ratio ca the be ormalized by referrig to tables that idicate operatig hours, weather, etc. NPIs are used to idicate performace o the basis of the facility s total eergy cosumptio, idividual eergy source (e.g. atural gas, electricity, fuel oil) or use i the facility (e.g. space heatig, process heat). Specific Eergy osumptio Specific eergy cosumptio (SE) applies to idustry. It is simply the eergy used divided by a appropriate productio measure (e.g. toes of steel, umber of widgets). It ca be calculated for ay fixed time period or by batch. SEs eed to be treated with care because their variability may be due to factors such as ecoomies of scale or productio problems rather tha eergy maagemet as such. Table of otets

48 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s o m p a r a t i ve A a l y s i s There are may process bechmarkig methods based o SEs, ad their ease of use makes them attractive to may compaies. However, some practitioers regard SEs as too simplistic ad flawed. A illustratio of SE for glass meltig is show i Figure 5.5. Figure 5.5 SE for Glass Meltig 74 580 72 560 70 68 540 66 64 520 62 500 60 58 Toes/Week Therms/Toe B 480 56 54 460 1 2 3 4 5 6 Week Number Prelimiary Targets Whe settig up M&T, it is ofte appropriate to use stadard cosumptio as the target, at least for the first few weeks. Stadard cosumptio represets historical average performace; therefore, cotiuously achievig stadard cosumptio will ot geerate savigs. Because stadard performace represets a average, it follows that actual performace exceeds this level of efficiecy for a sigificat fractio of the time, thus maitaiig utility users motivatio to achieve savigs. The target is felt to be realistic, ad, i additio, high cosumptio is corrected. Poits o the scatter plot above the lie of best fit are collapsed toward the lie, ad savigs are achieved. Figure 5.6 a sheet from the omparative Aalysis template shows a prelimiary target based o historical average performace. Table of otets

B 49 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s o m p a r a t i ve A a l y s i s Figure 5.6 Target-Settig Spreadsheet (from omparative Aalysis.xls) Also show i Figure 5.6 are targets based o the followig: the baselie model maitaiig the status quo the period of best performace a selected period from the historical or moitored period estimated performace based o a arbitrary or estimated icremetal performace from the average performace Revisio of Targets After M&T has bee i operatio for a while, the prelimiary target based o stadard performace will be easily attaiable ad should be reset. This ca be doe i a umber of ways, icludig the followig: Use the best fit of the improved data as a target. This yields a modest but geerally attaiable target. Defie best historical performace as the target. This will produce the most demadig target, but with the required effort it will still be attaiable. Base a target o agreed-upo actios that are desiged to yield specific, quatifiable savigs. Table of otets

B 50 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s o m p a r a t i ve A a l y s i s Set a target for a arbitrary percetage improvemet o curret performace. Although arbitrary, this target will be attaiable if chose properly. If the target exceeds the best historical performace, it will likely be uattaiable ad therefore avoided. This method is ot recommeded. Whichever method is used, it is essetial for staff from each departmet to be ivolved i the process of settig the targets ad to have iput regardig what is or is ot realistic. Otherwise, key staff members may ot buy ito the M&T approach, ad targets will ot be achieved. 5.5 Referece Dollars to $ese Eergy Moitorig workshop, Natural Resources aada oee.rca.gc.ca/idustrial/traiig-awareess/emt.cfm Table of otets

B 51 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s P r o f i l e E e r g y U s e Pa t t e r s 6 Profile Eergy Use Patters 6.1 Itroductio osiderable iformatio about your facility s operatios ca be revealed by its electrical demad profile. This time record of eergy cosumptio shows electrical loads operatig at ay time ad the aggregate demad represeted by those loads. I additio, a demad profile ca reveal loads that are operatig whe they do t eed to be ad idetify systems that are iappropriately sized. Because the cost of electricity is determied i part by the maximum demad draw, reducig that demad ca sigificatly lower your eergy costs. omparative Aalysis EMOs Profile Eergy Use Patters EMOs Ivetory Eergy Use EMOs Depedig o the size of your facility ad the resources at your disposal, it may be possible to istall meterig eve temporarily at various locatios i your facility to geerate a profile of electrical demad. Alteratively, your electrical utility may be able to provide you with a electrical demad profile or help you to obtai it. Although the demad profile is a measuremet of electrical eergy, it also provides iformatio about the cosumptio of other forms of eergy. The demad profile provides a operatioal figerprit, or eergy sigature, of a facility, ad it is a key part of ay eergy audit. Other methods of profilig or data loggig are discussed i Sectio 6.6 ad i Sectio -4, Istrumetatio for Eergy Auditig. 6.2 What Is a Demad Profile? The demad profile for a facility, buildig, service etrace or ay user of electricity is simply a record of the power demad (rate of eergy use) over time. Its purpose is to provide detailed iformatio about how the facility as a whole uses eergy. As the electrical figerprit of the facility, it is extremely useful for trackig eergy use. The simplest demad profile is a series of maual utility meter readigs recorded mothly, daily, hourly or, if possible, more frequetly. The particular time iterval used will deped o what the iformatio i the demad profile is to be used for. Table 6.1 shows a sample of a maually recorded hourly demad profile. Table of otets

B 52 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s P r o f i l e E e r g y U s e Pa t t e r s Table 6.1 Maual (Tabular) Demad Profile Hour kw Hour kw Hour kw 1:00 a.m. 2:00 a.m. 3:00 a.m. 4:00 a.m. 5:00 a.m. 6:00 a.m. 7:00 a.m. 8:00 a.m. 45 47 43 46 45 62 69 95 9:00 a.m. 10:00 a.m. 11:00 a.m. 12:00 p.m. 1:00 p.m. 2:00 p.m. 3:00 p.m. 4:00 p.m. 120 122 121 100 124 135 120 123 5:00 p.m. 6:00 p.m. 7:00 p.m. 8:00 p.m. 9:00 p.m. 10:00 p.m. 11:00 p.m. 12:00 a.m. 110 82 60 61 63 61 65 50 The iformatio required for a mothly demad profile appears o most utility ivoices. With such a profile, there are of course oly 12 values available for a year. A alterative to a maual tabulatio of demad readigs, as show i Table 6.1, would be a graph similar to that show i Figure 6.1. This method of presetatio helps compare relative demad levels throughout the day ad quickly idetifies the hours of peak power demad ad startup ad shutdow characteristics. Figure 6.1 The most commoly used form of demad profile is similar to that show i Figure 6.2. The profile covers a period of approximately 24 hours; slightly more tha 24 hours is better tha slightly fewer. The power demad appears o the vertical axis; the time, i hours, appears o the horizotal axis. Table of otets

B 53 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s P r o f i l e E e r g y U s e Pa t t e r s Figure 6.2 A recordig power meter was used to geerate the demad profile show i Figure 6.2. Readigs are geerally recorded automatically, less tha oe miute apart. I some cases, readigs may be adjusted by the recordig istrumet to match those that would be take from the utility meter. The profile show i Figure 6.2 cotais real power iformatio measured i kilowatts (kw), kilovolt-amps (kva) ad power factor. More sophisticated recordig power meters ca record these values ad others, icludig three-phase voltage, curret ad power quality parameters. omparig Figure 6.1 ad 6.2 clearly shows the advatage of usig a recordig power meter. Although a hour-by-hour profile is a valuable startig poit, a recordig power meter provides sigificatly more detail. A great deal of useful iformatio ca be derived from the demad profile, as Table 6.2 illustrates. Table of otets

B 54 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s P r o f i l e E e r g y U s e Pa t t e r s Table 6.2 Evets to Look For i a Demad Profile Iformatio Descriptio Peak demad The time, magitude ad duratio of the peak demad period or periods may be determied. Night load The demad at ight (or durig uoccupied hours) is clearly idetified. Start-up The effect of operatio start-up(s) upo demad ad peak demad may be determied. Shutdow The amout of load tured off at shutdow may be idetified. This should equal the start-up icremet. Weather effects The effect of weather coditios o demad for electricity ca be idetified from day to ight (with chagig temperature) ad from seaso to seaso by comparig demad profiles i each seaso. Loads that cycle The duty cycle of may loads ca usually be see i the demad profile. This ca be compared to what is expected. Iteractios Iteractios betwee systems may be evidet: for example, icreased demad for electric heat whe vetilatio dampers are opeed. Occupacy effects Ofte the occupacy schedule for a facility is reflected i the demad profile; if ot, it could be a idicatio of cotrol problems. Productio effects As i the case of occupacy, the effect of icreased load o productio equipmet should be evidet i the demad profile; agai, lack of data may be a idicatio of problems. Problem areas A short-cyclig compressor is usually easy to spot from the demad profile. Iformatio from the demad profile is ot limited to the items metioed above; these are some of the most obvious examples. By profilig departmets ad/or other sectios of the facility, you ca gai detailed iformatio about the facility s power demad habits. 6.3 Obtaiig a Demad Profile Facility demad profiles may be obtaied by a umber of methods, icludig periodic utility meter readigs recordig clip-o ammeter measuremets basic ad multi-chael recordig power meters a facility eergy maagemet system a dedicated moitorig system Although readig utility meter readigs periodically is the cheapest ad simplest method, the resultig data is limited. At the other ed of the spectrum (a dedicated moitorig system), multi-chael recorders are expesive ad complex to use, but they yield a wealth of iformatio, from real power to power quality. Details o the istrumets used to geerate demad profiles are foud i Sectio -4, Istrumetatio for Eergy Auditig. Table of otets

B 55 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s P r o f i l e E e r g y U s e Pa t t e r s Whatever techique is used, it is importat to measure the demad profile at a time whe the operatio of the facility is typical ad, if at all possible, whe peak demad is equal to the peak demad as registered by the utility meter for the curret billig period. This is because the overall objective i measurig the load profile is to idetify which loads cotribute to the billed peak demad. 6.3.1 Periodic Utility Meter Readigs This maual method usually records data hourly, ad it requires a meter that is accessible for readigs. Its pricipal drawbacks are its limited time resolutio (forcig the iterpreter to estimate the load i betwee readigs) ad the demad that it places o staff (takig readigs might be a suitable task for a studet). The advatages of the method are its simplicity, o capital cost, ad the fact that readigs match the utility s readigs exactly. Matchig utility readigs usig other methods is less straightforward. 6.3.2 Recordig Ammeter A recordig ammeter is a sigle- or three-phase ammeter coected to a device that stores readigs periodically. It may be istalled o a facility s icomig service coductors to record curret draw over time. The data acquired may the be combied with the system voltage ad the power factor to yield a estimated demad readig. The recordig device, which may be a computerized uit, is usually a strip chart recorder. The most sigificat limitatio of this method is that it does ot measure real power (kw) or reactive power (kva). Istead, it makes the assumptio that the curret is proportioal to the power. This is true oly whe two coditios exist: The voltage at the service etrace is always costat; if it is ot, the error itroduced will deped directly o the voltage variatio. This is a reasoable assumptio give the ormally expected voltage variatio; ad The power factor is costat at all demad levels. This assumptio is questioable, ad the oly way to test it is to measure the power factor by meas of the method described above at various demad levels for example, at 25%, 50%, 75% ad 100% of the peak demad. If there is a dramatic chage i power factor, this method may well yield iaccurate results. 6.3.3 Basic ad Multi-hael Recordig Power Meters These methods of measurig the demad profile are virtually the same except that the basic method would ormally record oly oe value, such as kw or kva, whereas the multi-chael method could record kw, kva, phase curret, voltage, overall power factor ad possibly other values. The recordig power meter measures curret ad voltage simultaeously for up to three phases, ad it electroically calculates kw, kva ad power factor. A recordig device such as a magetic tape, paper chart recorder or microprocessor-based data logger stores all iformatio for later use. Table of otets

B 56 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s P r o f i l e E e r g y U s e Pa t t e r s Whe usig demad profile results measured by a recordig power meter or ammeter, it is importat to remember that the power meter takes a large umber of readigs per miute. Such meters are capable of registerig very fast chages i power demad, whereas utility meters are ot (see Figure 6.3). The stadard utility meter averages the demad over the previous 15-miute period. Some power meter models will calculate a average; others will ot. Iterpretig the demad profile (see Sectio 6.4) must take this ito cosideratio. Figure 6.3 Power Meterig Readigs vs. 15-Miute Average Data 6.3.4 A Facility Eergy Maagemet System The key advatage of this method is that the measuremets are ogoig ad routie. Data is cotiuously available, ad aalysis ca be itegrated ito a daily eergy maagemet routie. Ofte, existig facility eergy maagemet systems are capable of performig these measuremets but simply lack the ecessary power (watt) sesors. Disadvatages may iclude a lack of memory to store values (which requires pritig or dowloadig of data periodically), limited time resolutio of measuremets, low accuracy readigs due to trasducers, ad miimal umber of istallatios. 6.3.5 A Dedicated Moitorig System At a miimum, a dedicated moitorig system would measure the power cosumed at the service etrace. Typically, such systems are implemeted to provide sub-meter iformatio for selected parts of the overall facility. Moitorig systems are geerally desiged for accurate measuremets ad effective data storage ad presetatios. Measuremets of may other parameters may be correlated with demad to help aalyse the demad profiles. Dedicated moitorig systems are geerally at the core of larger, fully itegrated moitorig ad trackig systems. Table of otets

B 57 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s P r o f i l e E e r g y U s e Pa t t e r s 6.4 Aalysig the Demad Profile The demad profile is the electrical figerprit of a facility s electrical cosumptio patters. Key iformatio ca be obtaied by readig or iterpretig the profile. This icludes loads that operate cotiuously ad that could be shut dow, loads that cotribute uecessarily to the peak demad, ad loads that are operatig abormally ad require maiteace. May electrical loads leave behid very distict figerprits as they operate. By recogizig the patters associated with each compoet, it is possible to idetify the cotributio of various loads to the overall demad profile. Iterpretig a demad profile is ot just sciece (techical skill) art (iterpretative skill) is ivolved too. Good kowledge of the facility, its loads, operatioal patters ad the examples i this sectio should provide a solid basis for developig that iterpretative skill. Step 1 It is useful to begi with a list or ivetory of electrical loads withi a facility. Sectio 7 describes a method of compilig such a list. Step 2 Study the demad profile ad circle or make a ote of all the sigificat occurreces, such as: abrupt chages i demad the top three peak demads repeated patters flat sectios dips durig peak periods miimum demad level This is oly a partial list; every demad profile is differet. Mark aythig that appears to be sigificat. Step 3 Mark alog the time scale the time of day whe sigificat operatioal evets occur. Such evets iclude: start-up ad shutdow coffee breaks luch hour shift chages other otable evets (operatio of a specific process) The purpose here is to spot some correlatio betwee the features oted i Step 2 ad work patters i the facility. Table of otets

B 58 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s P r o f i l e E e r g y U s e Pa t t e r s Step 4 Study the examples i the followig sectio. Note the patters ad the iterpretatios give ad try to match the patters ad shapes of your operatio with the examples. The overall result should be a aotated profile similar to that show i Figure 6.3. Spreadsheets are a coveiet meas of aalysig profiles. The profile spreadsheet template (Profile.xls) i this guide provides a simple tool for graphig ad aalysig profile data. Figure 6.4 shows a sample demad profile aalysis for a idustrial facility. Figure 6.4 Demad Profile Aalysis Spreadsheet (from Profile.xls) I additio to the familiar time-series represetatio of the demad profile, this spreadsheet template provides a load duratio curve, which is essetially a histogram of load versus time. The load duratio curve shows the amout of time that the load is above a certai value. This curve simplifies the assessmet of demad cotrol opportuities. I the example show, the demad peaks at 446 kw, ad the demad is betwee 424 ad 446 kw for 4.6% of the time. This meas that to achieve a demad savigs of 22 kw (446 kw mius 424 kw), this plat would eed to be i a demad-limitig or demad-cotrollig mode for about 5% of the time. Table of otets

B 59 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s P r o f i l e E e r g y U s e Pa t t e r s 6.5 Opportuities for Savigs i the Demad Profile Ofte, opportuities for savigs ca be foud i the demad profile. The followig are typical examples of savigs opportuities: A peak demad that is sigificatly higher tha the remaider of the profile for a short amout of time affords a opportuity to reduce demad through schedulig. A high ight load i a facility without ight operatios presets a opportuity for eergy savigs through better maual or automatic cotrol or possibly time clocks to shut dow equipmet that is ot required to operate all ight. Loads that cycle o ad off frequetly durig uoccupied periods it may be possible to shut them dow completely. High demads durig breaks i a productio operatio or isigificat drops at break times suggest that equipmet idlig may be costly. osider shuttig equipmet dow durig these periods. Make sure that systems are ot startig up before they are eeded ad shuttig dow after the eed has passed. Eve half a hour per day ca save a sigificat amout if the load is high. Peak demad periods at start-up times suggest a opportuity for staged start-up i order to avoid the peak. If the billed demad peak is ot evidet o a typical demad profile, this suggests that the load or loads that determie the demad may ot be ecessary (i.e. if they operate oly oce i a while). osider schedulig or sheddig these loads. Also check the billig history to see if the demad peak is cosistet. A large load that cycles o ad off frequetly may result i a higher peak demad ad lower utilizatio efficiecy tha a smaller machie ruig cotiuously. osider usig smaller staged uits or machies. This strategy may also reduce maiteace because startig ad stoppig machies icreases wear ad tear. Short cyclig loads provide a clue to idetifyig opportuities for maiteace savigs ad failure prevetio. I some cases, o-essetial loads may be temporarily discoected durig peak periods. This practice is commoly referred to as peak sheddig or peak shavig. 6.5.1 Savigs Opportuities Through Power Factor orrectio Power factor should be cosidered whe aalysig electricity billigs. A value for power factor may appear o your utility ivoice; however, it is commo to meter power factor whe meterig demad. Power factor values, whe viewed alogside the demad profile, help to determie what actios have caused demad chages. Therefore, it is useful to cosider savigs opportuities related to power factor at this poit. Table of otets

B 60 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s P r o f i l e E e r g y U s e Pa t t e r s The demad profile illustrated i Figure 6.2 shows power factor values throughout the day, icludig the time of peak or maximum demad. For customers billed o kva demad, there is a opportuity to reduce the peak or maximum kva demad by icreasig power factor. As detailed i Sectio -1, Eergy Fudametals, power factor is the ratio of real power i kilowatts (kw) to the apparet power i kilovolt-amps (kva). With the applicatio of a capacitor or bak of capacitors, it is possible to reduce kva demad while maitaiig real power cosumptio (i.e. kw demad). I practice, it is oly the o-peak power factor that is relevat to demad costs. orrect power factor at the service etrace: This ca be achieved by addig a fixed capacitor bak, provided that the load ad power factor are costat. Otherwise, a variable capacitor bak (i.e. oe that adjusts to the load ad power factor) will be required. orrect power factor i the distributio system: Whe large baks of loads are switched as a uit withi the distributio system, istallig capacitors at the poit of switchig may be a advatage. This has a secodary beefit i that it may also free up curret-carryig capacity withi the distributio system. orrect poit-of-use power factor: Whe a large umber of motors start ad stop frequetly or are oly partially loaded, it may be operatioally advatageous to istall power factor correctio capacitors at the poit of use (i.e. the motor). I this way the correctio capacitors are brought olie with the motor ad removed as the motor is stopped. Utilize sychroous motors to provide power factor correctio: For very large systems, capacitors ca become large ad uwieldy. Oe alterative approach is to use a large over-excited sychroous motor, which ca have the same effect o a electrical circuit as a capacitor. 6.6 Other Useful Profiles Although demad profilig reveals a wealth of iformatio about electricity-cosumig systems, there are may other parameters that ca be profiled for short periods as part of a audit. Some typical applicatios are listed i Sectio -4.12, ompact Data Loggers, which describes the geeral purpose of dedicated data loggers. Usig such data loggers usually geerates EMOs. A example of a dedicated data logger is a combiatio occupacy light-sesor logger. Figure 6.5 provides a sample of the output of this type of logger, showig whe a area is occupied ad whe the lights are o. This device quickly idicates the beefit of istallig motio-sesor lightig: lights remaied o whe the area was vacat for 24% of the time. Table of otets

B 61 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s P r o f i l e E e r g y U s e Pa t t e r s Figure 6.5 Sample Output from a Dedicated Data Logger (courtesy of The Watt Stopper Ic.) Table of otets

B 62 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s I ve t o r y E e r g y U s e 7 Ivetory Eergy Use Profile Eergy Use Patters EMOs Two of the eergy auditor s essetial tools for fully assessig a facility are the demad profile (i.e. the characterizatio of the electrical loads i terms of time of use ad size) ad the load ivetory. These two tools are complemetary i that they describe i quatitative detail the systems that cosume eergy i a facility. Ivetory Eergy Use EMOs The eergy auditor eeds to kow where eergy is beig cosumed, how much is cosumed by each system, ad how all the systems add up as a aggregate load. It is helpful to kow how the total eergy load is distributed amog various systems. Idetify EMOs 7.1 Itroductio The load ivetory is a systematic way of collectig ad orgaizig this kid of iformatio. It is a useful tool for udertakig what if assessmets of proposed measures, i.e. estimatig the impact of retrofits or other techological or operatioal chage. 7.2 The Electrical Load Ivetory Makig a list or ivetory of all loads i a facility aswers two importat questios: Where is the electricity used? How much ad how fast is electricity used i each category? Ofte, the process of idetifyig categories of use allows waste to be easily idetified, ad this frequetly leads to low-cost savigs opportuities. Idetifyig high-cosumptio loads lets you cosider the best savigs opportuities first. Because the ivetory also quatifies the demad (i.e. how fast electricity is used) associated with each load or group of loads, it is ivaluable for further iterpretatio of the demad profile (see Sectio 6, Profile Eergy Use Patters ). Figure 7.1 illustrates a possible presetatio of the results of the load ivetory. Figure 7.1 Load Ivetory Results Table of otets

B 63 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s I ve t o r y E e r g y U s e 7.2.1 ompilig a Load Ivetory This sectio outlies a method for compilig a load ivetory. Forms ad calculatios of the load ivetory are described i Sectio -5, Electrical Ivetory Method. The method is illustrated with sample sheets from the load ivetory spreadsheet template icluded i the Techical Supplemet. I additio to the load ivetory forms (paper or electroic), a clipboard, pecil ad calculator are eeded. Istrumetatio is ot a ecessity; a simple had-held power meter is probably the most valuable tool. This ad other istrumets are discussed i Sectio -4, Istrumetatio for Eergy Auditig. To begi the load ivetory, choose a period of time correspodig to the utility billig period (usually a moth, although it could also be a day, week or year). Select a period that is typical for your operatios. Determie the actual demad i kw ad the eergy cosumptio i kwh for the period selected. If the period is a moth, take iformatio from the utility bill. If the facility demad is measured i kva, this will require a calculatio based o the peak power factor to covert kva to kw (see Sectio -1, Eergy Fudametals ). Idetify each of the major categories of electricity use i the facility. You may have to tour the facility ad list categories as you otice them. Whe idetifyig various categories of eergy use, it is useful to cosider both the type of electricity use ad the activity i each area. Selectig categories with similar operatioal patters is a good approach. Figure 7.2 shows categories of use ad the billig iformatio etered. Figure 7.2 Load Ivetory ategories of Use i Spreadsheet (from Load Ivetory.xls) Table of otets

B 64 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s I ve t o r y E e r g y U s e Figure 7.2 also shows the peak demad ad eergy cosumptio of each area of use. These values are derived from load ad time data for idividual loads. The two most commo load calculatios are motor load method this estimates motor-coected electrical loads from motor horsepower, loadig ad efficiecy ameplate or measured coected kw load this estimates load power cosumptio based o the ameplate ratig of the load or from a power measuremet with a power meter Details of these ad a more detailed method ivolvig curret ad voltage are provided i Sectio -5. Figure 7.3 illustrates sample spreadsheets for use with the motor load method ad the ameplate or measured coected kw load method. Figure 7.3 Load Ivetory Spreadsheets ( Load Ivetory.xls) Load Ivetory of Motors View Summary for AB Maufacturig Facility Subtotals for Motors Motor Motor Descriptio Qty HP Load Eff' y Vet Fas System 1 1 75 100% 90% 47 247 kwh 28 kw (Peak) Uit Total Hours Total kw kw /Moth kwh 62.2 62.2 760 Diversity Peak kw Factor Demad 0.45 28.0 47 247 After all loads i all categories are ivetoried, the total demad ad eergy ca be recociled with the utility billed data for the period selected. Pie charts ca be created from the summary iformatio. Figure 7.4 shows a partially completed ivetory ot fully recociled with utility bills. Table of otets

B 65 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s I ve t o r y E e r g y U s e Figure 7.4 Load Ivetory Summary with Pie harts (from Load Ivetory.xls) 7.3 The Thermal Eergy Use Ivetory Idetificatio of Eergy Flows Idetifyig thermal eergy flows associated with each eergy use i a facility is made simple with a eergy flow diagram. A useful diagram will show all eergy flows ito the facility, all outgoig flows from the facility to the eviromet, ad all sigificat eergy flows withi the facility. Figure 7.5 Eergy Flow Diagram Table of otets

B 66 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s I ve t o r y E e r g y U s e The purpose of a eergy flow diagram is ot to describe a process i detail; it will geerally ot show specific devices ad equipmet that are foud i its various subsystem blocks. Illustratig eergy flows is the pricipal objective at this stage. The sum of the eergy outflows should equal purchased eergy iflows. Whe we have the complete picture of the major iteral eergy flows ad those from ad to the surroudigs, it is ofte possible to see opportuities for eergy reductio ad recovery. 7.3.1 Idetifyig the Type of Eergy Flow Table 7.1 below ca be used as a checklist to help idetify thermal eergy outflows from a subsystem or a facility. Although this list does ot cotai every possible type of eergy flow, it does cover a selectio of the more commo types oes that ofte lead to savigs opportuities. Table 7.1 hecklist of Thermal Eergy Outflows Eergy Flow Type Example Equipmet/Fuctios oductio Wall, widows Buildig structure Airflow sesible Geeral exhaust Exhaust ad make-up air systems, combustio air itake Airflow latet Dryer exhaust Laudry exhaust, pool vetilatio, process dryig, equipmet exhaust Hot or cold fluid Warm water to drai Domestic hot water, process hot water, process coolig water, water-cooled air compressors Pipe heat loss Steam pipelie Steam pipes, hot water pipes, ay hot pipe Tak heat loss Hot fluid tak Storage ad holdig taks Refrigeratio system output heat old storage oolers, freezers, process coolig, air coditioig Steam leaks ad vets Steam vet Boiler plat, distributio system, steam appliace 7.3.2 alculatios for Estimatig Eergy Outflows Sectio -1 describes how to calculate thermal eergy flows. The spreadsheet template Thermal Ivetory.xls automates may of these methods. See Figure 7.6 for examples of calculatios of eergy i latet heat i moist airflows ad steam flows. Table of otets

B 67 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s I ve t o r y E e r g y U s e Figure 7.6 Thermal Eergy alculatios Spreadsheet Template (from Thermal Ivetory.xls) Air Flow - Latet Heat Meu Air Flow litres/sec 2,000 Descriptio Dryer Exhaust Thigh () 40 RHhigh (%) 90% Tlow () 20 RHlow (%) 50% Hhigh g/kg 43.8 Hlow g/kg 7.3 Heat Flow Mothly kw Hours 219.8 732 - oductio Meu Area oductace m2 W/m2 100 0.900 Descriptio Warehouse Roof Thigh 20 Tlow 5 Steam Flow, Leak & ost Descriptio Small Dryer i Plat B Mothly Eergy kwh GJ 160,920 579.3 - Steam Flow Steam Pressure Type kpa gauge Size Specifier Plume Legth (mmx100) 20.0 520 Steam Flow kg/hr 105.6 Heat Flow kw 1.35 Steam Ethalpy kj/kg 2,758 Mothly Hours 732 Mothly Eergy kwh GJ 988 3.6 -Meu Heat Flow Mothly kw Hours 81 732 Mothly Eergy kwh GJ 59,245 213.3 7.3.3 alculatios for Estimatig Eergy Iflows Usig a eergy flow diagram, you ca begi to quatify the iflows of eergy i terms of rate (kw) ad amout (GJ per day, moth or year). I may cases, the iformatio ecessary to perform these eergy calculatios is readily available for several pieces of equipmet ad processes. Nameplate Ratigs Equipmet specificatios provide thermal eergy requiremet data. Fuel-fired equipmet is rated i terms of fuel iput rates. Oil-fired boilers are ofte rated accordig to eergy iput rates such as Btu/hr. or MBtu/hr. Give equipmet operatig times, eergy use ca be estimated by meas of the eergy calculatio methods preseted i Sectio -1, Eergy Fudametals. Figure 7.7 shows a sample ivetory of eergy iputs from the fuel systems spreadsheet template. Table of otets

B 68 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s I ve t o r y E e r g y U s e Figure 7.7 Fuel-osumig Systems Spreadsheet (from Fuel Systems.xls) Summary of Fuel osumig Systems Equipmet Mai Boiler DHW Heater Heat Treat Furace Total Fuel Type N. Gas N. Gas N. Gas Estimated Fuel Usage 600000 50000 1000000 Iput Eergy Uits m3 m3 m3 3 ombustio Systems Eergy (GJ) 22,560,000 1,880,000 37,600,000 - Eergy Use i Fuel- osumig Systems Mai Boiler 36% Heat Treat Furace 61% DHW Heater 3% 62,040,000 Steam Flow There may be steam flow meterig available i your plat. Steam-cosumig equipmet will have a specified requiremet for steam flow rate. Sectio -1 details methods of estimatig eergy use from steam flow rates. Figure 7.8 shows a sample steam calculatio spreadsheet for estimatig the cost of eergy from steam. Figure 7.8 Steam ost alculatio Spreadsheet (from Thermal Ivetory.xls) Estimatio of the ost of Saturated Steam Icremetal ost of Fuel Eergy otet Boiler Efficiecy Saturated Steam Pressure (gauge) Steam Ethalpy (Vapour + Water) ost per 1000 kg ost per 1000 lb $0.25 37.60 76% 700.0 2769 $24.23 $11.01 /uit MJ/uit kpa gauge kj/kg /1000 kg /1000 lb Note: Steam ethalpies are calculated for saturated steam usig a approximatio with a accuracy of +/- 1%. Table of otets

B 69 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s I ve t o r y E e r g y U s e Applicatio to a Sample Eergy System Sectio 7.3 itroduced the cocept of the eergy flow diagram as a way to develop a thermal eergy-use ivetory for a facility. Figure 7.9 illustrates a simple idustrial food-processig system. Figure 7.9 Idustrial Food-Processig System Figure 7.10 Eergy Flow Diagram Table of otets

B 70 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s I ve t o r y E e r g y U s e Figure 7.10 represets the simplified eergy flow diagram that was used to build the eergy use ivetory show i Table 7.2. All calculatios are based o the methods outlied i this chapter. All eergy figures for this example are for oe day s operatio of a lobster processig plat a 10-hour operatig period. The heat of fusio (freezig ad meltig) for water is assumed to be 360 kj/kg. The amout of lobster processed durig this 10-hour period is assumed to be equivalet to 1000 kg of water i heat capacity. The referece water temperature is assumed to be 10. Table 7.2 The Eergy Use Ivetory Eergy Flow Basis for Eergy alculatios Eergy (MJ) No. 2 oil 127 L per day Electricity 150 kwh per day 539 MJ Hot flue gases 20% of eergy ito boiler 990 MJ Blowdow loss 1% of fuel Steam heat 79% of eergy ito boiler 3900 MJ Moist exhaust Sesible heat (1000 L/s from 20 to 30 ) Latet heat (1000 L/s from 50% to 70% relative humidity 430 MJ 1260 MJ 1690 MJ total Hot water overflow 450 L per day at 90 170 MJ Hot water dumped 4500 L per day at 90 1700 MJ Hot lobster Equivalet to 1000 kg of water raised from 10 to 90 340 MJ Warm water dumped 15 000 L at 15 (lobster cooled to 15 ) 315 MJ Electricity to coveyor 3 kw for 10 hours 108 MJ Heat ad oise All of coveyor eergy 108 MJ Warm lobster to freezer Lobster is cooled from 15 to 0 Lobster is froze at 0 Lobster is cooled to 30 (equivalet to 1000 kg of water) 63 MJ 360 MJ 60 MJ 4937 MJ 49 MJ 483 MJ total Electricity to compressor 11.6 kw for 10 hours Freezer is 10 tos (covert to toes ) (35 kw) with a OP of 3.0 odeser coolig water 33 L/mi from 10 to 30 Heat from surroudigs oolig water mius heat from lobster mius electricity to compressor Table of otets 420 MJ 1680 MJ 777 MJ

B 71 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s I ve t o r y E e r g y U s e 7.4 Eergy Ivetories ad the Eergy Balace Oe of the implicatios of the eergy balace priciple uderlyig the audit is that we ca quatify all eergy iputs ad balace them agaist all eergy outputs. The eergy flow diagram for the idustrial food-processig plat is balaced the eergy iflow equals the eergy outflows. A coveiet graphical represetatio of this is the Sakey diagram, which is illustrated with referece to a boiler i Figure 7.11. Figure 7.11 Sakey Diagram of Eergy Balace for a Boiler The Sakey diagram summarizes the eergy balace for a give system, idicatig (1) the magitude of all eergy iputs ad outputs by the size of the arrows ad (2) the approximate sequece i which outputs occur alog the eergy flow path. Other Sakey diagrams are show i Sectio -2, Details of Eergy-osumig Systems. 7.4.1 Buildig Evelope Eergy Heat Loss Aother example of a thermal eergy balace is the aalysis of heat loss from the evelope of a buildig. This ivolves calculatig heat loss through widows, doors, walls, roofs ad vetilatio ad exhaust systems. The spreadsheet i Figure 7.12 illustrates a very simple heat loss calculatio for a buildig, showig all eergy outflows, with the cotributio to space heat from iteral heat gais such as electricity ad huma heat take ito accout. The result is a breakdow of eergy use ito the major categories. A Sakey diagram for buildig evelope heat loss is show i Sectio -2. Table of otets

B 72 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s I ve t o r y E e r g y U s e Figure 7.12 Simple Buildig Heat Loss Aalysis Spreadsheet (from Evelope.xls) 7.5 Fidig EMOs i the Eergy Ivetory The electrical load ivetory ad thermal eergy use ivetory are good startig poits i the search for EMOs. The process of evaluatig the breakdow or distributio of eergy use ca ofte uearth potetial savigs opportuities. While cosiderig each piece of equipmet, group of loads or heat-cosumig systems, take ito accout operatig time, the justificatio for each load ad the eed for the equipmet to be operatig at ay give time. 7.5.1 Special osideratio for the Thermal Eergy-Use Ivetory The results of the thermal eergy-use ivetory ca help to idetify savigs opportuities. Opportuities for Eergy Flow Reductio The magitude of each outflow depeds o several factors, such as temperatures, flow rates, humidity, time ad the characteristics of materials. Fidig savigs opportuities ivolves cosiderig which of these factors, if ay, may be chaged to reduce the amout of eergy cosumed. a flows be reduced? a temperatures be chaged? I most cases, there are valid reasos for preset values beig what they are. But takig a look at the type ad magitude of existig eergy outflows ofte reveals some worthwhile savigs opportuities. Table of otets

B 73 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s I ve t o r y E e r g y U s e So far we have ot cocered ourselves with the techical details of the systems ad equipmet ivolved with the eergy flows uder cosideratio. Now, however, it is time to tur our attetio to the hardware itself ad cosider the possibility of chagig oe or more aspects of how the system fuctios i order to reduce eergy flow. Is it possible, for example, to reduce the amout of eergy cosumed by a vetilatio system that provides geeral vetilatio for a office area of a buildig? Vetilatio systems of this kid are resposible for icreased cosumptio of witer heatig eergy because they itroduce cool, fresh outside air that must be heated to replace warm, stale buildig air that is exhausted. The factors that ifluece the amout of eergy cosumed i this system are the rate at which outside air is brought i, the temperature differece betwee outside ad iside air, ad the duratio of the vetilatio. Because buildig occupats have a legitimate eed for fresh air, we ordiarily caot reduce the amout of air brought i ad exhausted. Whe cosiderig vetilatio ad temperature, there are regulatory requiremets that must be adhered to. For example, the Otario Miistry of Labour s Occupatioal Health ad Safety Act (available at www.e-laws.gov.o.ca/idex.html) provides for stadards goverig workplace coditios. I additio, the America Society of Heatig, Refrigeratig ad Air-oditioig Egieers (ASHRAE) is a iteratioal orgaizatio that publishes stadards for workplace vetilatio ad temperature. Visit ASHRAE s Web site (www.ashrae.org) to obtai these stadards. Give the eed to maitai the amout of air brought i by a vetilatio system, how ca the parameters of the system be maipulated to yield eergy savigs? Time: It may be possible to cotrol operatio of the vetilatio system more effectively, reduce operatig time, ad match it to buildig occupacy more closely. Flow: Although the airflow rates durig occupied periods caot be adjusted, the rate of ueeded vetilatio at ight could be reduced by usig dampers that seal properly whe closed, or perhaps the system could be shut dow completely at ight. Temperatures: If the system must ru for exteded periods to clear stale air properly, it may be possible to reduce the temperature of the air durig uoccupied periods, usig some sort of temperature setback method. These are simple examples, but they illustrate the value of addressig each of the factors that ifluece eergy cosumptio. Actual reductio i eergy flows is achieved through specific chages to equipmet, devices ad operatioal practices. Reducible or Recoverable Eergy A eergy flow ca be either reducible or recoverable, ad eergy savigs will be realized accordigly: Reducible: A flow directly associated with a purchased eergy form. I this case, reducig the flow will directly result i a reductio of purchased eergy. Examples are (1) reducig heat flow through the walls of a buildig by addig isulatio ad (2) reducig warm air lost by trimmig hours of vetilatio. Table of otets

B 74 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s I ve t o r y E e r g y U s e Recoverable: A flow of waste heat, the reductio of which will ot directly reduce purchased eergy. A good example of this is coolig water from water-cooled air compressors. This eergy flow caot be reduced or should it be, sice it serves a useful purpose. However, there is real value i the heated water, ad it could be used to replace the purchased eergy beig used i aother system. This is called eergy recovery or heat recovery. It is importat to determie precisely the type of flow i the facility. I some cases, it may be a mixture. The method of calculatio of savigs is differet for reducible ad recoverable eergy flows. 7.5.2 Special osideratio for the Electrical Load Ivetory Examie each load i the ivetory by meas of a quadrat aalysis (see Sectio 8.2.5). Look first at the required eergy beig provided light, air or water power, process eergy or heat. Also cosider the followig factors. The Diversity Factor A high value idicates a load that is cotributig heavily to the peak demad. Is this ecessary? ould it be avoided? Operatig Hours Loads that have valid exteded operatig hours are good cadidates for efficiecy improvemet. ould lamps be upgraded? Are pumps ad fas the most efficiet? ould a higher-efficiecy motor be used? Load Groupig Are there large groups of loads that have similar operatig hours simply because they operate or are switched oly as a group? A good example of this is lightig. a lights be zoed or switched automatically by occupacy detectors, time clocks or photocells? The Night Load If you have a demad profile available, ca you justify the ight load? Do all loads that operate durig ight or uoccupied hours eed to operate? Loads That Require Moitorig Are there loads or groups of loads that cosume a sigificat portio of the overall eergy ad demad? ould these loads be moitored for excessive ruig time or power cosumptio? A good example of this would be a large refrigeratio system i a supermarket or food-processig operatio. 7.5.3 Load Flexibility Assessmet Load flexibility ca be defied as the degree to which the patter of electrical use i a facility ca be chaged. Oe goal of assessig load flexibility is to shift eergy cosumptio from oe daily time period to aother (less expesive) time of day. Table of otets

B 75 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s I ve t o r y E e r g y U s e A secodary goal might be to free up capacity of a fully loaded system by spreadig the load out. The idea of flexible loads should be of iterest to eergy users who are cosiderig alterative electric rates, such as time-of-use ad real-time pricig. After performig a detailed load ivetory ad aalysis of your existig operatio, you will have a better uderstadig of load groups by fuctio (lightig, process, coolig, heatig, etc.) depedecies of the loads or load groups o exteral factors (weather, productio, occupacy, etc.) iterdepedecies betwee loads or load groups (e.g. which loads must be operated together or i a predetermied schedule) Usig this kowledge, you ca examie your loads for ay flexibility i their operatio. Flexible loads usually fall ito oe of the followig scearios. Eergy storage: For practical purposes, this would be hot water or cold (ice) water storage. Isulated storage taks ca be used to stockpile electrically heated hot water durig off-peak periods, so the heaters ca be shut dow i peak periods. Example of coolig storage: Some dairies operate refrigeratio to produce ad store sweet water (ice water) durig productio dow time; the sweet water is the used durig processig istead of a large refrigeratio plat supply coolig o demad. Product storage: I a plat that produces several differet products or i which the productio is i distict stages that ca be ru idepedetly, differet products ca be maufactured i a specific shift ad stockpiled for the followig shift. Oe example of this approach is a rock quarry that staggers differet processes to smooth out loads o the electrical system. Task reschedulig: I a plat where idustrial processes are idepedet of each other, it may be possible to schedule some tasks or processes to a differet shift, away from the more expesive electrical time of day. 7.6 Referece Moder Idustrial Assessmets: A Traiig Maual, Versio 2.0, Rutgers, The State Uiversity of New Jersey, September 2001 Web site: www.iac.rutgers.edu/idassess.php Table of otets

B 76 Eergy Aalysis Methods Idetif y Eergy Maagemet Opportuities 8 Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities 8.1 Itroductio The audit process flow chart shows several stages at which EMOs ca be idetified: At the oditio Survey stage, obvious eeds for repair or operatioal chages that require o further assessmet become apparet. Whe the facility Demad Profile is examied, other opportuities are idetified that ca reduce cost or cosumptio: for example, load-shiftig opportuities that lower peak demad or loads that are o whe the plat is dow. The Load Ivetory quatifies the distributio of eergy cosumptio amog plat systems ad provides a basis for recocilig load with billigs; variaces i the recociliatio ad isight ito load distributio ca lead to further EMOs. Profile Eergy Use Patters EMOs Ivetory Eergy Use EMOs Idetify EMOs Noe, Immediate Implemetatio EMO Assessmet Required Detailed Aalysis EMOs arisig from the oditio Survey ad Demad Profile are addressed elsewhere i the guide. This sectio outlies how to idetify further EMOs ad how to assess their feasibility ad cost-effectiveess logically ad systematically. 8.2 A Three-Step Approach to Idetifyig EMOs All eergy-cosumig equipmet ad systems were desiged to meet a specific eed or set of eeds. This may be as simple as providig illumiatio or be far more complex, as i the case of a itegrated processig plat. Fidig EMOs ivolves reducig the level of eergy use while still meetig the origial eed or requiremet. The process of idetifyig EMOs begis at the poit of ed use where the eed or requiremet is met ad works methodically back toward the poit of eergy purchase. 8.2.1 Step 1: Match Usage to Requiremet The first ad most importat step i realizig savigs opportuities is to match what is actually used to what is eeded. The key cosideratio here is the duratio of use ad the magitude of use. Questios that might be asked iclude the followig: What is beig doe? Why is it beig doe? What eergy is beig cosumed? What eergy should be cosumed? Does the process equipmet idle for sigificat periods of time? Table of otets

B 77 Eergy Aalysis Methods Idetif y Eergy Maagemet Opportuities 8.2.2 Step 2: Maximize System Efficiecies Oce the eed ad usage are matched properly, the ext step is to esure that the system compoets meetig the eed are operatig as efficietly as possible. I this step, the effects of operatig coditios, maiteace ad equipmet/techology will be cosidered. Questios to guide this aspect of the ivestigatio iclude the followig: ould it be doe the same way but more efficietly? Are the priciples uderlyig the process beig correctly addressed? Why is there a differece? 8.2.3 Step 3: Optimize the Eergy Supply The first two steps will reduce the requiremet for eergy. At this poit it makes sese to seek the optimum source or sources for the et eergy requiremet. The fial step i idetifyig savigs opportuities is to cosider the supply of eergy to the system ad to look for savigs opportuities that you ca achieve by optimizig the supply. Opportuities for optimizatio typically iclude the followig. Heat Recovery Heat recovery systems utilize waste eergy streams to displace iflowig eergy. Such systems rage from simple ductig of warm air to complex heat pump systems. Heat Pumps I additio to facilitatig heat recovery, heat pumps are used to exploit low-grade eergy sources, such as geothermal eergy (groud heat) ad air. These are commoly called groud-source ad air-source heat pumps. ogeeratio ogeeratio is ofte referred to as combied heat ad power (HP) systems. Whe facilities or processes require hot water ad/or steam ad at the same time have a demad for electrical eergy, there may be a opportuity to supply both/all of them from fuelfired combustio equipmet. These systems take advatage of what would otherwise be waste eergy. With a typical efficiecy of 15% to 30% i covertig fuel to electricity, the waste heat from the exhaust stream ca provide the required thermal iflow to the appropriate facilities or processes; this ca boost the overall efficiecy by 50% to 80% or more. Reewable Eergy Systems Reewable eergy, such as solar, wid or groud heat, ca be used to supplemet covetioal eergy sources. Although ot always ecoomical, certai applicatios of reewable eergy may be cost-effective, icludig off-grid use of photovoltaic (solar-geerated electricity) ad wid eergy as well as passive solar desigs for ew ad existig buildigs. Table of otets

B 78 Eergy Aalysis Methods Idetif y Eergy Maagemet Opportuities Fuel Switchig Fuel switchig ivolves replacig oe fuel with aother, less expesive eergy source. A good example would be covertig hot water heatig from electric to gas. Purchase Optimizatio Purchase optimizatio takes full advatage of the ope marketig of atural gas ad electricity. Operatios that uderstad what their eergy use patters are ad how these patters ca be maipulated will beefit most from purchase optimizatio. It is importat to recogize that the appropriate time to cosider purchase optimizatio is after each of the precedig steps. It would be couter-productive, for example, to egotiate a ew electricity supply cotract before properly maagig the facility s demad profile. Ay future chages to the demad profile could make the ew supply agreemet less ecoomical. Likewise, sizig a cogeeratio system o the basis of existig electrical ad thermal loads without good usage practices i place would be less tha optimal. I fact, future reductios i thermal or electrical loads could make the cogeeratio system uecoomical. 8.2.4 Actios at the Poit of Ed Use Save More Where is the best place to begi to look for EMOs? This is a simple questio with a simple aswer: begi the search for opportuities where the eergy is the most expesive at the poit of ed use. Example: To illustrate this poit, cosider the case of a system desiged to pump a fluid throughout a facility. I a commercial facility, this might be a chilled water pump for the air-coditioig system or for coolig process equipmet. Figure 8.1 is a simplified picture of such a system, showig each compoet ivolved i the system s eergy coversio. Eergy passes through each system elemet, startig at the meter the poit of purchase through to the heat exchager i the termial devices, where the coolig is required. Eergy is costatly beig coverted ad trasferred. Figure 8.1 Eergy oversio Diagram Table of otets

B 79 Eergy Aalysis Methods Idetif y Eergy Maagemet Opportuities Next, cosider that the efficiecy of each compoet is 100% or less. The meter would have a efficiecy of very close to 100%, but other compoets are ot as efficiet. Efficiecy is defied as the ratio of the output of a system or compoet to its correspodig iput. Each compoet with a efficiecy of less tha 100% wastes the differece betwee the eergy iput ad output. The result of this waste is that the uit cost ($/kwh or $/MJ) of the eergy icreases betwee the iput ad output. The uit cost of the eergy at the output ca be calculated as follows: Eergy Efficiecy (%) = Eergy Output 100 Eergy Iput Output ost ($/uit) = Iput ost ($/uit) Eergy Efficiecy Table 8.1 lists each of the compoets of the chilled water pumpig system alog with a descriptio of the losses ad a estimate of the typical eergy efficiecy of the compoet for a system of moderate size (10 to 100 hp). Table 8.1 ompoet ad System Efficiecies ompoet Losses Typical Efficiecy Utility meter Negligible Distributio system Electrical resistace 96% Motor Electrical resistace, frictio, magetic loss 85% Bearig Frictio 98% Pump Fluid ad mechaical frictio 60% Valve Miimal throttlig 70% Pipig etwork Fluid frictio 60% 100% Overall System Efficiecy 20% From the overall efficiecy it ca be see that oly oe fifth of the eergy actually gets to the poit where it is required. I other words, the system eeded five times the actual eduse eergy requiremet, which i this case is i the form of water movemet, to overcome all the losses i the system. The impact o the uit cost of eergy is illustrated i Table 8.2. Table of otets

B 80 Eergy Aalysis Methods Idetif y Eergy Maagemet Opportuities Table 8.2 Uit ost of Eergy Through the System ompoet Utility meter Typical Efficiecy Uit ost at Iput /kwh Uit ost at Output /kwh 100% 5.00 5.00 Distributio system 96% 5.00 5.21 Motor 85% 5.21 6.13 Bearig 98% 6.13 6.25 Pump 60% 6.26 10.42 Valve 70% 10.43 14.88 Pipig etwork 60% 14.90 24.81 Ratio of Overall Uit ost 5:1 learly, the most expesive eergy i the system is at the poit of ed use; this is where the greatest opportuity exists to impact the overall eergy efficiecy of the system ad hece the cost of operatio. Savig small amouts of eergy i the pipig etwork i this simple chilled water pumpig system will result i sigificat savigs about five times more at the poit of purchase. 8.2.5 ost osideratios Eergy cosumptio ca be reduced i two geeral ways: chagig the operatio of the existig systems ad equipmet chagig the system or equipmet techology Operatioal actios ted to cost less to implemet; they are referred to as low-cost or housekeepig measures. I cotrast, measures that require ivestmet i ew techology will ted to cost more to implemet. These actios are ofte referred to as retrofit measures. The sequece of actios i this assessmet is importat. It does ot make sese to istall a ew techology without clearly defiig the requiremet ad properly sizig the equipmet to meet that requiremet. Similarly, the retur o ivestmet for a piece of eergy-efficiet equipmet will deped o its operatig times; ay actio that chages operatig times must be cosidered first. There is a rage i cost whe implemetig eergy-savig actios. A quadrat aalysis cosiders two distict actio/cost categories: Lower cost actios that could be fuded from operatioal/expese budgets ad ted to result from operatioal actios Higher cost actios that may require capital fudig ad ted to ivolve the istallatio of equipmet or ew techology Table of otets

B 81 Eergy Aalysis Methods Idetif y Eergy Maagemet Opportuities The Waste-Loss Aalysis combies these categories of actios ito a table with four quadrats as umbered below. Examples give i the table are for a lightig system. Actio/ost Lower ost Higher ost Match the Need 1. Tur off the lights 2. Istall motio sesors Maximize Efficiecy 3. Lower wattage of lamps with lighter wall colours 4. Istall ew lamps/ballasts ad fixtures Typically, actios that fall ito the fourth quadrat have the highest cost; those i the first quadrat have the lowest. The relative cost of the secod ad third quadrats will vary depedig o the specific actios ad equipmet. A geeral form of the Waste-Loss Aalysis table is preseted below. I this case, actios have bee geeralized ito broader categories that may exist i ay eergy-cosumig system. Actio/ost Lower ost (ofte operatioal) Higher ost (ofte techological) Match the Need 1. Maual cotrol of time ad quatity 2. Automatic cotrol of time ad quatity Maximize Efficiecy 3. Maiteace ad operatig coditios 4. New ad more efficiet devices ad equipmet 8.3 Special osideratios for Process Systems There is sigificat eergy savigs potetial i actios that deal with operatios ad techology. Ofte, i the search for savigs, much emphasis is placed o techological actios such as equipmet retrofits ad upgrades; however, may high-potetial/low-cost operatioal opportuities are overlooked. Idustrial eergy use ca be broke dow ito plat ad process use. Plat use icludes the supportig equipmet ad systems that supply the process equipmet. May other types of systems may be preset to provide for the eergy eeds of the process systems: combustio systems steam ad hot water boilers ad distributio compressed air lightig refrigeratio pumps ad fas (fluid movemet) Table of otets

B 82 Eergy Aalysis Methods Idetif y Eergy Maagemet Opportuities Applyig the three-step critical assessmet process requires us to determie how closely the process eeds are beig met. The we ca cosider the eergy use i the system desiged to meet the requiremet. To aalyse the requiremet, we must take a more idepth look at the iteral workigs of the process. Figure 8.2 shows a example of the breakdow of process eergy use i terms of the kilowatt-hours per toe (kwh/toe) ratio. Figure 8.2 Process Eergy Use Equipmet kwh/toe is defied as the eergy required whe the optimum amout of equipmet is operatig at desig efficiecy. System kwh/toe is defied as the eergy required whe the operator ad machie iflueces are icluded this takes ito accout operatioal techiques ad maiteace practices. Actual kwh/toe is the eergy use, takig ito accout ay resposes of the operators ad supervisors to variatios ad exteral iflueces ad the time lag i respodig. Table of otets

B 83 Eergy Aalysis Methods Idetif y Eergy Maagemet Opportuities The differeces betwee the various levels idetified i Figure 8.2 represets potetial for reduced eergy use. Although it may ot be possible to achieve a theoretical cosumptio level for a real process, a realistic target ca be set. A eergy audit or assessmet o each process area would examie each of these levels ad associated factors that ifluece cosumptio. Every maufacturig or idustrial process presets opportuities for eergy maagemet. However, for the uwary, eergy maagemet also has the potetial to create operatioal problems. The best way to avoid these problems is to ivolve operatig staff i a auditig or assessmet process. The audit or assessmet outcome will ofte iclude a set of actios that are operatioal ad techological. Operatioal actios typically address variability ad system cosumptio levels; techological actios reduce equipmet cosumptio levels. It is expected that over time, as actios are implemeted, various cosumptio levels will drop ad actual cosumptio will approach the target level for the process (see Figure 8.3). Figure 8.3 osumptio Levels Table of otets

B 84 Eergy Aalysis Methods Idetif y Eergy Maagemet Opportuities 8.4 Summary The method preseted above is a meas of lookig at each of the eergycosumig systems i your facility ad idetifyig savigs opportuities. The steps i the method are as follows: Tip: First match the eed the maximize efficiecy of delivery. 1. Verify/validate eergy eed/requiremet. 2. oduct waste-loss aalysis. 3. Optimize eergy supply. Electrical ad thermal ivetories ca provide valuable isight ito fidig savigs opportuities ad determiig their extet. I Sectio -2, Details of Eergy-osumig Systems, typical systems i facilities are examied i terms of where eergy losses occur ad what ca be doe to miimize them. A Sakey diagram (as described i Sectio B-7) is provided for each system, followed by a applicatio of the three-step method described i this sectio. 8.5 Refereces Moder Idustrial Assessmets: A Traiig Maual, Versio 2.0, Rutgers, The State Uiversity of New Jersey, September 2001 Web site: www.iac.rutgers.edu/idassess.php Eergy Efficiecy Plaig ad Maagemet Guide, Natural Resources aada, 2002 Web site: oee.rca.gc.ca/publicatios/ifosource/pub/cipec/efficiecy/idex.cfm?attr=24 Table of otets

B 85 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A s s e s s t h e o s t s a d B e e f i t s 9 Assess the osts ad Beefits 9.1 Itroductio Havig idetified a shoppig basket of EMOs, the auditor should also provide guidace o the feasibility of measures ad recommedatios for implemetatio. Assessig proposed measures primarily ivolves cost/beefit aalysis. Noe, Immediate Implemetatio what beefits should be take ito accout what costs should be icluded i the aalysis what ecoomic idicators provide a realistic projectio of the fiacial viability of a proposed measure over time Detailed Aalysis I-House Implemet Although detailed ecoomic aalysis may go beyod the parameters of the audit, the auditor should evertheless kow the followig: EMO Assessmet Required Assess the Beefits Exteral Micro-Audit Macro-Audit Report for Actio Micro-Audit Report 9.2 A omprehesive Assessmet A comprehesive assessmet of the beefits ad cost associated with a eergy savigs opportuity exteds well beyod the cost of the eergy ivolved ad i may cases may ivolve the followig. Beefits direct eergy savigs idirect eergy savigs comfort/productivity icreases operatig ad maiteace cost reductios evirometal impact reductio osts direct implemetatio costs direct eergy costs idirect eergy costs operatig ad maiteace (O&M) cost icreases These issues are explored i the followig sectios. Table of otets

B 86 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A s s e s s t h e o s t s a d B e e f i t s 9.2.1 Assessig Disadvatages Associated With Savigs Assessmet of savigs opportuities geerally ivolves cost/beefit aalysis. First, what are the savigs (ad other beefits) associated with the opportuity? Secod, what will the EMO cost to implemet? Depedig o the type of ecoomic aalysis used, cosideratio may also be give to the cost of maiteace, with ad without implemetatio of the EMO. Oe factor ofte overlooked is the idirect costs of the proposed actio. These ca iclude such thigs as reduced illumiatio levels ad icreased heatig costs whe lightig is reduced, sice eergy for light cotributes to a buildig s heat i the witer. A extreme idirect cost could be reduced persoal productivity because of uexpected reductios i light levels or a safety problem created by a improperly located motio detector that switches lights off whe a space is still occupied. It may become apparet that what seems to be the most attractive savigs opportuity is i fact ot so desirable whe all impacts are cosidered. Ofte these costs are declared as uforesee. A thorough assessmet should aticipate most of them ad clearly idetify the associated risks before ay chages are implemeted. Aother cosideratio ofte eglected is the techical ad ecoomic risk associated with the plaed implemetatio. Savigs are ot always guarateed: for example, it is ulikely that a motio detector istalled to switch lightig i a heavy traffic area will pay back its cost. Replacig a poorly loaded motor with a eergy-efficiet oe may result i lower overall efficiecy because of its partial load characteristics. Whe the savigs predicted deped o varyig operatig coditios or occupat habits, there is a risk that the savigs expected might ot be realized or be lower tha predicted. I such cases, the idirect costs are, i fact, ucertai savigs. A coservative assessmet would be based oly o savigs that are certai to be realized. If the ucertai savigs do occur, this is a bous. I summary, cosider the direct costs ad the impact that the plaed implemetatio will have o occupats, comfort, productivity, safety ad equipmet maiteace. Also cosider ay potetial iteractios betwee the ew equipmet ad existig systems ad the likelihood that the expected savigs will be realized. 9.2.2 Savigs Depedig o the eergy source, there are three types of savigs to be realized directly from a savigs opportuity: Eergy savigs These would simply be equal to the eergy saved (e.g. kwh) the icremetal eergy rate (e.g. $/kwh usually the last eergy rate) Demad savigs If the step implemeted has a measurable effect o the peak demad, the demad savig would be kw or kva saved the icremetal demad rate ($/kw or kva) Table of otets

B 87 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A s s e s s t h e o s t s a d B e e f i t s Block size savigs (oly certai rates) If there is a peak demad reductio, there may also be a reductio i the first eergy block size (assumig the rate is a multi-block type). Effectively, this moves some of the eergy from the more expesive first block to the less expesive secod block. The savigs would be kw or kva saved 100 (first block eergy rate secod block eergy rate) I additio to the direct electrical savigs calculated for the measure itself, there may be other cosideratios: Thermal fuel savigs The thermal eergy saved at the poit of use must be grossed up by the efficiecy of the heatig before the icremetal cost of fuel or thermal eergy ca be applied: Fuel eergy saved = Poit of use eergy saved Heatig plat efficiecy Fuel cost saved = Fuel eergy saved Icremetal cost of fuel Eergy cotet of fuel Idirect electrical savigs such as reduced air-coditioig (A/) loads due to more efficiet or switched lightig. A/ savigs ca be calculated as A/ kwh saved = Lightig kwh saved OP where OP (coefficiet of performace) for a typical cetral A/ uit would be 3. A/ kwh saved would, of course, apply oly to the periods whe the A/ is operatig. Less re-lampig labour ad lamp cost from switchig to a loger-life lamp type (replacig icadescet lamps with compact fluorescet lamps offers a tefold icrease i lamp life). Icrease i employee productivity from covertig to a higher-quality, higherefficiecy fixture type. 9.2.3 osts Whe evaluatig the cost of implemetig a measure, be sure to iclude all costs, icludig the followig: Iitial cost of implemetig the retrofit (quotes by cotractors). Decrease i lamp life resultig i icreased re-lampig costs, e.g. switchig from mercury vapour lamps, which have a life of 24 000 hours, to metal halide lamps, which last 20 000 hours. Decrease i lamp life due to icrease i switchig, e.g. a stadard 40-W rapid-start fluorescet tube operated for 10 hours per start will last 28 000 hours. The same tube operated for oly 3 hours per start will last 20 000 hours. Ay icrease i maiteace costs, such as higher-cost lamps ad ballasts, higher cost of repairs or lower life of ay replacemet eergy-efficiet equipmet. Icrease i heatig costs due to more efficiet or switched lightig (assumig heat from lights eds up as useful space heat). This heatig icrease ca be calculated as Heatig Icrease (kwh) = Table of otets Lightig kwh Saved Heatig System Efficiecy

B 88 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A s s e s s t h e o s t s a d B e e f i t s Agai, the kwh used for lightig saved would apply oly to periods whe the heatig system is operated. The heatig system efficiecy could typically rage from 0.75 (oil) to 0.85 (gas or propae) to 1 (resistive electric) to 3 (i.e. the OP of a heat pump). A comprehesive example of savigs aalysis is provided i Figure 9.1, take from the Assess the Beefit.xls spreadsheet template. This example details two EMOs that are commoly foud i compressed-air systems. The savigs aalysis takes ito accout the fact that the first EMO will affect the savigs of the secod. By improvig the cotrols o the compressor, the savigs for heat recovery will be reduced. Figure 9.1 Savigs Aalysis Spreadsheet (from Assess the Beefit.xls) Table of otets

B 89 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A s s e s s t h e o s t s a d B e e f i t s The followig worked example shows that eve a simple EMO such as cotrollig (i.e. turig off) lights must be aalysed carefully. I this example, the eergy saved is o loger available for buildig heatig, ad this will icrease heatig costs ad offset some savigs. Lightig Savigs Example Electricity Savigs Lightig kwh saved (heatig seaso) = 20 000 kwh/yr. Icremetal cost of electricity = $0.06/kWh Electricity cost savig (20 000 0.06) = $1,200/yr. Heatig system efficiecy (No. 2 oil) = 0.75 No. 2 oil eergy cotet = 10.5 kwh/litre No. 2 oil cost = $0.25/litre Heatig kwh icrease (20 000/0.75) = 26 667 kwh No. 2 oil icrease (26 667/10.5) = 2 540 litres $ heatig icrease (2 540 0.25) = $635/yr. Net Savigs (1200 635) = $565 (47% of o-adjusted) Adjustmet for Heatig Icrease 9.3 Ecoomic Aalysis 9.3.1 Simple Payback For the most part, a simple payback evaluatio i the form SPP (years) = apital ost Aual Savigs is adequate as a first cut assessmet of the feasibility of a retrofit measure. Simple payback would ot ormally be used as the basis for ivestmet decisios, for two good reasos: It does ot take ito accout the cost of moey, which may be a importat cocer. It does ot take ito accout aythig that happes after the payback period. For example, a project could pay back its cost i oe year but fail to cotiue to achieve the savigs accrued i that first year; the payback period would be a attractive oe year, but a more detailed aalysis would show that it is ot a good ivestmet. Table of otets

B 90 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A s s e s s t h e o s t s a d B e e f i t s Figure 9.2 illustrates this poit by comparig two cash flow scearios for the same iitial cost. learly, Project B is the more attractive ivestmet because of its total retur over time, eve if the iitial cost is recovered i the same period for Project A. Figure 9.2 ompariso of ash Flows 0 5 Project Life (years) Project A 0 5 10 Project Life (years) Project B 15 The cash flow diagram show i Figure 9.2 is a simple but very useful tool for fiacial aalysis. It shows, for example, that a ivestmet may have a five-year payback, as i Project A, but if the life of the ivestmet is 15 years i total, as i Project B, it may have a sigificat iteral rate of retur. This poit is captured i Table 9.2. The diagram is a graphical represetatio of the time lie, typically i years costs icurred, icludig the iitial capital ivestmet, as well as subsequet costs related to the project (maiteace expeditures, for example) show as dowwardpoitig arrows positive cash flow, such as savigs, show as upward-poitig arrows The same iformatio ca be preseted more quatitatively i tabular form, as the followig example illustrates. A ew boiler is to be istalled at a total cost of $100,000, payable i two istalmets. Expected savigs i total are $48,000 per year, with half of that amout accruig i the first year ad the full amout accruig i all subsequet years. Table of otets

B 91 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A s s e s s t h e o s t s a d B e e f i t s Table 9.1 ash Flow Table for Purchase of New Boiler apital Expediture: $100,000 90% o delivery/commissioig ad 10% performace guaratee due at oe year Expected Savigs: $48,000 Half i first year, full amout i all remaiig years (Values i $000) Year 0 1 osts (90.0) (10.0).0.0.0.0.0 24.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 Net ash Flow (90.0) 14.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 Net Project Value (90.0) (76.0) (28.0) 20.0 68.0 116.0 Savigs 2 3 4 5 For this table, i additio to calculatig the et cash flow each year (i.e. the savigs less the costs for that year), we have calculated the cumulative et cash flow, or et project value. A quick calculatio dividig $100,000 by $48,000 shows that the simple payback period is betwee two ad three years. More importatly, the aalysis shows that the value of the ivestmet cotiues to grow with each subsequet year of savigs. The table ca also accommodate other costs referred to i the cash flow diagram, so that a cosiderably more complex aalysis ca be made. 9.3.2 Retur o Ivestmet (ROI) Retur o ivestmet (ROI) is a broad idicator of the aual retur expected from the iitial capital ivestmet, expressed as a percetage: ROI = Aual Net ash Flow 100 % apital ost The ROI must always be higher tha the cost of moey ad, i compariso with other projects, a greater ROI idicates a better ivestmet. Oce agai, however, ROI does ot take ito accout the time value of moey or a variable aual et cash flow. Aother way of lookig at ROI over the life of a project is represeted by the followig equatio: ROI = Total Eergy Savigs (For Life of Project) Estimated Project ost 100 % Estimated Project ost Project Life However, a life-cycle costig or complex payback calculatio may be required, especially for larger ivestmets. The complex payback would take ito accout the time value of moey ad possible chages i cost ad savigs amouts over the life of the measure. Table of otets

B 92 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A s s e s s t h e o s t s a d B e e f i t s A life-cycle costig aalysis determies the et cost/savigs of a particular measure, cosiderig all costs ad savigs over the life of the measure. Simply put, Net osts/savigs = ost Savigs ost of apital + Net O&M ost Reductio* *(summed for the life of the particular measure take) More details o the calculatio of life-cycle costig parameters et preset value (NPV) ad iteral rate of retur (IRR) are provided i Sectio 9.3.4. 9.3.3 Simple Versus omplex Payback The followig graph provides a simple meas of adjustig the simple payback period to take ito accout the cost of capital (the iterest rate) ad the escalatio of eergy prices (the iflatio rate). The result is approximate to the result of a life-cycle cost aalysis, sometimes called the complex payback period. Figure 9.3 Simple Versus omplex Payback Simple Payback Versus IRR Simple payback may ot be the best idicator of the real value of a project. Table 9.2 relates the simple payback of a savigs project to the iteral rate of retur (IRR) that the et savigs stream represets. This chart aswers the followig questio: If I have a project with a simple payback of y years ad a project life of x years, approximately what IRR does this represet? Table of otets

B 93 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A s s e s s t h e o s t s a d B e e f i t s Table 9.2 Iteral Rate of Retur Estimatio hart Simple Payback (years) Project Life or Time Horizo (years) 1 1 2 0% 2 3 4 5 62% 84% 93% 0% 23% 0% 3 4 10 15 97% 100% 100% 35% 41% 49% 50% 13% 20% 31% 33% 0% 8% 21% 24% 0% 5 15% 18% 6 11% 15% 7 7% 12% 8 4% 9% 9 2% 7% 10 0% 6% For example, a heat recovery project that has a simple payback of three years ad is expected to deliver savigs for 15 years would have a IRR of approximately 33%. 9.3.4 Net Preset Value ad Iteral Rate of Retur The critical factor that is omitted from the simple fiacial idicators is the time value of moey the fact that iterest applies to ay ivested fuds. Obviously, $1,000 today is more valuable tha $1,000 a year from ow because of the iterest that the first amout will accumulate over that year. Therefore, i evaluatig eergy maagemet ivestmets, we eed to cosider the Preset Value (PV) ad the Future Value (FV) of moey. The two are related very simply by the followig: FV = PV ò (1 + i) or PV = FV (1 + i) where FV = future value of the cash flow PV = preset value of the cash flow i = iterest or discout rate = umber of years ito the future I NPV ad IRR appraisals, istead of calculatig the et preset value of a project, we eed to calculate the discouted et preset value to put future savigs ito preset value terms based o the existig iterest or discout rate. Table of otets

B 94 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A s s e s s t h e o s t s a d B e e f i t s Fortuately, i doig so, it is ot ecessary to calculate the power series i the PV/FV equatios directly. Tables of discout factors are commoly available, ad spreadsheet applicatios do the calculatio for you. If we recalculate the example i Table 9.1, ow applyig discoutig to the cash flow, the discouted et cash flow, or the Net Preset Value (NPV), of the project is determied as show i Table 9.3. (Followig usual accoutig practice, values i paretheses are egative; the ormal practice is to idicate costs as egative ad beefits such as savigs as positive i this kid of aalysis.) Table 9.3 Net Preset Value alculatio Year 0 1 2 3 4 5 Net cash flow ($000) (90.0) 14.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 48.0 The discouted cash flow at 10% ca be calculated as follows: Year 0 1 (90.0) = (90.0) Year 1 0.909 14.0 = 12.73 Year 2 0.826 48.0 = 39.65 Year 3 0.751 48.0 = 36.05 Year 4 0.683 48.0 = 32.78 Year 5 0.620 48.0 = 29.76 NPV = the sum of all these values = 60.97 (compare with et project value = 116.0) The discout rate that is applied i this calculatio represets ot oly the prevailig iterest rate but also some factor to cover hadlig costs of moey, ofte aroud 5%. I other words, as a matter of policy, a orgaizatio may choose to use a discout factor of, say, the atioal bak iterest rate plus 5% (or some other appropriate factor to cover hadlig ad perhaps risk). If this NPV calculatio were repeated for differet discout rates, we would fid that the higher the discout rate, the lower the NPV, which would evetually become egative. It follows that there is a discout rate for which the NPV = 0; this discout rate is defied as the Iteral Rate of Retur (IRR). Determiig the IRR maually ivolves a iterative process i which the NPV is calculated for various discout factors, with NPV plotted agaist discout rate to geerate a curve that crosses the x-axis (i.e. at NPV = 0), thereby givig the IRR. For may orgaizatios, the decisio o whether to make a specific ivestmet is based o the IRR compared with compay expectatios or policy i.e. if the IRR is equal to or greater tha the criterio value, the ivestmet might be cosidered feasible. Most spreadsheet programs iclude NPV ad IRR calculatios, allowig you to iput a rage of cash flow values alog with the discout factor to be applied, to calculate the NPV ad, for a give set of cash flows, to determie the IRR. Table of otets

B 95 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A s s e s s t h e o s t s a d B e e f i t s 9.3.5 ash Flows I these examples, there have bee oly two kids of cash flow: the iitial ivestmet as oe or more istalmets ad the savigs arisig from the ivestmet. Of course, this oversimplifies the reality of eergy maagemet ivestmets. There are usually other cash flows related to a project. These iclude the followig: apital costs are the costs associated with the desig, plaig, istallatio ad commissioig of the project; these are usually oe-time costs uaffected by iflatio or discout rate factors, although, as i the example, istalmets paid over a period of time will have time costs. Aual cash flows, such as aual savigs accruig from a project, occur each year over the life of the project; these iclude taxes, isurace, equipmet leases, eergy costs, servicig, maiteace, operatig labour ad so o. Icreases i ay of these costs represet egative cash flows (the dowward arrows i Figure 9.2), whereas decreases i the costs represet positive cash flows (upward arrows). Factors that should be cosidered i calculatig aual cash flows are as follows: Taxes, usig the margial tax rate applied to positive (i.e. icreasig taxes) or egative (i.e. decreasig taxes) cash flows. Asset depreciatio, the depreciatio of plat assets over their life. Depreciatio is a paper expese allocatio rather tha a real cash flow, ad therefore it is ot icluded directly i the life-cycle cost. However, depreciatio is real expese i terms of tax calculatios ad therefore does have a impact o the tax calculatio oted above. For example, if a $100,000 asset is depreciated at 20% ad the margial tax rate is 40%, the depreciatio will be $20,000 ad the tax cash flow will be $8,000 it is this latter amout that will show up i the costig calculatio. Itermittet cash flows occur sporadically rather tha aually durig the life of the project; reliig a boiler oce every five years would be a example. Table of otets

B 96 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A s s e s s t h e o s t s a d B e e f i t s Example: Simple Payback alculatio for a Lightig Retrofit Give Existig fixtures are 4-tube, 4-foot stadard fluorescet fixtures, total load per fixture = 192 watts Operatig hours = 3000 hrs./year Existig lamp cost = $2 ea. Existig ballast cost = $10 ea. Electricity rates: Demad = $7/kW/moth Eergy = $0.08/kWh Proposed retrofit ivolves replacig 4 lamps, 2 ballasts with 2 T-8 lamps ad 1 electroic ballast ad istallig reflectors. Retrofit ost (Per Fixture) T-8 lamps (2 @ $5) Electroic ballast Reflector kit Labour (half-hour @ $30/hr.) = = = = $10 $35 $20 $15 Total = $80 Existig Operatig ost kwh 192 W 1/1000 3000 hrs./yr. kwh $ 576 kwh $0.08/kWh Demad $ 192 1/1000 12 mos. $7 Relampig $ 3 000 hrs./yr./20 000 hrs. $2/lamp 4 lamps Reballastig 3 000 hrs./50 000 hrs. $10/ballast 2 ballasts = = = = = Total Existig Operatig ost 576 kwh $46.08 $16.13 $1.20 $1.20 $64.61/yr. Proposed Operatig ost kwh 58 W 1/1000 3000 hrs./yr. = 174 kwh kwh $ 174 kwh $0.08/kWh = $13.92 Demad $ 58 1/1000 12 mos. $7 = $4.87 Re-lampig 3 000 hrs./yr./20 000 hrs. $5 2 lamps = $1.50 Reballastig 3 000 hrs./100 000 hrs. $35 = $1.05 Total Proposed Operatig ost $21.34/yr. SAVINGS = $64.61 $21.34 = $43.27/yr. PAYBAK = $80.00/$43.27/yr. = 1.85 yrs. Table of otets

B 97 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A s s e s s t h e o s t s a d B e e f i t s Figure 9.4 illustrates a complete life-cycle cost aalysis of the savigs from a EMO. I the example, three variatios o the aalysis are used to assess the beefit for a optimistic, pessimistic ad expected (base) fiacial case. Figure 9.4 EMO Life-ycle ost Aalysis Spreadsheet (from Assess the Beefit.xls) EMO Life-ycle ash Flow Aalysis Base Fiacial ase osts for Period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 apital ost EMO$50,000 Life-ycle ash Flow Aalysis Pessimistic ase Maiteace $200 $204 $208 $212 $216 $221 $225 $230 $234 $239 $244 Asset depreciatio osts for Period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Lease costs apital ostemo $50,000 Life-ycle ash Flow Aalysis Optimistic ase Taxes Maiteace $200 $204 $208 $212 $216 $221 $225 $230 $234 $239 $244 Isurace Asset depreciatio Labour osts for Period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Lease costs Other apital ost $50,000 Sub-total osts Taxes $50,200 $204$200 $208$204 $212$208 $216$212 $221$216 $225$221 $230$225 $234$230 $239$234 $244$239 Maiteace $244 Isurace Asset depreciatio Labour Lease costs Savigs for Period Other Taxes$10,500 Electricity $10,500 $10,500 $10,500 $10,500 $10,500 $10,500 $10,500 $10,500 $10,500 $10,500 Sub-total osts $50,200 $204 $208 $212 $216 $221 $225 $230 $234 $239 $244 Isurace $5,535 Gas or Fuel $5,535 $5,535 $5,535 $5,535 $5,535 $5,535 $5,535 $5,535 $5,535 $5,535 Labour Water Savigs for Period Other Maiteace Electricity $10,500 $50,200 $10,290 $10,084 $9,883 $9,685 $9,491 $9,301 $9,115 $8,933 $8,754 $8,579 Sub-total osts $204 $208 $212 $216 $221 $225 $230 $234 $239 $244 Taxes Gas or Fuel $5,535 $5,424 $5,316 $5,209 $5,105 $5,003 $4,903 $4,805 $4,709 $4,615 $4,522 Isurace Water Labour Savigs for Period Maiteace GHG Factors Electricity $10,500 $10,710 $10,924 $11,143 $11,366 $11,593 $11,825 $12,061 $12,302 $12,548 $12,799 Sub-total Savigs Taxes $16,035 Gas or Fuel$16,035 $5,535$16,035 $5,646$16,035 $5,759$16,035 $5,874$16,035 $5,991$16,035 $6,111$16,035 $6,233$16,035 $6,358$16,035 $6,485$16,035 $6,615 $6,747 Isurace Water Labour Maiteace$15,831 Net ash Flow ($34,165) $15,827 $15,823 $15,819 $15,814 $15,810 $15,805 $15,801 $15,796 $15,791 GHG Factors Taxes Net Project Value ($34,165) ($18,334) ($2,507) $13,316 $29,134 $44,948 $60,758 $76,563 $92,364 $108,160 $123,951 Sub-total Savigs $16,035 $15,714 $15,400 $15,092 $14,790 $14,494 $14,204 $13,920 $13,642 $13,369 $13,102 Isurace Labour Discout 15.00% NetRate ash Flow ($34,165) $15,510 $15,192 $14,880 $14,574 $14,274 $13,979 $13,691 $13,408 $13,130 $12,858 GHG Factors Discouted ash Flow Value ($34,165) $13,766 $11,967($3,463) $10,404$11,417 $9,044$25,991 $7,862$40,264 $6,835$54,243 $5,942$67,934 $5,165$81,342 $4,490$94,472 $3,903 Net Project ($34,165) ($18,655) $107,330 $19,547 Sub-total Savigs $16,035 $16,356 $16,683 $17,016 $17,357 $17,704 $18,058 $18,419 $18,788 $19,163 Net Preset Value (NPV) : $45,215 Iteral Rate of Retur (IRR) : 45% DiscoutNet Rate 15.00%($34,165) $16,152 ash Flow $16,475 $16,804 $17,140 $17,483 $17,833 $18,189 $18,553 $18,924 $19,303 Discouted ash Flow ($34,165) $13,487 ($18,013) $11,487 ($1,539) $9,784 $15,266 $8,333 $32,406 $7,096 $49,889 $6,044 $67,722 $5,147 $85,911 $4,383$104,465 $3,732$123,389 $3,178$142,692 Net Project Value ($34,165) Notes: Net Preset Value (NPV) : $38,506 Rate 15.00% Maiteace costs are adjusted Discout for a iflatio at a rate of 2% per year. Discouted ash Flow ($34,165) $14,045 Net Preset Value (NPV) : $52,642 Notes: Iteral Rate of Retur (IRR) : $12,457 $11,049 $9,800 42% $8,692 Iteral Rate of Retur (IRR) : $7,710 $6,838 $6,065 $5,379 $4,771 48% Electricity ad atural gas savigs are adjusted for deflatio at a rate of -2% per year, while maiteace is iflated by 2% per year. Notes: Electricity ad atural gas savigs ad maiteace costs are adjusted for iflatio at a rate of 2% per year. 9.4 Evirometal Impact Measures to improve eergy efficiecy will reduce greehouse gas (GHG) emissios i two ways: Eergy efficiecy measures for o-site combustio systems such as boilers, furaces or oves will reduce GHG emissios i direct proportio to the fuel savigs. These are called direct impacts. Reduced electrical cosumptio will lead to GHG emissios reductios at the electric power geeratig statio. These are called idirect impacts. Although the followig examples may appear to be of rather limited applicatio, the method used to calculate emissios reductios ca be applied to ay eergy maagemet project that results i fuel or electricity cosumptio reductios. Figure 9.5, from the Assess the Beefit.xls spreadsheet, shows the factors required for calculatig idirect ad direct GHG emissios reductios. These factors have bee used to estimate GHG emissios reductios i the comprehesive example i Figure 9.1. Reductios i emissios due to electricity ad atural gas savigs are calculated. Table of otets

B 98 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s A s s e s s t h e o s t s a d B e e f i t s Figure 9.5 GHG Factors Spreadsheet (from Assess the Beefit.xls) 9.5 Summary The beefits that may be derived from eergy maagemet projects are clearly comprehesive. So, too, must be the approach to assessmet, whether it ivolves idetifyig opportuities or, as outlied i this sectio, quatifyig the beefits. 9.6 Refereces RETScree lea Eergy Project Aalysis Software, Natural Resources aada, 2008 (www.retscree.et) Moder Idustrial Assessmets: A Traiig Maual, Versio 2.0, Rutgers, The State Uiversity of New Jersey, September 2001 Web site: www.iac.rutgers.edu/idassess.php Boilers ad Heaters: Improvig Eergy Efficiecy, Natural Resources aada, 2001 oee.rca.gc.ca/publicatios/ifosource/pub/cipec/boilersheaters_foreword.cfm Boiler Efficiecy alculator, Natural Resources aada, 2006 oee.rca.gc.ca/idustrial/techical-ifo/tools/boilers/ Table of otets

B 99 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s R e p o r t f o r Ac t i o 10 Report for Actio I-House Assess the Beefits Exteral Micro-Audit Macro-Audit Report for Actio Micro-Audit Report Implemet 10.1 Itroductio Regardless of how thoroughly ad carefully you coduct the eergy audit or how beeficial the proposed EMOs are, othig will be achieved uless actio is take to achieve them. The step betwee the audit ad actio is the audit report. Too ofte, audit reports gather dust o the shelf. The goals of the audit report should be to provide a clear accout of the facts upo which your recommedatios are made ad to iterest readers i actig o those recommedatios. A sales job may eed to be doe o the audit s fidigs, ad the audit report is your vehicle for makig the sale. Some priciples of good techical writig are outlied below. A good audit report uses laguage that is cocise, accurate ad appropriate for the target readership. This sectio offers suggestios o how to esure that your audit report leads to actio. 10.2 Some Geeral Priciples for Good Audit Report Writig 10.2.1 Kow Your Reader There may be several people i your orgaizatio who will read your report, icludig the EO or plat maager, the supervisor of egieerig or maiteace, ad the heatig plat shift supervisor. Their iformatio eeds may be quite differet, so be sure to cosider all eeds whe writig. Iclude a executive summary that gives the highlights for seior decisio-makers ad a techical sectio that provides details for those who will be ivolved i implemetig your recommedatios. 10.2.2 Use Simple, Direct Laguage Some of your readers may be professioal egieers or advaced degree-holders; others may have hads-o experiece as qualified trades people. The laguage you use must be clear, cocise ad uderstadable by all readers: Use the active voice rather tha the passive: We foud that the isulatio o the steam mais was badly degraded... is better tha It was foud that the isulatio... Avoid techical jargo. We have used the term eergy maagemet opportuity (EMO) i this guide; if you use this term i your report, make sure to defie it the first time you use it. Where possible, use commoly uderstood terms rather tha techical oes ad spell out terms that you might ormally express as abbreviatios (e.g. variable frequecy drive istead of VFD at first metio). Table of otets

B 100 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s R e p o r t f o r Ac t i o Esure that your report is grammatically correct ad that the laguage flows easily. You may fid it helpful to have someoe whom you regard as a good commuicator to critique your report before it is distributed. 10.2.3 Preset Iformatio Graphically The toe of ay techical report teds to be dry. Use graphics such as photos ad pie charts to complemet or replace data tables, diagrams ad schematics to give your report ad its recommedatios visual appeal. Widely available software applicatios ca geerate graphs ad charts that ca be easily icorporated ito your report. 10.2.4 Make Your Recommedatios lear The core of your report is your recommedatios sectio. Leave o room for questios i your readers mids about exactly what you are recommedig: be specific, clear ad sufficietly detailed. For example, the recommedatio Decommissio oe 75-hp compressor does t tell the whole story if what you really mea is the followig: Reduce the compressed air load through a leak detectio ad repair program; upgrade compressor cotrols; deliver base load with existig 100-hp compressor ad peak load with existig 50-hp uit; decommissio 75-hp compressor. 10.2.5 Explai Your Assumptios Sice you will have to make assumptios i your calculatios, be sure to explai them clearly. For example, if a maufacturig uit ormally operates o the basis of oe shift per day, five days a week ad 50 weeks per year, state this iformatio to explai why you are usig 2000 hours per year as the time factor i your eergy cosumptio calculatios. If it turs out that the plat is goig to chage to two-shift operatio, it will be easier for the reader to adjust your calculatios. 10.2.6 Be Accurate ad osistet Obviously, you wat your calculatios to be accurate; errors will destroy the report s credibility. I additio, be cosistet i the style ad termiology you use be cosistet whe expressig uits of measure (for example, avoid usig m3 of gas i oe place ad therms or Btus i aother) proofread ad spell-check your report ad have someoe help with subsequet proofreadig 10.2.7 Preset Your alculatios learly Some of your readers may have a techical backgroud, ad they may wat to check the accuracy of your assumptios ad calculatios. Therefore, you should preset your calculatio methodology clearly, alog with at least oe sample of each kid of calculatio. Table of otets

B 101 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s R e p o r t f o r Ac t i o 10.3 A Template for the Audit Report 10.3.1 Executive Summary Some readers, especially seior decisiomakers, will wat to kow what the report s key recommedatios ad bottom-lie implicatios are without havig to read the whole report. The executive summary should iclude the followig: Tip: To make the Executive Summary stad out from the rest of the report, you may wat to prit it o coloured paper. summary iformatio o key audit fidigs aual cosumptio ad/or eergy budget, key performace idicators, etc. recommeded EMOs, with a brief explaatio of each it may be useful to categorize these as operatios ad maiteace (O&M) improvemets, process improvemets ad buildig system improvemets implemetatio costs, savigs ad payback periods (or other fiacial criteria used i your orgaizatio, such as the Iteral Rate of Retur associated with each EMO) ay special iformatio related to the implemetatio of EMOs 10.3.2 Techical Sectio The techical sectio of the report cotais details o your audit fidigs. The followig should be icluded as subsectios. Audit Madate, Scope ad Methodology The audit madate, scope ad methodology should iclude a statemet of the madate, i.e. the goals ad objectives of the audit a descriptio of the audit scope i terms of the facilities ad processes covered the methods used for iformatio gatherig ad aalysis the key sources of iformatio (people), etc. Facility Descriptio ad Observatios The descriptio ad observatios of the facility should iclude a geeral descriptio of the facility or the parts of it covered i the audit (size, purpose, cofiguratio, etc.) observatios o the geeral coditio of the facility (from the oditio Survey) detailed cost ad cosumptio iformatio for electricity ad fuels summary demad iformatio summary load ivetory data Table of otets

B 102 E e r g y A a l y s i s M e t h o d s R e p o r t f o r Ac t i o Assumptios ad alculatios The report should give samples of all calculatios made so that assumptios, such as operatig hours ad key tariff features, are clear. Audit Recommedatios The recommedatios should iclude detailed descriptios of the EMOs, their cost, their impact o eergy cosumptio ad savigs, ad a payback aalysis. The recommedatios may also iclude potetial EMOs that have bee cosidered but foud ot to be cost-effective. Appedix The appedix to the report icludes backgroud that is essetial for uderstadig the calculatios ad recommedatios. It ca iclude data tables referece graphs used i calculatios, such as motor efficiecy curves electricity ad fuel tariffs Table of otets

Techical Supplemet

104 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s 1 Eergy Fudametals 1.1 Itroductio The ultimate purpose of a eergy audit is to idetify opportuities to reduce eergy cosumptio ad/or eergy costs icurred i the operatio of a facility. Needless to say, the auditor must be coversat with the priciples of eergy ad its use i its diverse forms by the wide variety of eergy-cosumig systems i a idustrial facility. This sectio reviews the basic priciples of electrical ad thermal eergy ad is iteded to provide a workig kowledge or perhaps a refresher of the priciples required to uderstad the iformatio gathered i a audit. The eergy cosumed i idustrial, commercial ad istitutioal facilities takes may forms. Typically, a facility will purchase a eergy source such as fuel oil to geerate heat for a variety of purposes. I most cases, electricity will be purchased for use i lightig, motors, directly for a process ad, i some cases, as a source of heat. The term thermal eergy refers to all eergy forms ivolvig heat, typically derived from gas, oil, propae or sometimes electricity. The processes by which thermal ad electrical eergy are purchased ad cosumed differ somewhat. A basic model for each is outlied i the sectios that follow, alog with a simple process for aalysig eergy use ad idetifyig savigs opportuities. 1.2 Eergy ad Its Various Forms Eergy is very simply defied as the ability to do work. Although work has a special techical defiitio, it ca be thought of as the ability to do somethig useful. This might be to move a car alog the road, light a light bulb, drive a pump, heat a ove, or cool a room with a air coditioer. Eergy ca take may differet forms ad do may differet types of work. Oe very importat law of ature, which guides the process of eergy maagemet, is that eergy caot be created or destroyed, oly coverted from oe form to aother. The forms of eergy discussed i this guide iclude chemical eergy, thermal eergy, mechaical eergy ad electrical eergy. 1.2.1 hemical Eergy hemical eergy is the eergy that helps to glue atoms together i clusters called molecules, or chemical compouds. Of special iterest to us are substaces such as atural gas, propae ad oil that are capable of releasig some of that eergy. Whe we bur these fuels, we uglue some of the atoms from each other, liberatig the chemically boud eergy that held them together. I the process, the chemical eergy is chaged to high-temperature heat eergy, a form well suited to doig may differet kids of work. This process takes place every time we flick a butae lighter. Table of otets

105 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s 1.2.2 Thermal Eergy Thermal eergy is created by the microscopic movemet of atoms ad molecules i everythig aroud us. Thermal eergy is ofte commoly referred to as heat. I fact, there are two types of thermal eergy. Sesible eergy, or sesible heat, is eergy that jostles molecules ad atoms i substaces such as water. The more movemet, the hotter the substace becomes. Sesible eergy gets its ame from the fact that we ca sese it by touchig the substace directly or idirectly with a thermometer. Whe we add heat to water i a kettle, we icrease its temperature. Latet eergy, or latet heat, is the eergy that is eeded to make a substace such as water (a liquid) chage to a differet form of the same substace such as water vapour (a gas). The chage of form happes whe eough sesible heat is added ad the molecules move too fast to be coected together ad evetually separate. It gets its ame from the fact that it lies hidde, or latet, util the coditios are suitable for it to emerge. If eough heat is added to liquid water at 100, it evetually boils ad becomes a vapour (gas). If eough heat is removed from liquid water at 0, it evetually turs ito a solid (ice). Heat will aturally flow from higher to lower temperatures. Thermal eergy may move i may differet ways, betwee may differet substaces, ad chage back ad forth betwee its sesible ad latet forms. Much of the iformatio i this guide focuses o uderstadig ad maagig the movemet ad trasformatios of every form of eergy. 1.2.3 Mechaical Eergy Mechaical eergy is the eergy of physical movemet, such as movig air or water, a ball beig throw or a perso sadig a piece of wood. As with may forms of eergy, mechaical eergy evetually eds up beig released or lost as thermal eergy. For example, sadpaper applied to wood coverts mechaical eergy to heat. 1.2.4 Electrical Eergy Electrical eergy ivolves the movemet of electric curret through wires. Electrical eergy is very useful because it ca perform may fuctios. Ultimately, most electrical eergy or electricity also eds up as thermal eergy i the form of sesible heat. Some devices, such as electric heaters, covert the eergy directly; other devices, such as motors, covert electricity to mechaical eergy that evetually becomes heat. The trick to optimizig electricity use is to maximize the amout of work doe by electricity before it is lost as heat. Typically, this also ivolves optimizig the use of mechaical eergy. Table of otets

106 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s 1.3 Electricity: From Purchase to Ed-Use Electricity provides a method of movig eergy from oe poit to aother. Some eergy will be lost i the process sice the method used for trasmittig it is ot perfect. Ultimately, the electrical eergy will arrive at a poit of use where it will perform a useful actio. To uderstad how to reduce the amout of electricity that is purchased, it is useful to trace the flow of eergy from the poit of purchase to the poit of use. Oce past the utility meter, electricity is directed by a facility s distributio system to a poit of coversio, where it will be coverted to aother form of eergy, such as light, mechaical eergy i a motor, heat or possibly soud. I some cases the electricity will be used directly, as for a electric welder, where the flow of electric curret heats ad melts metal. Figure 1.1 shows the path of electricity from the utility meter to various poits of use i a facility. A refrigeratio system coverts the eergy twice from electrical to mechaical ad the to heat ivolvig a motor ad a compressor. Ultimately, all the electrical eergy we purchase eds up as heat ad is absorbed ito the surroudigs or veted to the outside. To miimize the amout of electricity purchased, we must esure that the ed-use serves a useful purpose miimize the amout of eergy required at the poit of use miimize the losses icurred betwee the meter ad the poit of use Figure 1.1 Table of otets

107 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s 1.4 Thermal Eergy: Purchase to Ed-Use The flow of thermal eergy from the poit of purchase to the poit of ed-use may be traced i a maer similar to electricity. I a idustrial cotext, a boiler may covert purchased atural gas to steam, which is the used directly i a process ad also coverted to heat hot water ad to heat the buildig. I a commercial facility, atural gas heats hot water i a boiler for space heat ad i a hot water heater for domestic hot water. I both istaces, sigificat eergy is lost from the boiler (heater) at the poit of coversio from fuel to thermal eergy. Figure 1.2 provides a simple represetatio of the umerous losses that the heatig ad coolig eergy required by a heatig, vetilatig ad air-coditioig (HVA) system sustais beyod the boiler. Throughout this guide, the idetificatio of electricity usage will start at the meter ad work toward the ed-use, while the idetificatio ad assessmet of electricity savigs opportuities always start at the poit of eduse ad work back toward the meter. Agai, i a approach similar to that for electricity, reducig the amout of thermal fuel purchased requires us to esure that the ed-use serves a useful purpose (e.g. avoid uecessary air leakage from doors ad widows) miimize the amout of eergy required at the poit of use (e.g. utilize temperature setbacks durig uoccupied hours) miimize the losses icurred betwee the meter ad the poit of use (e.g. esure the HVA system is efficiet) miimize the losses as outlied i Figure 1.2 examie the mechaical system desig for meetig the requiremets ow that they have bee ratioalized (e.g. is the origial system oversized?) Figure 1.2 Thermal Eergy Losses i a Boiler Plat Table of otets

108 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s 1.5 Uits of Eergy The basic uit of eergy i the SI (metric) system is the joule (J). Eergy i the form of electricity is expressed i watt-hours. I the imperial system, the basic uit of eergy is the British thermal uit (Btu). The prefix kilo idicates 1000 uits. ommo equivalecies betwee uits are as follows: Eergy Equivalets 1000 joules (J) 1 kilojoule (kj) 1 Btu 1055.66 J or 1.056 kj 1 kilowatt-hour (kwh) 3 600 000 J or 3.6 MJ 1 kilowatt-hour (kwh) 3413 Btu 1.5.1 Power It is ofte useful to express the rate of eergy flow over time, i.e. how fast eergy is beig used or trasferred. I electrical ad mechaical terms, this is the same as referrig to power or how fast work is beig doe. Thermal power is measured i joules per secod (J/s). Oe joule per secod is equivalet to oe watt. I the imperial system, thermal power is commoly measured i Btu per hour (Btu/hr). Mechaical power is usually measured i kilowatts (kw) i the SI (metric) system ad i horsepower (hp) i the imperial system. Followig are some useful power uit equivalecies: Power (Eergy Rate) Equivalets 1 kilowatt (kw) 1 kilojoule/secod (kj/s) 1 kilowatt (kw) 3413 Btu/hour (Btu/hr.) 1 horsepower (hp) 746 watts (0.746 kw) 1 to of refrigeratio 12 000 Btu/hr. The capacity of a boiler is ofte rated i a uit of heat-eergy productio termed a boiler horsepower, which is equal to 9809.6 watts. This should ot be cofused with the uit of mechaical power, also called horsepower. 1.6 Electricity Basics I this sectio we defie the terms used i this guide. The electrical power or demad used i a circuit depeds o two fudametal quatities, voltage ad curret: 1) Voltage is the magitude of the push tryig to sed electrical charge through a wire (similar to pressure i a water distributio system or someoe pushig a child o a swig). Voltage is measured i volts. Table of otets

109 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s 2) urret is the magitude of the flow of charge through a wire caused by the push of the voltage (similar to the rate of flow of water through a pipe or the speed of the child beig pushed o a swig). urret is measured i amperes (amps). 3) Power is voltage ad curret actig together to do useful work. Power is measured i watts. The relatioship is represeted i the followig formula: Power = Voltage urret The uits of power are watts: Watts = Volts Amps 4) Demad is the rate of use of electrical eergy. The term demad is essetially the same as electrical power, although demad geerally refers to the average power measured over a give time iterval. 1.6.1 Alteratig urret ad Power Factor Direct curret (D) is a electric curret that always flows i the same directio, as i a car s electrical system: I D circuits, power is always equal to volts multiplied by amps, because the voltage (push) ad curret (flow) always work together. Alteratig curret (A), as its ame implies, chages directio, reversig its flow o a regular basis (switchig from push to pull). A is used by utilities to trasmit ad distribute electricity because it is safer ad easier to cotrol. The typical household voltage goes through a complete cycle 60 times per secod, kow as 60 Hertz (Hz). Whe it does this, it swigs from +170 volts to 170 volts. This results i a average voltage of 120 volts: Table of otets

110 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s I A circuits, the curret ad voltage do ot always work together. How well they work together is represeted by the power factor (PF), a umber from 0 to 1 or from 0% to 100%. Usig the aalogy of a perso pushig a child o a swig, if the push occurs at the very top of the swig cycle, maximum beefit of the push (100% PF) is obtaied. If the push is started at a poit lower tha the top of the cycle, some of the push is lost, ad the power factor is less tha 100%. 1.6.2 Thigs That Affect Power Factor Electric heaters ad icadescet lamps are called resistive loads. These loads do ot reduce power factor. They allow the voltage ad curret to work together (100% PF). Motors, trasformers ad loads with coils are called iductive loads. These cause the curret to slow dow. The power factor ca rage from 0% to 100%. The effect of iductive loads is couteracted by that of capacitive loads by meas of devices called capacitors, which cosist of wires or metal plates separated by a isulatig material to slow dow the voltage. The power factor ca rage from 100% to 0%. Sice capacitive ad iductive loads couter each other, this leads us to a techique called power factor correctio, which ivolves addig capacitors to a circuit to move its power factor closer to 100%. Over-excited sychroous motors, which are typically foud i large systems, behave electrically like capacitors ad thus ca also be used to correct power factor. 1.6.3 The Basic Arithmetic for Power Factor The relatioships betwee power, curret, voltage ad power factor i A circuits ca be summed up by these equatios: Kilowatts (kw) = Volts Amps Power Factor 1000 If we igore the effect of power factor ad simply multiply the voltage by the curret i a A circuit, the result is called voltamps, or, i multiples of 1000, kilovoltamps: Kilovoltamps (kva) = Volts Amps 1000 We ca therefore coclude that the kilowatts ad the kilovoltamps are related by the power factor: kw = kva Power Factor It is importat to ote that kva will either equal kw (i the case of a purely resistive load) or be greater tha kw (i the presece of iductive loads, i.e. motors ad trasformers). Whe metered i kva Ad fially, if we kow both the kilowatts ad the kilovoltamps, we ca calculate the power factor: (rather tha kw), the differece will cost you moey. Power Factor = kw the kva closer to the kw ad save you moey. Therefore, cotrollig the power factor will brig kva Table of otets

111 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Note the use of the prefix kilo, meaig thousads of. It is the most commo multiple used to express power quatities. (At the utility level, it is also commo to use mega, meaig millios of. ) 1.6.4 Electrical Eergy I the previous sectio, we discussed electric power. Whe power is cosumed for ay period of time, eergy is used. Eergy cosumptio is the total amout of electricity cosumed over time ad is measured i kilowatt-hours (kwh). Eergy = average demad time Kilowatt-hours are the uits of eergy: Kilowatt-hours = kilowatts hours 1.6.5 Demad ad Eergy: How Fast ad How Much? The term demad geerally refers to the average value of power measured over a give time iterval (typically, a give load will register 99% of its istataeous measuremet after 30 miutes). The maximum (or peak) demad is the maximum demad (i kw) measured by the utility meter durig a billig period. Eergy (kwh) is the product of power over time ad the sum of all the istataeous power measuremets durig a period (i.e. how much electricity was used). These two quatities maximum demad ad eergy are measured by your electric meter ad are used to determie the amout of your mothly electric bill. 1.6.5.1 Average Versus Istataeous Demad Whe a load is applied to a utility demad meter, the demad poiter does ot idicate the magitude of the load immediately. The demad poiter slowly rises util it is at 99% of the applied load, typically after 30 miutes, as illustrated by the graph i Figure 1.3. Figure 1.3 Table of otets

112 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s This results i a smoothig of the meter respose to applied loads over time as well as a time lag betwee whe a load switches o ad whe it fully registers o the meter, as show i Figure 1.4. The thick lie represets the respose of the demad meter, ad the thi lie represets the actual applied load over time. The implicatios of this respose lag are as follows: High, short duratio loads (e.g. large motor start-up currets) will ot register fully o the meter. oversely, whe a large load is shut off after operatig for at least 30 miutes, the metered demad does ot drop off right away. Keep these poits i mid whe cosiderig opportuities for demad reductio. Figure 1.4 1.6.5.2 Time-of-Use Meterig New techologies i electricity meterig give electric utilities a opportuity to measure ad record eergy cosumptio as a fuctio of time. This eables the utility to measure ot oly how much eergy was cosumed but also whe the eergy was cosumed durig the billig period. A time-of-use (TOU) meter measures ad records electrical usage durig pre-specified periods of the day, accumulatig daily periods over a billig period (e.g. oe moth). These meters also calculate average power cosumptio (average demad) as a fuctio of time. Time-of-use rates are a direct result of this techology. Table of otets

113 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Electric utilities calculate maximum demad by oe or more of the followig methods of calculatig average demad with a time-of-use meter: 15-miute average demad 60-miute slidig widow ad rollig averages The 15-miute average demad is calculated by multiplyig the average eergy cosumed i each 15-miute iterval by 4 (4 15-miute itervals per hour). Oe facility, for example, cosumed 1000 kwh over a two-hour period: The maximum 15-miute average demad was 1200 kw ad occurred durig the fourth iterval. Most utilities superimpose a slidig widow o the 15-miute averages. Typically, this is a 60-miute slidig widow. Each 15-miute average demad is the averaged with the previous three values to obtai a rollig average. If we reuse the example above, the maximum recorded demad values chage to the followig: Table of otets

114 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s To the customer s beefit, the maximum demad has bee reduced to 800 kw. It appears to have occurred durig the fifth iterval. For the 60-miute rolled average to be equal to the maximum 15-miute demad, the maximum 15-miute demad must be maitaied for four cosecutive itervals (oe hour). Ufortuately, the opposite holds true as well: if a facility shifts electrical demad ito off-peak hours, you may eed to start the demad reductio at a poit up to 75 miutes before the start of the o-peak period. The previous examples used 15 miutes for the iterval averagig ad 60 miutes for the rollig average. Sice differet averagig periods may be used by your utility, always cofirm these details with your utility represetative. The applicatio of time-of-use meterig ca have both positive ad egative effects o existig demad maagemet strategies. Prudece is required whe coductig a comparative aalysis of covetioal ad TOU rates. The relevat iformatio lies i a facility s electrical demad profile, load ivetory ad load flexibility. 1.6.5.3 Iterval Meterig Iterval meters, like time-of-use meters, measure eergy cosumptio vs. time, but istead of accumulatig i TOU periods, each value is stored separately. This gives a more accurate picture of a facility s eergy-use patters. Utilities use iterval meterig for real-time pricig rate structures. 1.7 Thermal Basics Thermal eergy is stored ad trasferred i a variety of ways i idustrial ad commercial facilities. This sectio provides a itroductio to the basic cocepts. 1.7.1 Temperature ad Pressure Temperature ad pressure are measures of the physical coditio or state of a substace. Typically, they are closely related to the eergy cotaied i the substace. As a result, measuremets of temperature ad pressure provide a meas of determiig eergy cotet. 1.7.1.1 Temperature The temperature of a substace is a measure of the amout of eergy ivolved i the movemet of the molecules ad atoms. Temperature is a measure of the sesible heat of a substace. O the elsius scale, the freezig poit of water is 0 ad the boilig poit of water is 100. The Fahreheit scale is defied i a similar fashio, but with a differet pair of referece poits (32 F ad 212 F, respectively). The relatioship betwee the elsius ad Fahreheit scales is as follows: Degrees = (degrees F 32) 5/9 Table of otets

115 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Temperature may be measured i may differet ways. A mercury or alcohol thermometer (i which a fluid expads as it warms) is the most commo. Other devices, such as a thermocouple, produce a electrical voltage that is proportioal to the temperature or chage their electric resistace with temperature. Others rely o the expasio of fluids or the expasio of solid materials i a observable maer. 1.7.1.2 Pressure Pressure is the push exerted by a substace upo its surroudigs. Air molecules move because of their eergy. We ca icrease the amout of molecular movemet by addig sesible eergy or heat to a gas. Whe we heat a gas i a cofied space, we icrease its pressure. For example, heatig the air iside a balloo will cause the balloo to stretch as the pressure icreases. The priciple of pressure is useful because it provides a method of storig thermal eergy i a substace by cofiig the substace ad the addig eergy. High-pressure steam allows us to store much more eergy tha steam at low pressures. Pressure ca be stated as pressure relative to the prevailig atmospheric pressure. This is the gauge pressure that would be idicated o a pressure gauge. Pressure ca also be stated as absolute pressure, i.e. the gauge pressure plus the prevailig atmospheric pressure. Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Prevailig atmospheric pressure Uits of measure of pressure: SI (metric): kilopascals (kpa) Imperial: pouds per square ich (psi) 1.7.2 Heat apacity I may everyday situatios, we move thermal eergy from oe place to aother by simply heatig a substace ad the movig it. A good example is a hot water heatig system i a home or office buildig. Heat is moved from the boiler to the room radiator by heatig water i the boiler ad the pumpig it to the radiator, where it heats the room. Water is frequetly used because it has a good capacity to hold heat. The heat capacity of a substace ca be calculated by addig a kow amout of sesible thermal eergy to a kow mass of substace ad the measurig its rise i temperature. The heat capacity of a substace is specified as the amout of heat required to raise 1 kilogram of the substace by 1. Table of otets

116 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s The uits of measure are kilojoules per kilogram per degree elsius. Heat capacity per uit of mass is referred to as specific heat capacity or simply specific heat. Specific heats for commo substaces are listed below. Substace Specific Heat apacity Water 4.2 kj/(kg/ ) Ice 2.04 kj/(kg/ ) Alumium 0.912 kj/(kg/ ) Brick 0.8 kj/(kg/ ) Usually, the heat capacity of a substace is kow, but ot the amout of heat it cotais or how much heat is required to raise its temperature by a certai amout. The followig formula ca be used to calculate these figures (uits are show i paretheses): Heat (kj) = Mass (kg) Heat apacity (kj/kg/ ) Temperature hage ( ) or Q = M (T2 T1) This is a useful formula for eergy maagemet. Thermal eergy is ofte trasferred via the flow of water, air or other fluid. This formula, or oe based o it, ca be used to calculate the eergy flow associated with this mass flow. Figure 1.5 1.7.3 Sesible ad Latet Heat: A loser Look It is impossible to add ulimited sesible heat to a substace. If eough heat is added to ay give substace, a poit is reached whe the form of the substace chages. I other words, at a certai temperature, the movemet of the molecules that make up the Table of otets

117 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s substace becomes so great that the form of the substace chages. This is what happes whe ice is heated: evetually it melts ad becomes water. At 100, water becomes water vapour. Figure 1.6 illustrates this: as heat is added, the temperature of the ice icreases accordig to its capacity to hold heat. At 0, the temperature stops risig, but heat is still beig added. Evetually, all the ice turs to water ad the temperature starts to rise agai. The heat added to melt the ice is called the latet heat of meltig or fusio, as this is the amout of heat that must be added to a substace to covert it to a liquid. As more heat is added, the temperature of the water rises. As a result, the sesible heat i the water icreases. Evetually, the water caot hold ay more sesible heat, ad the temperature oce agai reaches a plateau. Now water is beig coverted to water vapour. Heat is added ad absorbed util all the water becomes a vapour. The total amout of heat absorbed ad hidde i the vapour o this plateau is called the latet heat of vaporizatio. Fially, whe eough heat is added ad all the water is coverted to vapour, the water vapour begis to absorb sesible heat, ad its temperature starts to rise agai. The ability of the ice (solid), water (liquid) or vapour (gas) to absorb heat is called its heat capacity. This determies the slope of the temperature lie for the temperature chage portios of the chart. The more heat the substace ca absorb, the less proouced the slope. The less heat it ca absorb, the faster its temperature rises ad the greater the slope. The amout of heat that lies latet or hidde i the liquid or vapour is idicated by the legth of the plateau sectios. The loger the plateau, the more heat is absorbed, resultig i a greater amout of latet heat. From this we ca observe that latet heat stored i water vapour is much greater tha that i liquid water. Because it holds a lot of eergy, steam is useful for thermal eergy systems. The latet heat of vaporizatio is 2256.9 kj/kg at 100 ad 101.325 kpa absolute pressure. 1.7.3.1 Evaporatio Evaporatio is the process through which a substace i its liquid form chages to a vapour or gas. This is achieved by addig heat as described above. 1.7.3.2 odesatio odesatio is the process through which a substace i its gaseous state chages state ito a liquid form. This is achieved by coolig the substace. Whe the chage of state occurs, the latet or hidde heat is released. 1.7.3.3 Steam The term steam ofte refers to a mixture of water ad vapour. Strictly speakig, dry steam is water vapour oly; wet steam is a mixture of vapour ad fie liquid droplets. At the begiig of the vaporizatio plateau, there is 0% vapour ad 100% water. At the ed of the plateau, there is 100% vapour ad 0% water. I the middle, there is 50% vapour ad 50% water. The water i the middle may be i the form of very small droplets, just like fog. Sometimes people will refer to the quality of steam from 0% to 100%. This refers to the amout of vapour i the steam. Table of otets

118 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Steam s may properties have bee extesively studied ad tabulated. Steam tables provide values for the eergy cotet of steam uder various coditios. The latet heat of vaporizatio is 2256.9 kj/kg at 100 ad 101.325 kpa absolute pressure. These values are used to estimate eergy losses due to steam leaks. Typical uits related to steam measuremet are as follows: oditios temperature ( ) ad pressure (kpa) Mass kilograms (kg) Mass flow kilograms per hour (kg/h) Eergy cotet kilojoules per kilogram (kj/kg) 1.7.3.4 Moist Air ad Humidity Aother very commo form of latet heat i facility systems is latet heat cotaied i moist air. Whe it rais or it is very foggy, there is moisture i the air. I fact, whe it rais, the moisture i the air has just chaged from a vapour to a liquid. The dew o the grass i the morig has formed because of the same process codesatio. The fact that air is moist has two importat implicatios for the heatig ad coolig of air: Air that is moist has a greater heat capacity; thus, if we are goig to heat it, we will eed more heat. If we lower the temperature of the air, a temperature may be reached at which the water vapour turs to liquid, releasig its latet eergy ad makig it more difficult to cool the air. odesatio makes it harder for a air coditioer to cool air, for istace. Similarly, heatig moist air requires more eergy tha heatig dry air. The amout of moisture or water vapour cotaied i air is measured by what we call relative humidity (RH), a percetage from 0% to 100%. We use the term relative because it refers to how much vapour is preset compared with the maximum amout that the air would hold at a give temperature. Relative humidity is always associated with a temperature as measured by a dry sesig elemet. For example, it is customary to state that the relative humidity is 65% at 20 dry bulb. A psychrometer is used to measure the relative humidity by comparig the temperatures sesed by a dry bulb ad oe completely eclosed by a saturated wick. At 100% RH, both bulbs should read the same temperature. The properties of moist air have bee studied ad tabulated o a psychrometric chart. Measures ad uits of humidity are as follows: Humidity factor grams of water per kilogram of dry air (g/kg) Relative humidity percetage (%) at temperature ( ) Table of otets

119 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s 1.7.4 The Importace ad Usefuless of Thermal Eergy Give our origial defiitio of eergy as the ability to do work, we ca say that thermal eergy is useful if it ca do some thermal work for us. Some simple forms of useful thermal work are the followig: heatig a tak of cold liquid with a electric heater heatig a vat of chemicals with steam to sustai a chemical reactio heatig a buildig i witer with a hot radiator evaporatig water from milk with a steam coil All these processes have oe thig i commo: heat is beig added through the use of a device or fluid that is hotter or at a higher temperature tha the origial substace. So, i very simple terms, we could associate the ability to do useful work with a icreased temperature. osider the questio posed by Figure 1.6. We wat to heat 100 litres of water from 20 to 60 by immersig the 100-litre cotaier i oe of the other cotaiers. Which has the greater ability to do this work for us? Figure 1.6 If the heat capacity of the water is 4.2 kj/kg, we will eed 16 800 kj of heat. Both cotaiers of water cotai the same amout of thermal eergy 84 000 kj whe compared with water at 20. Which cotaier should be used? a both do the amout of useful work ecessary? The aswer is o because the larger volume of water will ever be able to raise aythig above its ow temperature of 40. The heatig source must be hotter tha the 60 we wat to achieve. Thus, we must coclude that we eed the 250 litres of water at 100. Table of otets

120 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s What may be leared from this situatio is that the capacity to do work is ot related oly to the quatity of eergy cotaied i a substace but also to the temperature of that substace. Aother way to thik about this is that heat ad thermal eergy will flow oly from higher to lower temperatures. Much of thermal eergy maagemet is cocered with maipulatig temperatures to get the maximum amout of useful work from the thermal eergy or heat that we have purchased. However, this does t work i the case of latet eergy, where the ability to do some useful work is stored ad the temperature may ot idicate how much. I fact, this occurs i other situatios too. Temperature is ot the oly measure of the ability to do useful work, but it is a good oe for may of our thermal systems. I the case of latet systems, we must remember that if we ca covert the latet eergy to sesible eergy at a elevated temperature, the we ca do some useful thermal work. The importat thig to remember about latet eergy is that it is the stored or hidde ability to do useful work. The usefuless of sesible eergy is idicated by the temperature of the substace possessig the eergy compared with the surroudig temperatures. 1.8 Heat Trasfer: How Heat Moves The trasfer of thermal eergy or heat is drive by a temperature differece. The rate at which heat moves from a high-temperature body to a body at a lower temperature is determied by the differece i temperatures ad the materials through which the heat trasfer takes place. There are oly three fudametal processes by which heat trasfer takes place. These are coductio, covectio ad radiatio. All heat trasfer occurs by at least oe of these processes or, more typically, by a combiatio of these processes. All heat trasfer processes are drive by temperature differeces ad are depedet o the materials or substaces used. Figure 1.7 shows each of these heat trasfer processes at work o a block at 60, sittig o a cool surface at a temperature of 20, surrouded by air at 20, ad i a room with walls at 20. Table of otets

121 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Figure 1.7 1.8.1 oductio The coductio of heat takes place whe two bodies are i cotact with oe aother. If oe body is at a higher temperature tha the other, the motio of the molecules i the hotter body will agitate the molecules at the poit of cotact i the cooler body ad icrease its temperature. I the example show i Figure 1.7, heat will flow by coductio to the material the block is sittig o util the block ad the cool surface reach the same temperature. This meas that the block will cool ad the surface will warm. The amout of heat trasferred by coductio depeds o the temperature differece, the properties of the materials ivolved, the thickess of the material, the surface cotact area ad the duratio of the trasfer. Good heat coductors are typically dese substaces. The molecules are close together, allowig the molecular agitatio process to permeate the substace easily. Gases, o the cotrary, are poor coductors of heat because their molecules are further apart. Poor coductors of heat are called isulators. The measure of the ability of a substace to isulate is its thermal resistace. This is commoly referred to as the R-value (RSI i SI). The R-value is geerally the iverse of the coductace, or ability to coduct. Typical uits of measure for coductive heat trasfer are as follows: Heat trasfer rate SI (metric) watts (W) or kilowatts (kw) Imperial Btu per hour (Btu/hr.) Heat trasfer rate per uit area (for a give thickess) SI (metric) watts per square metre (W/m2) Imperial Btu per hour per square foot (Btu/hr./sq.ft.) Table of otets

122 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s 1.8.2 ovectio The trasfer of heat by covectio ivolves the movemet of a fluid such as a gas or liquid. There are two types of covectio: atural ad forced. I the case of atural covectio, the fluid i cotact with or adjacet to a hightemperature body is heated by coductio. As it is heated, it expads, becomes less dese ad cosequetly rises. This begis a fluid motio process i which a circulatig curret of fluid moves past the heated body, cotiuously trasferrig heat away from it. Figure 1.7 illustrates how atural covectio takes place o the sides ad top of the body. Natural covectio helps to cool your coffee i a mug ad bake a cake i a ove. I the case of forced covectio, the movemet of the fluid is forced by a fa, pump or other exteral meas. A hot air heatig system is a good example of forced covectio. ovectio depeds o the coductive heat trasfer betwee the hot body ad the fluid ivolved. With a low coductivity fluid such as air, a rough surface ca trap air, reducig the coductive heat trasfer ad cosequetly reducig the covective currets. Fibreglass wall isulatio employs this priciple. The fie glass mesh is desiged to miimize covectio currets i a wall ad hece reduce covective heat trasfer. Materials with may fie fibres impede covectio, while smooth surfaces promote covectio. Forced covectio ca potetially trasfer a much larger amout of heat or heat at a greater rate. Uits of measure for rate of covective heat trasfer are as follows: SI (metric) watts (W) or kilowatts (kw) Imperial Btu per hour (Btu/hr.) 1.8.3 Thermal Radiatio Thermal radiatio is a process by which eergy is trasferred by electromagetic waves similar to light waves. These waves may be both visible (light) ad ivisible. A very commo example of thermal radiatio is a heatig elemet o a stove. Whe the stove elemet is first switched o, the radiatio is ivisible, but you ca feel its warmth. As the elemet heats, it will glow orage, ad some of the radiatio is ow visible. The hotter the elemet, the brighter it glows ad the more radiat eergy it emits. The key processes i the iteractio of a substace with thermal radiatio are as follows: Absorptio the process by which radiatio eters a body ad becomes heat Trasmissio the process by which radiatio passes through a body Reflectio the process by which radiatio is either absorbed or trasmitted through the body; istead, it bouces off Table of otets

123 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Objects receive thermal radiatio whe they are struck by electromagetic waves, which agitates the molecules ad atoms. More agitatio meas more eergy ad a higher temperature. Eergy is trasferred to oe body from aother without cotact or a trasportig medium such as air or water. I fact, thermal radiatio heat trasfer is the oly form of heat trasfer possible i a vacuum. All bodies emit a certai amout of radiatio. The amout depeds upo the body s temperature ad the ature of the surface. Some bodies, commoly called low-emissivity materials (low-e), emit oly a small amout of radiat eergy for their temperature. Low-E widows are used to cotrol the heat radiatio i ad out of buildigs. Widows ca be desiged to reflect, absorb ad trasmit differet parts of the su s radiat eergy. The coditio of a body s surface will determie the amout of thermal radiatio that is absorbed, reflected or re-emitted. Surfaces that are black ad rough, such as black iro, will absorb ad re-emit almost all the eergy that strikes them. Polished ad smooth surfaces will ted to reflect rather tha absorb a large part of the icomig radiat eergy. Typical uits of measure for rate of radiative heat trasfer are as follows: SI (metric) watts per square metre (W/m2) Imperial Btu per hour per square foot (Btu/hr./sq.ft.) 1.9 Heat Loss alculatios The followig sectios provide simple methods for estimatig the amout of eergy ivolved with each eergy flow. The methods are geeral ad may be used to estimate the eergy ivolved i ay process of heat trasfer iside, outside, or from the iside to the outside of a facility. 1.9.1 Kow the Heat Source osider the case of warm air flowig from a buildig i the witer ad its correspodig make-up air itake that may or may ot be heated. Two situatios could exist, as illustrated i Figure 1.8 ad described i the followig: Vetilatio air is draw i ad heated. The exhaust flow is ecessary to balace the air pressures ad exchage air. old air is draw i to carry away excess heat i the buildig resultig from lights, motors ad other iteral heat gais. It is sometimes called waste heat. The itake air is ot heated directly, or it may be oly partially heated. Table of otets

124 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Figure 1.8 As you idetify outflows, determie the source of the heat i the outflow, as this will be importat whe idetifyig ad estimatig savigs opportuities. 1.9.2 oductio Heat trasfer by coductio occurs through the walls, roof ad widows of buildigs. As illustrated below, heat is trasferred or coducted from the warmer side of the material to the cooler side. Figure 1.9 Note: T2 > T1 i the above cofiguratios Table of otets

125 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s The ature of the material or materials betwee the two extremes of temperature determies the coductace. It is commo to refer to the isulatig value, or R-value, of the material rather tha its coductace. I the SI (metric) system, this is called the RSIvalue. (Thermal resistace ad thermal coductace are related; oe is the reciprocal of the other.) Sectio 1.9.2.1 provides details of the estimatio of isulatio ad coductace values for various materials ad structures such as walls, roofs ad widows. This estimatio method ca be used with ay flat surface if the two temperatures accurately represet the surface temperature of the material through which the heat is beig coducted. 1.9.2.1 Determiig oductace Thermal coductivity is a measure of the ability of a material to coduct heat across a material i the presece of a temperature differece betwee the two sides of the material. It is customarily expressed as heat flow per uit of material thickess per degree of temperature differece. Uits are W/m (SI) ad Btu/ [ft./hr./ F] (imperial). More commoly, for a give thickess of material, the coductace of the material is specified i heat flow per uit surface area per degree of temperature differece. Uits of coductace are W/m2 (SI) ad Btu/ [sq.ft./hr./ F] (imperial). Parameter Symbol Uit Sample Method of Determiatio oductace U W/m2/ 0.9 W/m2/ See below Surface Area A m 100 m Measuremet Higher Temperature T2 20 Measuremet, estimatio Lower Temperature T1 5 Measuremet, estimatio Time T Hour /a Estimatio, calculatio Heat Flow Q kw 1.35 kw See formula below 2 2 The resistace to heat flow per uit of thickess, or per uit area for a specific thickess, is commoly referred to as the RSI-value i SI uits ad the R-value i imperial uits. The R ad RSI values are the iverse of the coductivity ad the coductace respectively. SI uits are m /W ad m2 /W respectively. Imperial uits are [ft.hr. F]/Btu ad [ft.hr. F]/ Btu respectively. The coductace, coductivity ad resistace values for various materials ad layers of commo materials may be obtaied from maufacturers literature, which is ofte available o the Iteret. The coductace of a assembly of materials (layers) is ofte referred to as the trasmittace. 1.9.2.2 Temperatures I some circumstaces, it is possible to substitute air temperatures for the surface temperatures T2 ad T1. This is commoly doe i the case of buildig compoets such as walls, roofs ad widows, where the isulatig effect of the air layer adjacet to the iside ad outside surfaces is take ito accout. Table of otets

126 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Equatio for rate of heat trasfer Q = U A (T2 T1) i uits of watts (W) Total heat trasferred Heat = Q t/1000 i uits of kilowatt-hours (kwh) Heat = Q t 3600 i uits of joules (J) Assumptio ad autios Sigificat temperature variatios over time will reduce accuracy. The temperature does ot vary across the surface area ivolved. Temperatures used must be surface temperatures if coductace measuremets do ot iclude allowace for air films. 1.9.3 Airflow Sesible Heat This type of forced covective eergy flow is commo i the heated or cooled air streams that provide vetilatio ad exhaust i idustrial buildigs. This estimatio method cosiders oly the sesible heat i the air ad the moisture cotaied i the air; it does ot take ito accout possible chages i moisture cotet of the air due to codesatio or evaporatio. Various facility eergy flows are represeted: Heat loss whe warm air flows to a cooler eviromet. A example would be warm exhaust air i witer. Heat required to raise the temperature of cold air eterig a warm eviromet. A example would be cold air itake i the witer. The heat gaied (ad hece requiremet for coolig) whe warm air is draw ito a cool eviromet. A example would be warm air itake ito a air-coditioed buildig i the summer. Table of otets

127 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Parameter Symbol Uit Sample Method of Determiatio Airflow Rate V L/s 1800 L/s Measuremet, estimatio Iside/Outside Temperature T2 20 Measuremet, estimatio (see ote below)* Outside/Iside Temperature T1 5 Measuremet, estimatio (see ote below)* Time t Hour /a Estimatio, calculatio Heat Flow Q kw 33.3 kw Formula below * Note 1: Average value ca be calculated for aual periods from degree-days. Equatio for rate of heat trasfer Q = V (T2 T1) 1.232 i uits of watts (W) Total heat trasferred Heat = Q t/1000 i uits of kilowatt-hours (kwh) Heat = Q t 3600 i uits of joules (J) Assumptios ad autios The relative humidity of the air ivolved is 50% at a temperature of 21. The costat 1.232 takes these coditios ito accout. This method should ot be used for very high-temperature ad high-humidity airflows. It is primarily iteded for buildig heatig ad coolig calculatios. For ay give airflow ito a buildig, there is a balacig outflow by meas of a fa system, vets or exfiltratio through the structure. The reverse is also true. Whe coductig a eergy outflow ivetory, accout oly for the eergy eeded to heat the icomig stream or lost i the outgoig stream. Icludig both would be double accoutig. 1.9.4 Airflow Latet Heat This type of eergy flow is foud i heated or cooled moist air streams such as commercial ad idustrial buildig vetilatio ad exhaust systems. Table of otets

128 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Figure 1.10 This eergy flow accouts for codesatio or evaporatio that may take place as a result of temperature ad humidity chages associated with the airflow. It does ot take ito accout the sesible heat ivolved i the airflow. Depedig o the humidity differece, two types of facility eergy flows are represeted by the followig situatios: Heat gai (eed for coolig) whe water codeses (or is removed) from humid air. This may be associated with the coolig of outside air supply stream by a air coditioig system durig the summer. Heat required to humidify (add moisture to) dry air by evaporatio. A example would be the humidificatio of outside vetilatio air itake durig the witer. 1.9.4.1 Determiig the Humidity Factor At ay give humidity ad temperature, the air will hold a certai amout of moisture. This is customarily expressed as the umber of grams of water per kilogram of dry air (air with 0% relative humidity). Figure 1.11 provides a sample of a chart kow as a Psychrometric1 hart, which is commoly used for determiig the humidity factor, give the dry bulb temperature (T1 or T2) ad the humidity (RH1 or RH2). Full-sized versios of this chart may be foud i ay editio of the ASHRAE Fudametals Hadbook. The Thermal Ivetory.xls spreadsheet that accompaies this guide icludes a electroic versio of this chart (see Part, Techical Supplemet, Sectio 6.10). Psychrometry: determiatio of the thermodyamic properties of moist or humid air. 1 Table of otets

129 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Figure 1.11 Sample Psychrometric hart (courtesy ASHRAE) Table of otets

130 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Parameter Symbol Uit Sample Method of Determiatio Air Flow Rate V L/s 1 831 L/s Measuremet, estimatio Temperature (Dry Bulb) T1 24 Measuremet, estimatio RH1 % 50% Measuremet, estimatio See Sectio 1.7.3.4. T2 31 Measuremet, estimatio Higher Relative Humidity RH2 % 50% Measuremet, estimatio See Sectio 1.7.3.4 Humidity Factor (High) H2 g/kg 14.5 g/kg Humidity measuremet ad psychrometric chart Humidity Factor (Low) H1 g/kg 9 g/kg Humidity measuremet ad psychrometric chart Time t hour /a Heat Flow Q kw 30.3 kw Lower Relative Humidity Temperature (Dry Bulb) Estimatio, calculatio Formula below Equatio for rate of heat trasfer Q = V (H2 - H1) 3.012 i uits of watts (W) Total heat trasferred Heat = Q t/1000 i uits of kilowatt-hours (kwh) Heat = Q t 3600 i uits of joules (J) Assumptio ad autios This estimatio method is iteded primarily for buildig heatig ad coolig purposes. It should ot be used for situatios ivolvig extremely high temperatures ad humidity. Typical coditios are assumed i determiig the factor 3.012. For ay give air flow ito a buildig, there is a balacig outflow by meas of a fa system, vets, or exfiltratio through the structure. The reverse is also true. I a eergy outflow ivetory, accout oly for the eergy eeded to heat the icomig stream or lost i the outgoig stream, as accoutig for both would costitute double accoutig. Table of otets

131 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s 1.9.5 Hot or old Fluid Fluid flows at various temperatures are commo i idustrial situatios. Water is commoly used to move heat. Liquid product ofte requires heatig ad coolig as a routie part of the maufacturig process. This method of estimatig ca be used for a umber of purposes icludig the followig: to determie heat lost i a outflow of hot fluid to determie the heat required to heat a stream of cold fluid to determie the amout of coolig required to reduce a fluid temperature Parameter Symbol Uit Sample Method of Determiatio Mass Flow Rate M kg/s 0.35 kg/s Measuremet, estimatio Higher Temperature T2 40 Measuremet, estimatio Lower Temperature T1 10 Measuremet, estimatio Heat apacity (Specific Heat) of Fluid kj/ kg/ 4.2 kj/kg/ Time t hour /a Heat Flow Q kw 44.1 kw Use the table i Sectio 1.7.2 above. Estimatio, calculatio Formula below Where Q = M ( T2 _ T1) 1.9.5.1 Higher ad Lower Temperature Whe usig this method to estimate eergy outflows, the lower temperature is typically assumed to be the temperature of the fluid which etered the facility. For water, this might be the itake water temperature. I heatig circumstaces, the lower ad higher temperatures are simply take as the from ad to temperatures respectively. For coolig, the values are reversed. Table of otets

132 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s 1.9.5.2 Mass Flow Rate The mass flow rate is related to the fluid volume flow rate by the desity. Stadard uits of desity are kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3) i SI ad pouds per cubic foot (lb./cu. ft.) i imperial measuremet. Flow rates are ofte give i litres per secod (L/s) or gallos per miute (gpm). It is therefore ecessary to kow the desity of a substace i kg/l or lb./gal. respectively. Water is 1.0 kg/l. The mass flow rate would be Mass Flow Rate = Volume Flow (L/s) Desity (kg/l) Equatio for rate of heat trasfer Q = M (T2 - T1) x 1000 i uits of watts (W) Total heat trasferred Heat = Q t/1000 i uits of kilowatt-hours (kwh) Heat = Q t 3600 i uits of joules (J) Referece: Ay basic physics textbook. 1.9.6 Pipe Heat Loss Pipes carryig fluid will icur a heat loss or heat gai depedig upo the relative temperatures iside ad outside the pipe. Heat loss from a pipe (which is roud) must be treated differetly tha that from a flat surface. The heat loss estimatio method preseted below is simplified. Figure 1.12 Pipe Heat Loss The heat trasfer mechaism is a combiatio of coductive, covective ad radiative heat trasfer. Table of otets

133 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Parameter Symbol Uit Sample Fluid (iterior) Temperature or Surface Temp. Tf 150 Bare Surface Measuremet, estimatio; use pipe temperature for bare or uisulated pipes Pipe Diameter D. (Nomial Pipe Size) 3 i. (Nomial Pipe Size) Measuremet Measuremet Ts Method of Determiatio Pipe Legth L m 20 m Heat Loss Factor F W/m 575 W/m Isulatio Thickess r mm il If preset, the thickess is i millimetres Time t hours /a Estimatio, calculatio Heat Flow Q kw 11.5 kw See formula followig See ote below Heat loss factor Values for the heat loss factor, based o the fluid temperature (or pipe temperature for uisulated pipes) ad pipe diameter, are available i thermal isulatio hadbooks. Equatio for rate of heat trasfer (loss) Q=F L i uits of watts (W) Total heat trasferred Heat = Q t/1000 i uits of kilowatt-hours (kwh) Heat = Q t 3600 i uits of joules (J) autio If the pipe is outside the buildig, the resultat heat loss is a facility outflow. If the pipe is iside the buildig, the resultat heat ca add to geeral buildig heatig (or overheatig i some cases). I this case, heat loss from the pipe is ot a facility outflow. However, facility outflow occurs whe heat added from a pipe iside the buildig does oe of the followig: leaves the facility as exhausted air is lost by coductio through the buildig structure Be careful ot to cout such eergy flows twice. Note: Software is available olie to calculate thermal performace of both isulated ad uisulated pipig at www.pipeisulatio.org. Table of otets

134 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s 1.9.7 Tak Heat Loss Taks holdig fluid will icur a heat loss or heat gai depedig upo the relative temperatures iside ad outside the tak. The heat loss estimatio method preseted below is simplified. Figure 1.13 Tak Heat Loss The heat trasfer mechaism is a combiatio of coductive, covective ad radiative heat trasfer. Parameter Symbol Uit Sample Fluid (iterior) Temperature or Surface Temp. Tf 90 Bare Surface Surface Area S m2 20 m2 Heat Loss Factor F W/m Isulatio Thickess r mm il If preset, the thickess is radial Time t hours /a Estimatio, calculatio Heat Flow Q kw 19 kw See formula followig Ts 2 950 W/m Method of Determiatio Measuremet, estimatio; use tak temperature for bare or uisulated taks Measuremet 2 See ote below Heat loss factor Values for the heat loss factor, based o the fluid temperature (or tak temperature for uisulated taks), are available i thermal isulatio hadbooks. Table of otets

135 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Equatio for rate of heat trasfer Q=F S i uits of watts (W) Total heat trasferred Heat = Q t/1000 i uits of kilowatt-hours (kwh) Heat = Q t 3600 i uits of joules (J) Assumptio ad autio The tak temperature is cosidered to be uiform, regardless of positio i the tak. This also assumes that the surface temperature of the tak is also uiform. If the tak is outside a buildig, the the heat lost will defiitely be a facility outflow. But i the case of a tak iside a buildig, the heat may cotribute to geeral buildig heatig (or overheatig, i some cases). I this case, the heat lost from the tak is ot, itself, a facility outflow. The facility outflow occurs whe the heat that the tak has added to the iterior space leaves the facility as exhausted air or is lost by coductio through the buildig structure. Oe must be careful ot to cout such eergy flows twice. 1.9.8 Refrigeratio Refrigeratio systems are desiged ad operated to move heat. It is ofte useful i a eergy outflow ivetory, or durig assessmet of the opportuities for heat recovery, to be able to estimate the quatity of heat rejected by a refrigeratio system per uit of time. Figure 1.14 The heat rejected by a refrigeratio system is primarily the heat rejected at the codeser. The magitude of this rejected heat is the sum of the electrical eergy beig supplied to the compressor ad the heat beig pumped from the evaporator. If this is a water-cooled codeser, the method described previously for a flow of heated fluid could be used. Likewise, for air-cooled codesers, the airflow method for sesible heat may be used. If the uit has a evaporative coolig tower, it may be ecessary to take ito accout the latet heat i the air that removes heat from the codeser. Table of otets

136 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Alteratively, a rough approximatio could be made based upo the system s ability to move heat, commoly referred to as the coefficiet of performace (OP). For a refrigeratio system desiged to provide coolig or a refrigeratio effect, the refrigeratig OP is defied mathematically as OPR = Refrigeratio Effect/Work Iput Whe a the purpose of a refrigeratio system is to heat, as with heat pumps, the heatig OP is of iterest. It is OPH = (Refrigeratio Effect + Work Iput)/Work Iput From these equatios, it is clear that, give the OP ad the Work Iput (which is commoly the electric power to the compressor), oe ca calculate the eergy moved. Equatio for rate of heat trasfer Q = OP Power to ompressor i uits of kilowatts (kw) Total heat trasferred i time t, measured i hours Heat = Q t i uits of kilowatt-hours (kwh) Heat = Q t 3 600 000 i uits of joules (J) Sample alculatio A refrigeratio system that has a estimated average OPR of 3.2 is foud to be drawig 21 kw of electrical power. The rate of heat trasfer is Q = 3.2 21 kw = 67.2 kw Accurately determiig the OP is a complex task. Furthermore, the OP of a system ca vary widely with operatig coditios, equipmet desig ad type of refrigerat. Operatig coditios ca vary daily with temperatures. Refrigeratio equipmet maufacturers ad service compaies ca provide performace iformatio for systems at various operatig coditios. Assumptios ad autios As this method is at best oly a rough approximatio, use results with cautio. 1.9.9 Steam Leaks ad Vets Steam is the most commo medium for trasportig large amouts of thermal eergy i commercial ad idustrial facilities. Steam is geerated i the boiler plat from fuel at various pressures depedig o the type of equipmet, systems, ad processes requirig heat. The steam is the distributed by pipe to various uses, but some eergy is lost i the distributio pipig. These losses may be estimated by the pipe-heat loss method detailed earlier. Table of otets

137 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Aother commo loss of steam eergy is leaks or vetig to atmosphere. The discharge of steam may have a purpose if the steam is cotamiated, but it still represets a eergy flow ad a potetial opportuity for heat recovery. The eergy lost i a leak or vetig of steam ca be estimated from the diameter of the leak. 1.9.9.1 Ethalpy of Steam The ethalpy of the steam is the total heat cotaied i the water ad the vapour. It is assumed i this method that the steam is saturated. This meas that it has ot bee heated beyod the poit of turig all the water to a vapour: i.e. it is ot superheated. A sample table of saturated steam properties is give below. Figure 1.16 Sample Table of Saturated Steam Properties oditios Gauge Pressure bar 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50 Absolute Pressure bar 1.013 1.063 1.113 1.163 1.213 1.263 1.313 1.363 1.413 1.463 1.513 1.563 1.613 1.663 1.713 1.763 1.813 1.863 1.913 1.963 2.013 2.063 2.113 2.163 2.213 2.263 2.313 2.363 2.413 2.463 2.513 Specific Ethalpy Temperature 100.00 101.40 102.66 103.87 105.10 106.26 107.39 108.50 109.55 110.58 111.61 112.60 113.56 114.51 115.40 116.28 117.14 117.96 118.80 119.63 120.42 121.21 121.96 122.73 123.46 124.18 124.90 125.59 126.28 126.96 127.62 Table of otets Steam Water Evaporatio (hf) (hfg) (hg) Specific Volume (Vg) kj/kg 419.04 424.90 430.20 435.60 440.80 445.70 450.40 455.20 459.70 464.10 468.30 472.40 476.40 480.20 484.10 487.90 491.60 495.10 498.90 502.20 505.60 508.90 512.20 515.40 518.70 521.60 524.60 527.60 530.50 533.30 536.10 kj/kg 2,257.0 2,253.3 2,250.2 2,246.7 2,243.4 2,240.3 2,237.2 2,234.1 2,231.3 2,228.4 2,225.6 2,223.1 2,220.4 2,217.9 2,215.4 2,213.0 2,210.5 2,208.3 2,205.6 2,203.5 2,201.1 2,199.1 2,197.0 2,195.0 2,192.8 2,190.7 2,188.7 2,186.7 2,184.8 2,182.9 2,181.0 kj/kg 2,676.0 2,678.2 2,680.4 2,682.3 2,684.2 2,686.0 2,687.6 2,689.3 2,691.0 2,692.5 2,693.9 2,695.5 2,696.8 2,698.1 2,699.5 2,700.9 2,702.1 2,703.4 2,704.5 2,705.7 2,706.7 2,708.0 2,709.2 2,710.4 2,711.5 2,712.3 2,713.3 2,714.3 2,715.3 2,716.2 2,717.1 m /kg 1.673 1.601 1.533 1.471 1.414 1.361 1.312 1.268 1.225 1.186 1.149 1.115 1.083 1.051 1.024 0.997 0.971 0.946 0.923 0.901 0.881 0.860 0.841 0.823 0.806 0.788 0.773 0.757 0.743 0.728 0.714 Steam 3

138 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Equatio for rate of heat trasfer overt the flow i lb./hr. to flow i kg/h by dividig the umber of lb./hr. by 2.205. Q = M h / 3600 i uits of kilowatts (kw) Total heat trasferred i time t measured i hours Heat = Q t i uits of kilowatt-hours (kwh) Heat = Q t 3.6 i uits of megajoules (MJ) Assumptios ad autios This method is oly a rough approximatio. This method does ot take ito accout the ethalpy of the water used to geerate the steam. 1.9.10 Geeral autios The methods detailed i this chapter are simple estimatio methods ad should be used oly for a first approximatio of eergy use i a give situatio. They ca help idetify potetial eergy savig opportuities, but proper egieerig calculatios should be doe to verify ad refie the iitial estimates before actually chagig the systems ivolved. All of the methods above assume static or o-chagig coditios over the time period specified. For estimatios that may ivolve mothly or yearly time periods over which coditios chage periodically (i.e. daily, ightly, weekly, or seasoally), it will be ecessary to repeat the estimatio for a umber of shorter time periods over which coditios are assumed to be costat. For example, it may be ecessary to estimate exhaust eergy use for day ad ight periods for each moth, takig ito accout ight setback of temperatures, ad seasoal chages i outdoor temperatures. Table of otets

139 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s 1.10 Referece Moder Idustrial Assessmets: A Traiig Maual, Versio 2.0, Rutgers, The State Uiversity of New Jersey, September 2001 Web site: www.iac.rutgers.edu/idassess.php Table of otets

140 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s 2 Details of Eergy-osumig Systems 2.1 Boiler Plat Systems Boilers are used to geerate steam ad hot water for space heatig ad process requiremets. I may facilities the boiler plat is the sigle largest cosumer of fuel eergy. All boilers utilize a burer to deliver a mixture of fuel the major eergy iput ad air for the combustio process that produces heat, which is subsequetly trasferred to the output medium, either steam or hot water the major eergy output. There may also be a mior electrical eergy iput to operate auxiliary equipmet such as a blower. Of particular importace to the eergy audit are the various eergy losses occurrig i the system, as idicated i the Sakey diagram below. While boilers are typically rated for a particular maximum or desig thermal output, a boiler commoly operates for most of its life at some fractio of that output, or at partial load. The efficiecy of a boiler varies sigificatly with load. osequetly, it is importat to evaluate boiler plat performace ad efficiecy over the rage of actual or partial loads that the boiler experieces. Maitaiig the optimum ratio of fuel to air is critical to efficiet operatio of these systems. A lack of air leads to icomplete combustio, resultig i losses of combustibles i the flue gases. Excess air eedlessly icreases the dry flue gas losses, as does the temperature of the flue gas. The temperature of the flue gas depeds o the effectiveess of heat trasfer i the boiler, ad is a good idicator of the coditio of iteral heat trasfer surfaces. The portable combustio aalyser is a useful tool for gaugig the combustio efficiecy of boiler plat systems. The various losses show i the Sakey diagram i Figure 2.1 are itemized ad defied i Table 2.1. Idetifyig eergy savigs opportuities i boiler plat systems ivolves critically assessig the existig eergy use. Table 2.2 provides examples of eergy maagemet opportuities (EMOs) for boiler plat systems accordig to the three-step method detailed i Sectio B-8, Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities. Table of otets

141 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Figure 2.1 Sakey Diagram of Boiler Plat Eergy Flows Table 2.1 Eergy Flows i a Boiler Plat System Key Factors for Evaluatio of Flow Portable Istrumetatio Used for Evaluatio Flue gas aalysis (O2, O2, O, etc.) ad flue gas temperature ombustio aalyser Radiatio losses from surface of boiler Surface temperature, area; ABMA stadard boiler radiatio loss chart No-cotact thermometer or ifrared temperature measuremet device Blowdow Losses (steam systems) Water discharged from steam boiler to remove solids ad excess chemicals from boiler water Timig (schedulig), temperature, volume Uburt Fuel Losses (predomiatly solid fuel systems coal, biomass) ombustibles i solid waste (ash) ad possibly flue gases Dry refuse quatity, heat cotet Stadig Losses (also called off-cycle losses) Heat lost durig boiler off cycle Duty cycle of boiler Other (ukow) All other isigificat losses Typically 0.5% of heat i fuel cosumed Either hot water or steam delivered Flow ad temperature (pressure for steam) Eergy Flow Descriptio Wet Stack Losses (more sigificat i solid fuels) Moisture cotaied i fuel ad formed durig combustio ad exhausted through flue Dry Stack Losses Sesible heat i flue gas Jacket Losses Heat Delivered to Distributio System Advaced combustio aalyser capable of detectig combustibles i flue gas Stopwatch or timer Table of otets No-cotact thermometer or ifrared temperature measuremet device If available, data from plat steam or hot water heat meters ca be used; otherwise this is ot measured i a macro-audit

142 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Table 2.2 Eergy Maagemet Opportuities i Boiler Plat Systems Step Actios Determie the Need q Documet the load o the boiler ideally a hourly profile. q For hot water boilers: o temperature ad flow requiremets q For steam boilers: o flow, pressure ad steam quality requiremets q This may require a examiatio of the loads dowstream of the distributio system. q The load o the boiler will chage as a result of other eergy maagemet actios at the poit of ed-use ad i the distributio system this step may eed to be revised periodically. Match the Need q Esure that boiler temperature ad operatig pressure are ot sigificatly greater tha the highest requiremet. Operate at the miimum possible temperature ad/or pressure. q I a multi-boiler plat, sequece boilers o-lie to follow the demad for steam or hot water. q Miimize the requiremet for boilers o hot stadby. q Moitor overall boiler plat performace (fuel to steam / hot water). q Miimize load swigs ad schedule demad (ideally at poit of ed-use) where possible. Maximize Efficiecy q Adjust boiler blowdow schedules ad frequecy to load ad water chemistry requiremets. Optimize Supply q heck combustio ad boiler efficiecy regularly. q heck ad adjust excess air levels o a regular basis. q heck ad adjust water treatmet procedures o a regular basis. q Keep burer assemblies ad cotrols adjusted ad calibrated. q Maitai seals, air ducts, breechig ad access doors to esure airtightess. q Esure that boiler ad pipig isulatio is up to stadard. q Relocate combustio air itake or de-stratify boiler room air to take advatage of waste heat to preheat combustio air. q Istall a o-codesig ecoomizer to capture heat i flue gases. q Istall a flue gas codeser to capture additioal heat i flue gases. q Reclaim heat from boiler blowdow. Table of otets

143 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Boiler Plat Systems Refereces Moder Idustrial Assessmets: A Traiig Maual, Versio 2.0, Rutgers, The State Uiversity of New Jersey, September 2001 Web site: www.iac.rutgers.edu/idassess.php Boilers ad Heaters: Improvig Eergy Efficiecy, Natural Resources aada, 2001 oee.rca.gc.ca/publicatios/ifosource/pub/cipec/boilersheaters_foreword.cfm Boiler Efficiecy alculator, Natural Resources aada, 2006 oee.rca.gc.ca/idustrial/techical-ifo/tools/boilers/ Table of otets

144 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s 2.2 Buildig Evelope Buildig evelope eergy flows iclude all three types of heat trasfer: oductio (through or betwee adjacet solid materials) ovectio (air circulatio) Radiatio (electromagetic waves; e.g. sulight) All heat movemet ad losses through the buildig evelope ca be quatified i terms of these three types. There are may complex software applicatios that ca simulate i great detail the eergy flows. However, for most audits the calculatios ca be doe with reasoable accuracy o a spreadsheet usig some basic formulas, assumptios ad rules of thumb. This sectio deals oly with eergy flows ad losses from the coditioed space. Productio (boiler, A/) ad distributio (HVA) losses are dealt with i other sectios. I additio to the eergy flows from the heatig or coolig source to the buildig evelope, it is importat to recogize ad uderstad the iteractios betwee systems ad how chagig oe system ca affect aother. For example, a reductio i the eergy used by the lightig system could result i a icrease i the witer space-heatig requiremets but a decrease i summer coolig. Whe cosiderig temperature setback EMOs, take ito cosideratio the thermal mass ad thermal respose of the buildig. If possible, use these characteristics to advatage whe settig schedules. Eergy coservatio strategies for the buildig evelope ca be arrowed dow to reducig losses of the three heat trasfer types: coductio (add isulatio); covectio (miimize air ifiltratio); ad radiatio (replace or improve widows). The recordig thermometer ca be a useful tool for trackig the temperature swigs i a space. May moder cotrol systems have the capability of loggig moitored poits (temperature, airflow, humidity, ru-time, etc.). If available, a thermal imagig device ca idicate heat losses whe used durig cold weather. The various losses show i the Sakey diagram i Figure 2.2 are itemized ad defied i Table 2.3. Idetifyig eergy savigs opportuities i hot water systems ivolves critically assessig the existig eergy use. Table 2.4 provides examples of eergy maagemet opportuities for the buildig evelope accordig to the three-step method detailed i Sectio B-8, Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities. Table of otets

145 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Figure 2.2 Sakey Diagram of Buildig Evelope Eergy Flows Table 2.3 Eergy Flows i Buildig Evelope Eergy Flow Descriptio Key Factors for Evaluatio of Flow Iteral Gais Heat from occupats, lights ad equipmet Occupacy, equipmet ad lightig ivetory Exteral Gais Solar radiatio eterig through widows Local sulight hours, buildig orietatio, widow glazig type ( low-e ) Ifiltratio/Vetilatio Air movemet losses Ubalaced HVA airflows, local wid speed, buildig orietatio Airflow meter, pressure gauge Trasmissio Heat lost through walls, roof, etc. Temperature, surface area, isulatio levels Thermometer or ifrared temperature measuremet device Table of otets Portable Istrumetatio Used for Evaluatio

146 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Table 2.4 Eergy Maagemet Opportuities i Buildig Evelope Match the Need Determie the Need Step Actios q Documet the load o the heatig/coolig system; separate fuel eergy used for space heatig/coolig. q Determie desig ad actual ed-use requiremets, temperature, fresh air, etc. q The load o the system will chage as a result of other eergy maagemet actios at the poit of ed-use this step may eed to be revised periodically. q Esure space temperature is ot sigificatly greater tha the highest requiremet. Operate at the miimum possible temperature. q Reduce flows/temperatures to match ed-use requiremets. q Reduce temperature stratificatio i high-ceilig areas. q Esure coolig ad heatig systems are ot competig. Maximize Efficiecy q Miimize air leaks at widows, doors ad vets. Optimize Supply q Esure widows ad doors are closed durig heatig. q Esure buildig isulatio is up to stadard. q osider high-performace widows to reduce summer heat gais ad witer heat losses. q Maximize solar gais whe heatig ad miimize whe coolig. q Make iovative use of passive or active solar heatig techology for space ad/or water heatig, especially whe combied with improved isulatio, widow desig ad heat recovery from veted air. q osider a solar wall a metal collector desiged to provide preheated vetilatio (make-up air) for buildigs with large south-facig walls. Buildig Evelope Referece Moder Idustrial Assessmets: A Traiig Maual, Versio 2.0, Rutgers, The State Uiversity of New Jersey, September 2001. Web site: www.iac.rutgers.edu/idassess.php Table of otets

147 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s 2.3 ompressed Air Systems ompressed air has bee termed the third utility, ofte with operatig costs close to those icurred for electricity ad thermal eergy. The compressor used to geerate ad treat compressed air accouts for a large but ecessary portio of the electrical load i most idustrial facilities. Leaks of compressed air are the most commo ad major cause of excessive cost, typically accoutig for about 70% of the total wastage. Sometimes, the cost of iefficietly produced ad distributed air may reach $1.00/kWh! Eergy losses i a poorly maitaied air system arise from the requiremet for additioal eergy to overcome equipmet iefficiecies, sice the air may ot be delivered at the correct pressure. Log-term cost of compressed air geeratio is typically 75% electricity, 15% capital ad 10% maiteace. Simple, cost-effective measures ca save 30% of electric power costs. osequetly, the effort to make a compressed air system eergy efficiet ca pay off hadsomely. All plats should cosider a compressed air system audit, icludig examiatio of compressed air geeratio, treatmet, cotrol, distributio, ed-use ad maagemet. The various losses show i the eergy flow diagram i Figure 2.3 are itemized ad defied i Table 2.5. Idetifyig eergy savigs opportuities i compressed air systems ivolves critically assessig the existig eergy use. Table 2.6 provides examples of eergy maagemet opportuities for compressed air systems accordig to the three-step method detailed i Sectio B-8, Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities. Figure 2.3 Eergy Flow Diagram of ompressed Air System Eergy Flows Heat Motor or 90% Heat & Noise Heat ompressor oolig Pressure Drops Treat Pressure Drops Leaks Distribute Packaged ompressor Geeratio Efficiecy = 10% Distributio Efficiecy = 65% Overall Efficiecy = 6.5% Table of otets

148 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Table 2.5 Eergy Flows i a ompressed Air System Eergy Flow Descriptio Key Factors for Evaluatio of Flow Portable Istrumetatio Used for Evaluatio Motor losses Heat created at the motor i coversio from electric to mechaical power Motor efficiecy ratig ad operatig coditios, i.e. applied voltage, loadig ad temperature Motor efficiecy ratig, temperature measuremet of motor, tachometer to check motor loadig from speed ompressor losses The thermodyamic iefficiecy of the particular compressor ompressor type, specs ad operatig coditios Heat rejected from air cooler The heat geerated durig compressio is rejected to deliver air at the required temperature Losses i treatmet icludig oil separatio, filtratio ad dryig Loss due to pressure drop i each elemet ad air leaks, vets ad purged from various compoets Distributio system pressure drops Loss to pressure drops at elbows, fittigs, T coectios ad pipe frictio Pressure readigs Pressure gauges i system ad/or gauges coected via quick coects Distributio systems leaks Air lost throughout the systems from compressor to poit of ed-use Flow rate ad pressure of air Ultrasoic leak detector Ed-use pressure drops for lowpressure user Losses itroduced by pressure-reducig valves (regulators) at ed-use poits Pressure differeces ad volume of air (flow) Typical ilet/outlet pressure gauges will be istalled i system ompressed air ed-use Useful work doe by the air Pressure ad flow of each use ompressed airflow meter ad pressure gauges Table of otets Air (water) flow ad temperatures Equipmet specs ad visual observatio of coditio operatio a be estimated from eergy iput to the systems ad maufacturer s specs Temperature ad flow measuremet Pressure gauges i system Pressure readigs

149 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Table 2.6 Eergy Maagemet Opportuities i ompressed Air Systems Step Actios Determie the Need q Is compressed air eeded at all? a aother eergy form be used? (especially air motors ad coolig) q Ivetory the eed for compressed air i terms of: q flow requiremet (SFM) q pressure requiremet q quality (temperature, moisture cotet, oil cotet, etc.) q poit(s) i the distributio system q Documet whe compressed air is required. q Is the real demad for compressed air growig? or simply the leaks? q Implemet a plat-wide awareess program for compressed air maagemet. q Elimiate leaks: q Use ultrasoic leak detector to track dow leaks ad FIX. q Isolate with valves appliaces ad equipmet whe ot i use. q Maage ed-use: q Elimiate uecessary uses (floor sweepig). q osider itesifyig ozzles istead of simple cutoff pipe ozzles. Match the Need q Miimize mai supply pressure. q Avoid pressure reductio at poit of ed-use, segregate large low-pressure uses ad provide separate low-pressure supply cosider high-pressure blowers. q Use treatmet appropriate to quality requiremet segregate low-volume, high-quality users ad provide separate supply. q Esure that cotrols for treatmet (dryig) are ot set lower tha required. q Esure that compressor capacity o-lie follows the demad for air: q Base-load compressors with poor capacity cotrol (throttlig) check motor load whe air delivery from compressor is low. q Sequece compressors to esure that uit with best capacity cotrol follows the load. q Esure that idlig compressors shut dow promptly. q Optimize the compressor plat with properly sized receivers, demad cotrol devices ad comprehesive system cotrol. Table of otets

150 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Step Actios q Esure that ilet air temperature is as cool ad dry as possible use outside air durig cold seasos. Maximize Efficiecy q Esure that ilet filters are clea with miimal pressure drop. q Esure that filtratio ad treatmet equipmet impose miimal pressure drop. q Esure that lie sizig is appropriate to flows to miimize pressure drop. q Esure good pipig practices to avoid excessive pressure drops at T coectios, elbows, uios ad other fittigs. q Esure appropriate compressor room temperature. q osider compressor replacemet with a more appropriate, ewer ad/or more efficiet uit. q osider a eergy-efficiet motor replacemet ot practical i may packaged uits. Optimize Supply q Istall the simplest form of heat recovery possible to reclaim heat rejected from the compressors either water- or air-cooled. q osider egie drive compressors with heat recovery. ompressed Air Refereces Moder Idustrial Assessmets: A Traiig Maual, Versio 2.0, Rutgers, The State Uiversity of New Jersey, September 2001 Web site: www.iac.rutgers.edu/idassess.php Throwig Moey ito the Air, Video, Natural Resources aada, 2001 oee.rca.gc.ca/idustrial/traiig-awareess/employees/toolkit.cfm?attr=24#videos The ompressed Air hallege, o-lie at www.compressedairchallege.org Team Up for Eergy Savigs ompressed Air (fact sheet), Natural Resources aada, 2005 oee.rca.gc.ca/publicatios/idustrial/cipec/compressed-air.cfm Table of otets

151 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s 2.4 Domestic ad Process Hot Water Systems By defiitio, domestic water is potable, while process water may or may ot be potable. I cetral systems, the productio ad distributio systems of both may be idetical. Domestic hot water (DHW) ca be local (small electric boiler or o-demad heatig coil) ear the ed-use poit or cetral (large boiler/storage tak ad pumped distributio system). Process hot water is almost always cetral. The eergy source for cetral HW systems ca be the same as for regular boilers gas, oil, electric (resistive heatig), biomass, etc. Other possible sources are solar, recovered waste heat ad heat pumps. I some cases the DHW is heated via a coil i the mai boiler or through a steam coil i a storage tak. The HW eergy audit should be based o a clear uderstadig of how the water is heated ad distributed ad should quatify all the losses quatified to the extet possible. Productio (boiler) losses are described i the Boiler Plat sectio. This sectio deals with storage, distributio ad other losses. Optimizig the eergy usage i a hot water system geerally ivolves reducig the eduse ad reducig the losses. Ed-use reductio or reuse has the added beefit of savig o purchased or pumped (if o a well) water. For the same reasos, ed-use reductio i cold water use should also be pursued whe possible. Fresh water will oly get more expesive as demad icreases o muicipal water sources. The o-cotact (ifrared) thermometer is a useful tool for trackig dow isulatio gaps i HW pipes ad taks. Sub-meterig (flow, volume) of major water distributio braches ca also help i breakig dow water usage. The various losses show i the Sakey diagram i Figure 2.4 are itemized ad defied i Table 2.7. Idetifyig eergy savigs opportuities i hot water systems ivolves critically assessig the existig eergy use. Table 2.8 provides examples of eergy maagemet opportuities for DHW systems accordig to the three-step method detailed i Sectio B-8, Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities. Table of otets

152 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Figure 2.4 Sakey Diagram of DHW Eergy Flows Table 2.7 Eergy Flows i DHW Systems Key Factors for Evaluatio of Flow Portable Istrumetatio Used for Evaluatio Temperature, volume No-cotact thermometer or ifrared temperature measuremet device or temperature measuremet device Eergy Flow Descriptio Free Iput Eergy Auxiliary heat ito HW supplied from solar, heat recovery, etc. Iput Eergy Pumpig Heat added to water by mechaical actio (frictio) of circulator pump Boiler Losses Stack ad other losses See: Boiler Systems Storage Losses Heat lost from poorly or uisulated tak, fittigs, etc. Temperature, surface area, isulatio levels Thermometer or ifrared temperature measuremet device Distributio Losses Heat lost from poorly isulated or uisulated pipes; cotiuous recirculatio losses Temperature, surface area, isulatio levels; recirc. pump schedule; occupacy Thermometer or ifrared temperature measuremet device Utilizatio Losses Heat lost due to excessive HW usage ad temperature set too high Ed-use requiremets Thermometer Idirect Use Heat delivered through heat exchager Table of otets

153 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Table 2.8 Eergy Maagemet Opportuities i DHW Systems Step Actios Determie the Need q Documet the load o the HW system ideally a hourly profile. q Determie desig ad actual ed-use requiremets, cosiderig both flow ad temperature ad time to full temperature requiremet. q The load o the system will chage as a result of other eergy maagemet actios at the ed-use this step may eed to be revised periodically. q Promote good housekeepig practices i all employees, maitai awareess ad trasform the ewly acquired kowledge ito habit. Match the Need q Esure that the DHW temperature is ot sigificatly greater tha the highest requiremet. Operate at the miimum possible temperature. q Reduce flows to match ed-use requiremets. q Miimize recirculatio as appropriate for temperature requiremets. q Regularly check DHW pipig systems for leaks. q Istall flow regulators for saitary uses: delayed closig/timed flow taps o wash had basis i the restrooms ad reduced-flow showerheads. q Reuse all rise water from cleaig operatios wherever possible, with due regard for product quality implicatios e.g. cleaig-i-place (IP) last rise. Maximize Efficiecy q Istall water meters i differet process areas to moitor cosumptio o a ogoig basis. Optimize Supply q heck ad adjust water treatmet procedures o a regular basis. q Discoect ad seal, or valve off, ay uused DHW braches. q Esure that pipig ad fixture isulatio is up to stadard. q Use solar ad/or recovered heat to supplemet DHW requiremets. q Use o-demad i-lie DHW heaters where requiremets are low. q a a oce-through system be coverted to a circulatig system? q Revise the water distributio system to icorporate multiple reuse (recirculatio) of process water wherever possible, employig suitable heat recovery regimes, ad implemet the measures. Table of otets

154 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Domestic ad Process Hot Water Refereces Moder Idustrial Assessmets: A Traiig Maual, Versio 2.0, Rutgers, The State Uiversity of New Jersey, September 2001 Web site: www.iac.rutgers.edu/idassess.php Boiler Efficiecy alculator, Natural Resources aada, 2006 oee.rca.gc.ca/idustrial/techical-ifo/tools/boilers/ Table of otets

155 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s 2.5 Fa ad Pump Systems Fa ad pump systems share may similar characteristics ad as a cosequece may be aalysed i similar ways from a eergy perspective. Each is typically drive by a motor, either directly or through a belt or gearbox. Both systems will frequetly utilize cetrifugal devices to create motio i the fluid or air, ad as a result both systems are govered by a set of rules, kow as affiity laws. The affiity laws describe the relatioship betwee speed, flow, pressure ad power required: Q2 ı N2 = Q1 N1 P2 ı N2 = P1 N1 2 kw2 ı N2 = kw1 N1 3 N = speed, Q = flow, P = pressure, kw = kilowatt The power required for movemet of air or fluid i the system dowstream of the fa or pump is govered by the pressure drop preseted by the system to the flow. Both systems share sigificat losses i frictio dowstream ad cosequetly share similar opportuities for flow balacig, static ad dyamic head (pressure) reductio, ad speed cotrol rather tha throttlig for flow cotrol. Idetifyig eergy savigs opportuities i fa ad pump systems ivolves critically assessig the existig eergy use. Table 2.10 provides examples of EMOs for fa ad pump systems accordig to the three-step method detailed i Sectio B-8, Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities. The various losses show i the Sakey diagram i Figure 2.5 are itemized ad defied i Table 2.9. A similar diagram for a pumpig system is provided i Sectio B-8, Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities. Figure 2.5 Sakey Diagram of Fa System Eergy Flows Total Losses = 80% Eergy I ompoet Meter Eergy Out Motor Fa Meter Filter Typical Efficiecy 100% Duct Drive Distributio Table of otets Damper Oly 20% Distributio 96% Motor 85% Drive 98% Fa 60% Damper 70% Filter 75% Ductwork 80% Overall 20%

156 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Table 2.9 Eergy Flows i a Fa (Pump) System Eergy Flow Descriptio Key Factors for Evaluatio of Flow Portable Istrumetatio Used for Evaluatio Electric Distributio Systems Losses Heat from resistace of the wires Voltage drop i wirig Hadheld power meter or clip-o ammeter Motor Losses Heat created at the motor i coversio from electric to mechaical power Motor efficiecy ratig ad operatig coditios, i.e. applied voltage, loadig ad temperature Motor efficiecy ratig, temperature measuremet of motor, tachometer to check motor loadig from speed Drive Losses Heat created due to frictio i the bearigs pulleys ad belts ad bearigs Belt tesio, bearig ad belt temperature Ifrared temperature measuremet Fa (Pump) Losses Heat created due to frictio ad fluid viscous losses with the fa (pump) Fa (pump) efficiecy ratig at operatig poit defied by flow rate ad pressure as specified by the fa (pump) curve Flow ad pressure measuremet Damper (Valve) Losses Heat ad pressure drop created by frictio damper (valve) Damper (valve) settig ad pressure drop ilet to outlet Differetial pressure measuremet Filter (Straier) Losses Heat ad pressure drop created by frictio to airflow i filter (straier) Pressure drop across filters (straiers) Differetial pressure measuremet Ductwork (Pipework) Losses Heat ad pressure drop created by frictio withi ductwork (pipework) to air (water) flow Pressure drop per uit legth or overall Differetial pressure measuremet Air (Water) Power Delivered The amout of air (water) power delivered at the termial poit such as the diffuser or outlet (ed-use heat exchager) Pressure differece ad flow achieved at the poit of ed-use Flow ad pressure measuremet Table of otets

157 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Table 2.10 Eergy Maagemet Opportuities i Fa/Pump Systems Determie the Need Step Actios q Determie the requiremet for air/water flow, possibly i terms of a profile over time. q Determie the rage of pressures that the fa/pump will eed to overcome. q Determie if the eed for flow is fixed or variable. q Determie the duratio of the eed for flow (hours per day). q Provide ad use maual cotrol of fas/pumps. q otrol operatig times of fas/pumps by automatic cotrol. q oduct a air/water balace with qualified cotractors. q Elimiate or reduce throttlig as a meas of flow cotrol. Match the Need q For fa systems with a fixed flow requiremet, reduce flow rates to the requiremet by: q reducig fa speeds by sheave chages q shuttig dow extra (backup) fas q For pump systems with a fixed flow requiremet, reduce flow rates to the requiremet by: q chagig or trimmig pump impellers q shuttig dow extra (backup) fas q For fa or pump systems with a variable flow requiremet, vary flow by: q usig a two-speed motor q usig a variable speed drive q Elimiate leaks i the ductwork ad pipework. q Provide proper maiteace for fas ad pumps: q Lubricatio Maximize Efficiecy q Belts ad pulleys q Pump ad fa overhaul ad cleaig q Reduce pressure drops or pipework/ductwork resistace by: q cleaig iterior of pipes/ducts q maitaiig filters/straiers q usig efficiet ductwork/pipework practices q Select ad istall a more efficiet pump or fa: q More appropriate desig for the applicatio q New equipmet/techology q Istall a more efficiet motor. Optimize Supply q osider the use of small steam turbies, typically i place of pressure reducig valves, to drive large fas ad pumps (i.e. boiler feedwater pump, boiler forced draft or iduced fa). q osider the use of a alterative such as diesel egies with heat recovery to electric motors as prime movers. Table of otets

158 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Fa ad Pump Systems Refereces Eergy-Efficiet Motor Systems Assessmet Guide, Natural Resources aada, 2004 oee.rca.gc.ca/cipec/ieep/ewscetre/motor_system/idex.cfm amost: The aadia Motor Selectio Tool, Natural Resources aada, 2004 oee.rca.gc.ca/idustrial/equipmet/software/itro.cfm?attr=24 Variable Frequecy Drive (VFD) video, Natural Resources aada, 2005 oee.rca.gc.ca/idustrial/equipmet/vfd/vfd-video.cfm Idustrial Eergy Efficiet Equipmet, Natural Resources aada oee.rca.gc.ca/idustrial/equipmet/products/idex.cfm Table of otets

159 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s 2.6 Heatig, Vetilatig ad Air-oditioig Systems HVA systems are desiged to provide a comfortable, safe ad productive eviromet for occupats i the form of adequate vetilatio ad comfortable temperature ad humidity levels. I this sectio the scope of HVA will be limited to the cotrol ad delivery subsystems. The heatig, coolig ad humidificatio equipmet, which provides the eergy source for HVA, is covered elsewhere i this guide. Before implemetig EMOs o HVA systems, it is importat to have some kowledge of the factors that affect evirometal comfort. These iclude air temperature, mea radiat temperature, humidity, air quality, air velocity, activity level ad clothig thermal resistace. HVA chages ca affect these factors ad cause adverse reactios i the occupats. It follows that kowledge of the effects ca prevet problems occurrig. HVA systems ca be quite complex, with a wide rage of operatig modes depedig o the outdoor ambiet coditios, occupacy schedules, ad seasoal ad other factors. Therefore it is essetial to have a good uderstadig of how a system is desiged to operate as well as how it is actually operatig. You ca ofte achieve substatial savigs simply by restorig a system to its desig coditio. Historical operatioal iformatio from logbooks or iterviews with operators ca be quite useful i evaluatig a system over a full rage of operatig coditios. Typically, the greatest savigs i HVA systems ca be attaied by matchig the coditioig of the space to occupacy (schedules ad levels). This is geerally accomplished by system schedulig ad cotrol, preferably by meas of closed-loop (feedback from the space ad outside air) cotrol strategies. Recordig power ad temperature meters are useful tools i gaugig the efficiecy of HVA systems. May moder cotrol systems have the capability to log moitored poits (temperature, airflow, humidity, ru-time, etc.). The various losses show i the Sakey diagram i Figure 2.6 are itemized ad defied i Table 2.11. Idetifyig eergy savigs opportuities i HVA systems ivolves critically assessig the existig eergy use. Table 2.12 provides examples of EMOs for HVA systems accordig to the three-step method detailed i Sectio B-8, Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities. Table of otets

160 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Figure 2.6 Sakey Diagram of HVA Eergy Flows Table 2.11 Eergy Flows i a HVA System Eergy Flow Descriptio Key Factors for Evaluatio of Flow Portable Istrumetatio Used for Evaluatio HVA System Mixig Losses Mixig of hot ad cold fluid streams Temperature ad flow of streams; desig requiremets for mixig Temperature ad flow measuremet devices Space-oditioig Losses Maitaiig coditios above required levels Use of space, iadequate or ueve distributio system Recordig thermometer/ psychrometer Vetilatio System Loads Losses due to ecessary fresh air requiremets Outside air iflow, mixed air settigs Space Loads Occupat requiremets, iteral heat gais Occupied desity, lights ad equipmet Temperature ad humidity measuremet Auxiliary Equipmet Gais/Losses Heat itroduced by fas/ pumps ito system Motor size Recordig power meter Excess Eergy from Other Systems rossover heatig or coolig from aother system Free oolig Outside air whe temperature/humidity is withi rage to be used as coolig Table of otets

161 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Table 2.12 Eergy Maagemet Opportuities i HVA Systems Determie the Need Step Actios q Documet the load o the system meter coolig or heatig iput. q Evaluate the space requiremets schedules, occupacy, temperatures, ad humidity, exhaust ad vetilatio. q osider carefully ay effect a EMO might have o the evirometal quality of the coditioed space. q The load o the system will chage as a result of other eergy maagemet actios at the ed-use this step may eed to be revised periodically. q Esure that supply temperature ad humidity are ot sigificatly greater tha required. Operate at the miimum possible temperature, humidity, fresh air % ad/or airflow. osider vetilatio o demad. Match the Need q Moitor overall HVA performace (eergy iput to coditioed space). q Miimize load swigs ad stagger demad ad startups (ideally at poit of ed-use) where possible. q Make use of free coolig where possible. q Schedule systems ad/or temperatures to match occupacy ad O/A coditios. q Esure that cotrols are operatig properly ad calibrated regularly. q osider cotrol upgrades to direct digital offerig more flexible cotrol of systems to loads, provided that uderlyig systems are capable of the appropriate modulatio. q Use variable speed drives where operatig hours, coditios ad ecoomics dictate. Maximize Efficiecy q Istall local air treatmet uits (e.g. electroic air cleaers, activated charcoal odour-absorbig filter, high-efficiecy filters) to reduce the eed for geeral exhaust. Optimize Supply q Regularly check mechaical maiteace items (fas, bearigs, aligmet, etc.). q Esure that air filters ad ducts are clea. q Use EE motors where operatig hours, coditios ad ecoomics dictate. q Isulate distributio system pipes, ductwork. q Maitai seals, air ducts, breechig ad access doors to esure airtightess. q Esure that duct ad pipe isulatio is up to stadard. q Reclaim exhausted heat ad coolig. q Utilize thermal storage i coolig systems to optimize purchase of electricity. q osider a solar wall a metal collector desiged to provide preheated vetilatio (make-up air) for buildigs with large south-facig walls. Table of otets

162 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s HVA Refereces Moder Idustrial Assessmets: A Traiig Maual, Versio 2.0, Rutgers, The State Uiversity of New Jersey, September 2001 Web site: www.iac.rutgers.edu/idassess.php Eergy-Efficiet Motor Systems Assessmet Guide, Natural Resources aada, 2004 oee.rca.gc.ca/cipec/ieep/ewscetre/motor_system/idex.cfm amost: The aadia Motor Selectio Tool, Natural Resources aada, 2004 oee.rca.gc.ca/idustrial/equipmet/software/itro.cfm?attr=24 Team Up for Eergy Savigs Heatig ad oolig (HVA) (fact sheet), Natural Resources aada, 2005 oee.rca.gc.ca/publicatios/idustrial/cipec/heatig-coolig.cfm Idustrial Eergy Efficiet Equipmet, Natural Resources aada oee.rca.gc.ca/idustrial/equipmet/products/idex.cfm Table of otets

163 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s 2.7 Lightig Systems Lightig costitutes a large but ecessary portio of the electrical load i most facilities. ompared to other forms of eergy coversio, there are may additioal factors to cosider beyod coversio efficiecy ad loss reductio. Lightig quality ad visual comfort levels for the occupats must be give high priority i ay recommedatios, sice a drop i worker productivity due to lightig chages ca far outweigh eergy savigs. The lightig source (lamp, reflector, les) is oly part of the complete system. The etire eclosed space should be cosidered part of the system, sice may factors such as wall colour, reflectivity, widow situatio ad iterior partitios ca have just as great a effect o the amout of light that is delivered to the task poit. The ed-use of a lightig system ca be measured as the light level at the task poit (useful illumiatio). A detailed eergy audit should cosider the various eergy losses occurrig i lightig systems, as idicated i the Sakey diagram below. I additio to task light levels, some less quatifiable factors should be cosidered. These iclude light source colour (olour Rederig Idex, or RI), glare (fixture ad widow), surface reflectio ad the age of the occupats. The various losses show i the Sakey diagram i Figure 2.7 are itemized ad defied i Table 2.13. Idetifyig eergy savigs opportuities i lightig systems ivolves critically assessig the existig eergy use. Table 2.14 provides examples of EMOs for lightig systems accordig to the three-step method detailed i Sectio B-8, Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities. Figure 2.7 Sakey Diagram of Lightig System Eergy Flows Table of otets

164 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Table 2.13 Eergy Flows i a Lightig System Eergy Flow Descriptio Key Factors for Evaluatio of Flow Portable Istrumetatio Used for Evaluatio Electric-to-Lightoversio Losses Light output (lumes) of light source per uit of iput power (watts) Power iput to fixture, mfr. specs o lamps, accurate fixture cout Hadheld power meter or clip-o ammeter to spotcheck lightig circuit loads Fixture Losses Light trapped withi fixture Fixture desig, clealiess, dust levels Room Losses Light lost before it reaches task due to physical room characteristics Wall ad ceilig surface colours, widow placemet Visibility Losses Excess light supplied to overcome lightig quality problems Glare, reflectios Over-Illumiace Losses Excess light supplied to overcome poor lightig distributio or cosistecy Ueve distributio of light, multiple task light level requiremets Digital light meter Overuse Losses Lightig left switched o whe ot required Occupacy vs. lightig schedules Recordig power meter or recordig motio sesor ad light sesor Useful Illumiatio Light level at the task poit (or geeral room level) Lux or foot-cadles sampled over the area. Also lightig UPD (uit power desity W/m2) Light (Lux) meter (preferably digital) Table of otets Light meter to determie reflectace ratio of reflected illumiatio to icidet illumiatio (Lux)

165 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Table 2.14 Eergy Maagemet Opportuities i Lightig Systems Step Actios Determie the Need q Illumiatio level required q olour requiremets (temperature ad RI) q Quality requiremets (low glare, idirect, decorative, etc.) q Area of requiremet area lightig versus task lightig q Duratio of the eed for lightig (hours per day) q Provide ad use maual switches. q Provide more levels of switchig. Match the Need q Use employee awareess to ecourage use of lightig cotrols. q Use motio sesors or timer switches to cotrol lights. q Use photocells o widow fixtures. q Use time clocks or photocells o outdoors lights. q Use task lightig ad tur off overhead lights. q Perform a lightig aalysis to determie the applicability of: q usig reduced wattage lamps i existig fixtures q removig uecessary fixtures ad/or lamps q Perform a lightig aalysis to determie the applicability of: Maximize Efficiecy q removig lamps or fixtures to reduce levels to match requiremets q more appropriate systems desig ad maiteace reduced umber of fixtures ad group versus spot re-lampig q usig reduced wattage lamps ad partially de-lamped or modified fixtures possibly icorporatig reflectors q replacig etire lightig system with oe icorporatig a more efficiet light source e.g. switchig from icadescet to fluorescet or from T12 to T8 fluorescet q Use LED lamps i EXIT lights. Optimize Supply q Istall skylights i warehouses. q Istall skylights i ew costructio. q Desig atural lightig schemes ito ew costructio. Table of otets

166 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Lightig Systems Referece Team Up for Eergy Savigs Lightig (fact sheet), Natural Resources aada, 2005 oee.rca.gc.ca/publicatios/idustrial/cipec/light.cfm Table of otets

167 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s 2.8 Process Furaces, Dryers ad Kils Process furaces, dryers ad kils are used i such diverse applicatios as meltig metal, dryig wood, evaporatig water, ad maufacturig lime, bricks ad ceramics. Some facilities are costructed ad operated solely for the purpose of a sigle heatig maufacturig process. osequetly, the furace could be the sigle largest cosumer of fuel eergy. All o-electric furaces utilize a burer to deliver a mixture of fuel ad air for the combustio process that produces heat, which is subsequetly trasferred to the product either directly (withi the combustio chamber) or idirectly (through a heat exchager). There may also be electrical eergy iput to operate auxiliary equipmet such as blowers ad draft fas. As with boilers, it is importat to evaluate furace performace ad efficiecy over the rage of actual or partial loads. Ulike boilers, there is usually o large heatig distributio system with its accompayig losses (i.e. the ed-use of the heat is withi the furace). Maitaiig the optimum ratio of fuel to air is critical to efficiet operatio of fuel-burig furaces. A lack of air leads to icomplete combustio, resultig i losses of combustibles i the flue gases (smoky flame). Excess air eedlessly icreases the dry flue gas losses, as idicated by higher flue gas temperatures. I additio, the excess air eterig the furace must be heated, icreasig eergy losses. The temperature of the flue gas also depeds o the effectiveess of heat trasfer to the product beig processed ad is a good idicator of the coditio of iteral heat trasfer surfaces. I some cases a large amout of excess air is required to maitai product quality. I that case heat recovery should be cosidered. The portable combustio aalyser is a useful tool for gaugig the combustio efficiecy of process furaces, dryers ad kils. The various losses show i the Sakey diagram i Figure 2.8 are itemized ad defied i Table 2.15. Idetifyig eergy savigs opportuities i process heatig systems ivolves critically assessig the existig eergy use. Table 2.16 provides examples of EMOs for process furaces, dryers ad kils accordig to the three-step method detailed i Sectio B-8, Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities. Table of otets

168 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Figure 2.8 Sakey Diagram of Process Heatig Eergy Flows Table 2.15 Eergy Flows i a Process Heatig System Key Factors for Evaluatio of Flow Portable Istrumetatio Used for Evaluatio Flue gas aalysis (O2, O2, O, etc.) ad flue gas temperature ombustio aalyser Losses from outside surfaces of the combustio chamber ad heat exchager(s) Surface temperature, area No-cotact thermometer or ifrared temperature measuremet device Water used to moderate heatig process or to cool product after processig Timig (schedulig), eterig ad leavig temperature, volume of coolig water Temperature measuremet Auxiliary Equipmet Iput/Losses Fas, pumps, etc. ad their associated losses (usually electrical) Equipmet specs ad operatig hours Recordig power meter Heat Delivered to Product Heat that product absorbs throughout the process cycle Eergy Flow Descriptio Wet Stack Losses (more sigificat i solid fuels) Moisture cotaied i fuel ad formed durig combustio ad exhausted through flue Dry Stack Losses Sesible heat i flue gas Radiatio ad ovectio Losses oolig Water Losses (where used) Table of otets If available, data from plat istrumetatio ca be used; otherwise this is ot measured i a macro-audit

169 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Table 2.16 Eergy Maagemet Opportuities i Process Furaces, Dryers ad Kils Determie the Need Step Actios q Documet the load o the furace, dryer or kil perform a eergy balace o the heat loss from the uit itself. q Evaluate the process requiremets i terms of product loadig ad thermodyamic requiremets. q osider carefully ay effect a EMO might have o the quality of the ed product. Match the Need q Esure that process temperature is ot sigificatly greater tha the highest requiremet. Operate at the miimum possible temperature ad/or airflow. q I a staged system, sequece burers o-lie to follow the demad for heat. q Miimize the requiremet for furaces o hot stadby. q Moitor overall process heatig performace (fuel to product). q Miimize load swigs ad schedule productio to optimize use of furace, dryer or kil capacity whe possible. q Review operator procedures for miimal eergy use practices. Maximize Efficiecy q Regularly check combustio efficiecy. q heck ad adjust excess air levels o a regular basis. q Keep burer assemblies ad cotrols adjusted ad calibrated. q Maitai seals, air ducts, breechig ad access doors to esure airtightess. q Relocate air itakes to esure driest possible air is used i kils. q Esure that surface isulatio is up to stadard. q Istall electroic cotrols for combustio ad temperature cotrol. Optimize Supply q Relocate combustio air itake or de-stratify plat air to take advatage of waste heat to preheat combustio air. q Istall a o-codesig ecoomizer to capture heat i flue gases. q Istall a flue gas codeser to capture additioal heat i flue gases. q Reclaim heat from product coolig. Table of otets

170 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Process Heatig Refereces Moder Idustrial Assessmets: A Traiig Maual, Versio 2.0, Rutgers, The State Uiversity of New Jersey, September 2001 Web site: www.iac.rutgers.edu/idassess.php Boilers ad Heaters: Improvig Eergy Efficiecy, Natural Resources aada, 2001 oee.rca.gc.ca/publicatios/ifosource/pub/cipec/boilersheaters_foreword.cfm Boiler Efficiecy alculator, Natural Resources aada, 2006 oee.rca.gc.ca/idustrial/techical-ifo/tools/boilers/ Team Up for Eergy Savigs Waste-Heat Recovery (fact sheet), Natural Resources aada, 2005 oee.rca.gc.ca/publicatios/idustrial/cipec/waste-heat.cfm Table of otets

171 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s 2.9 Refrigeratio Systems Refrigeratio systems are used i may differet eviromets residetial, commercial ad idustrial. All these systems are desiged for oe basic purpose: to move heat from a lower temperature (heat source) to a higher temperature (heat sik) medium, usig a trasfer fluid (refrigerat). Sice this is the reverse of the atural directio of heat flow, eergy iput is required, usually i the form of electricity. Depedig o the amout of heat to be moved, the cost of refrigeratio ca be sigificat. Of particular importace to the eergy audit are the various eergy losses occurrig i the system, as idicated i the Sakey diagram below. Refrigeratio systems are relatively complex, ad their efficiecy is affected by the operatig coditios. While a system is typically rated for a particular maximum or desig coolig load, it usually operates for most of its life at some fractio of that output, or at partial load. The efficiecy of a coolig system ca vary sigificatly with load, depedig o the capacity cotrol method employed. osequetly, it is importat to evaluate system performace ad efficiecy over the rage of actual loads. The eergy required to ru a coolig system is proportioal to the temperature differece betwee the heat source ad heat sik. Therefore reducig the temperature differece betwee the cooled medium (e.g. refrigerated storage) ad the codesig (e.g. coolig tower) temperature has a substatial effect o the eergy iput to the system. Various measurig devices such as a wattmeter, thermometer, psychrometer or pressure gauge ca be useful i evaluatig the coolig efficiecy of refrigeratio systems. The various losses show i the Sakey diagram i Figure 2.9 are itemized ad defied i Table 2.17. Idetifyig eergy savigs opportuities i refrigeratio systems ivolves critically assessig the existig eergy use. Table 2.18 provides examples of EMOs for refrigeratio systems accordig to the three-step method detailed i Sectio B-8, Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities. Figure 2.9 Sakey Diagram of Refrigeratio System Eergy Flows Table of otets

172 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Table 2.17 Eergy Flows i a Refrigeratio System Eergy Flow Descriptio Key Factors for Evaluatio of Flow Portable Istrumetatio Used for Evaluatio Heat cotet of medium to be cooled Both sesible ad latet heat cotet of load Temperature ad relative humidity Temperature ad humidity measuremet device Primary eergy iput (Electrical) eergy iput to system % of rated load, PF Hadheld power meter (should idicate watts ad power factor) Primary coversio losses Electric motor ad shaft losses betwee motor ad compressor, pump, fa, etc. % of rated load, PF Auxiliary equipmet Support equipmet fas, pumps, heaters, etc. otiuous (uecessary) operatio, type of cotrol Power meter otrol losses Losses due to drop i efficiecy at part load Type of capacity cotrol (speed cotrol, hot gas bypass, etc.) Recordig power meter (track iput over wide load rage) oolig losses Heat gaied exterally or iterally before coolat reaches destiatio Poor isulatio ad air leaks Temperature measuremet device Flow, pressure ad temperature differece of refrigerat across codesor Temperature measuremet device, system gauges, airflow meter Temperature at evaporator ad at cooled medium Temperature measuremet device, airflow meter Heat rejected at codesor oolig losses after evaporator A measure of the evaporator delivery efficiecy Heat cotet of cooled medium supplied by coolig distributio system The heat remaiig i the air or water after it is cooled Table of otets Temperature measuremet device

173 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Step Actios Determie the Need Table 2.18 Eergy Maagemet Opportuities i Refrigeratio Systems q Documet the coolig load ad temperature requiremet ideally with a profile. q osider the varyig requiremet for temperature: q i process, possibly by product or process stage q i HVA, accordig to seaso ad occupat requiremet q osider the effect that other eergy maagemet actios at the poit of ed-use may have upo the eeds of the system this may chage over time. q Use coservative practices at the poit of ed-use to miimize the coolig load. q alibrate cotrols ad set temperatures to highest acceptable levels. Match the Need q Avoid, if possible, simultaeous heatig ad coolig. q Esure appropriate capacity cotrol of refrigeratio systems: q otrols for multiple uits q Modulatio (without false loadig) for sigle uits q Avoid the use of hot gas bypass for capacity cotrol. q Ivestigate the possibility of raisig the evaporator temperature through such actios as chilled water reset to higher temperatures. Use as high a temperature as possible while still maitaiig the coolig requiremet. q Esure that defrost cotrols are set properly ad review the settig regularly. Maximize Efficiecy q Esure that all heat exchage surfaces are cleaed ad maitaied regularly. q Lower codesig temperatures by esurig free circulatio of air aroud codesig uits ad coolig towers. q Esure that coolig towers are effectively maitaied to obtai the lowest water temperature possible. q Ivestigate floatig head pressure or liquid pressure boost to reduced codesig temperature ad pressure o a seasoal basis. q Replace compressors with high efficiecy uits (OP). Optimize Supply q Utilize thermal storage to optimize operatio of coolig systems ad optimize the purchase of electricity o a time-of-day basis. q Utilize de-superheaters to recover heat rejected from codesers. q osider derivig a free coolig capacity directly from cold ope air (e.g. i witertime), thus ot havig to use a compressor ad therefore electricity. q osider usig oly water as refrigerat for process coolig water. Table of otets

174 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Refrigeratio System Referece Moder Idustrial Assessmets: A Traiig Maual, Versio 2.0, Rutgers, The State Uiversity of New Jersey, September 2001 Web site: www.iac.rutgers.edu/idassess.php Table of otets

175 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s 2.10 Steam ad odesate Systems Steam is commoly used as the medium to distribute heat from the boiler to its poit of ed-use. The same characteristics that make it useful as a trasport medium (high heatcarryig capacity) also make its distributio system susceptible to eergy loss ad waste. Steam supply ad codesate retur systems require regular ispectio ad maiteace (ad sometimes a little detective work) i order to miimize or elimiate these losses. After steam is geerated i a boiler, it is delivered uder pressure to the load by the steam distributio system. Typically, the latet heat i the steam is coverted i a heat exchager ad the steam is codesed (retured to a liquid state). This hot codesate is retured via the codesate retur system to the boiler make-up water to be reheated ad start the cycle agai. I some cases, live steam is ijected directly ito the process, i which case o codesate is retured. Steam systems ca be classified by pressure ad codesate systems by their retur method (gravity or pumped). Because of the iheret dager i pressurized steam systems, provicial regulatios are quite striget o system modificatios. Ay EMOs requirig pipig or equipmet chages must be desiged, implemeted ad ispected by qualified staff. Optimizig a steam/codesate system ca be summarized by two actios get the steam to its destiatio ad get the codesate back to the boiler with miimal losses. ommo losses are steam leaks, icludig stuck-ope steam traps ad poorly isulated or uisulated pipes. The o-cotact (ifrared) thermometer is a useful tool i trackig dow steam leaks i steam ad codesate systems. A by-product of a optimized steam/codesate system is savigs o water treatmet chemicals retured codesate cotais ot oly heat eergy but also valuable treatmet chemicals. The various losses show i the Sakey diagram i Figure 2.10 are itemized ad defied i Table 2.19. Idetifyig eergy savigs opportuities i steam ad codesate systems ivolves critically assessig the existig eergy use. Table 2.20 provides examples of EMOs for steam ad codesate systems accordig to the three-step method detailed i Sectio B-8, Idetify Eergy Maagemet Opportuities. Table of otets

176 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Figure 2.10 Sakey Diagram of Steam ad odesate Eergy Flows Table of otets

177 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Table 2.19 Eergy Flows i Steam ad odesate Systems Eergy Flow Descriptio Key Factors for Evaluatio of Flow Portable Istrumetatio Used for Evaluatio No-productive heat losses Heat lost from uisulated pipe surfaces Temperature, surface area, isulatio levels No-cotact thermometer or ifrared temperature measuremet device Steam leaks Holes i steam pipig Plume size, system pressure No-cotact thermometer or ifrared temperature measuremet device, ultrasoic detector odesed steam lost odesate water discharged to sewer or elsewhere Temperature, volume Thermometer Direct use Live steam ijected ito process otrol of steam ijectio Idirect use Heat delivered through heat exchager Flash steam losses Whe pressurized, codesate is released to atmospheric pressure, some evaporates as flash steam due to pressure drop Temperature, pressure, flash tak desig odesate leaks Holes i codesate retur system Water leaks No-productive heat losses Heat lost from uisulated pipe surfaces, traps, fittigs Temperature, surface area, isulatio levels No-cotact thermometer or ifrared temperature measuremet device odesate retured to boiler I closed-loop system, codesate is added to boiler make-up water % retur, codesate temperature, volume of make-up water Thermometer Steam odesate Table of otets Thermometer

178 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t D e t a i l s o f E e r g y - o s u m i g Sy s t e m s Table 2.20 Eergy Maagemet Opportuities i Steam ad odesate Systems Step Actios Determie the Need q Documet the ed-use load ideally a hourly profile. q Determie desig flow, pressure ad steam quality requiremets. q This may require a examiatio of the loads dowstream of the steam distributio system. q The load o the system will chage as a result of other eergy maagemet actios at the poit of ed-use this step may eed to be revised periodically. Match the Need q Esure that boiler temperature ad operatig pressure are ot sigificatly greater tha the highest requiremet. Operate at the miimum possible temperature ad/or pressure. q Esure correct pipe sizig to avoid excessive supply pressures to overcome pressure drops. q Esure that system is ot oversized for load-icreasig heat losses. q For direct steam use, esure that cotrol of steam release is adequate. q For idirect use, esure that heat exchager is matched to load ad cotrolled. q Regularly check steam ad codesate pipig systems for leaks ad repair. q Track dow ad repair faulty steam traps. q Shut off steam to equipmet whe ot beig used. Maximize Efficiecy q Overhaul pressure-reducig statios. Optimize Supply q heck ad adjust water treatmet procedures o a regular basis. q Discoect ad seal or valve off ay uused steam or codesate braches. q Esure that pipig ad fixture isulatio is up to stadard. q Isulate uisulated pipes, flages, fittigs ad equipmet. q Retur as much codesate as is ecoomically ad operatioally viable. q lea heat trasfer surfaces regularly. q Reclaim heat from ay codesate or steam that must be dumped. q Redirect or reuse flash steam. q Replace pressure-reducig valves with back-pressure small steam turbies. Table of otets

179 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s Steam ad odesate System Refereces Moder Idustrial Assessmets: A Traiig Maual, Versio 2.0, Rutgers, The State Uiversity of New Jersey, September 2001 Web site: www.iac.rutgers.edu/idassess.php Team Up for Eergy Savigs Steam ad odesate Pipig Systems (fact sheet), Natural Resources aada, 2005 oee.rca.gc.ca/publicatios/idustrial/cipec/steam-codesate.cfm Table of otets

180 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s 3 oditio Survey hecklists I this checklist ad those that follow, poits are awarded i each category accordig to the guidelies that follow; 3.1 Widows the maximum that ca be accumulated for each system is as idicated i the table (i.e. maximum possible for widows is 10; the actual total is compared to this). Solar Protectio Tight Fit Mior Ifiltratio Major Ifiltratio aot Be Opeed a Be Opeed Weatherstripped 2 2 2 1 0 3 0 1 Auditor: ommets: No. Max Poits = 10 Locatio Total Poits Storms Date: WINDOW RATING INSTRUTIONS 2 poits if the widow has storm widows adequate for cold weather protectio. The storm widows must fit tightly ad block the wid from eterig aroud the widow. 2 poits if the widow has protectio from the direct su durig warm weather. Solar protectio ca be part of the buildig desig such as overhag, awigs or physical shields. Protectio ca also be a tited or reflective film applied to the widows, double glazed widows, solar screeig or trees blockig out direct sulight. 2 poits for a tight-fittig widow. A widow is tight-fittig if the ifiltratio will ot be detected aroud the widow durig a widy day. The widow must fit well ad all caulkig must be i place. Weatherstrippig will cotribute to a tight fit. 1 poit if the wid has some ifiltratio aroud the widow. The widow should fit fairly well ad ot be loose ad rattle. 0 poits if ifiltratio ca be felt to a large degree. The widow is loose i the frame ad caulkig is missig or i poor coditio. 3 poits if the widow is desiged, so physically it caot be opeed. 0 poits if it ca be opeed. It will be opeed to regulate room temperature. 1 poit if widow is weatherstripped all aroud ad the weatherstrippig is i good coditio. Table of otets

181 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s Door Has loser loser Has No Hold-Ope loser Has a Hold-Ope Sug Fit Average Fit Loose Fit Weatherstrip 4 Edges Weatherstrip Jamb Head No Weatherstrip Wid Screes or Other Date: 2 1 1 0 2 1 0 2 1 0 1 Auditor: ommets: No. Max Poits = 10 Locatio Total Poits 3.2 Exterior Doors Air Lock DOOR RATING INSTRUTIONS This sectio applies to all doors that ope to the outside ad all doors that ope to a ucoditioed space such as warehouses ad storerooms. 2 poits if door is part of a air lock system. 1 poit if door has a closer, which may be sprig, air or hydraulic. 1 poit if door closer does ot have a hold ope feature. 0 poits if door closer has a hold ope feature. 2 poits if door fits sugly ito the door-frame with o loose coditio ad where o ifiltratio exists aroud the edges. 1 poit if door is a average fit ad ca be slightly rattled i the frame ad has a slight ifiltratio aroud the edges. 0 poits if door is loose i the frame ad ifiltratio exists. 2 poits if weatherstrippig exists o all four edges ad is i good coditio. (Thresholds with elastic or fibre to close the space ad astragals o double doors are cosidered weatherstrippig.) 1 poit if weatherstrippig exists o jambs ad head oly. 0 poits if o weatherstrippig exists or if it exists ad is i poor coditio. 1 poit if door is protected from outside wid. This ca be buildig desig, widscree or shrubbery. Table of otets

182 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s Isulated Drop eilig Isulated Regular eilig Space Not Mech. Veted All Paels i Place Paels Broke Paels Missig Date: 1 1 1 1 2 1 0 Auditor: ommets: No. Max Poits = 6 Locatio Total Poits 3.3 eiligs Drop eilig EILING RATING INSTRUTIONS 1 poit if a drop ceilig exists. 1 poit if isulatio exists above ceilig o top floor below roof or mechaical space. 1 poit if there is o isulated regular ceilig. 1 poit if space above drop ceilig is mechaically veted. Natural draft is ot cosidered mechaical vetig. 2 poits if all paels are i place ad i good coditio ad o broke or missig paels are preset. 1 poit if paels are broke or i poor coditio. 0 poits if paels are missig or removed ad out of place. Table of otets

183 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s Solar Protectio Watertight racked or Broke Ope to Ucoditioed Space 3 0 2 2 1 0 Date: Auditor: ommets: No. Max Poits = 7 Locatio Total Poits Not Isulated 3.4 Exterior Walls Isulated WALL RATING INSTRUTIONS 3 poits if wall is desiged to resist outside temperature differetial. Isulatio is preset to substatially chage heat trasfer time. 0 poits if wall is merely a physical separatio without adequate isulatig qualities. 2 poits if outside wall surface has solar protectio such as light fiish, is heavily shaded or has physical suscrees. 2 poits if surfaces of walls are i good repair ad ot damaged. 1 poit if iside is i average coditio with a few small cracks i the surface ad smaller plaster sectios missig. 0 poits if wall has opeigs to ucoditioed space, i.e. plumbig or duct opeigs ot closed. Table of otets

184 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s 3.5 Roofs Reflective Surface Vetilatio Uder Roof No Leaks Small Leaks May Leaks 2 0 1 1 2 1 0 Auditor: ommets: No. Max Poits = 6 Locatio Total Poits Wet Isulatio Date: Dry Isulatio ROOF RATING INSTRUTIONS 2 poits if roof isulatio is i dry coditio. 0 poits if roof isulatio is i poor coditio, wet, aged, brittle, cracked, etc., or if o isulatio exists. 1 poit if roof has a reflective surface; this may be the type of material used or the colour ad coditio of surface (gravel, etc.). 1 poit if mechaical vetilatio exists betwee roof ad ceilig below. This should be properly sized so adequate airflow exists. 2 poits if o leaks exist i the roof. 1 poit if mior leaks exist. 0 poits if there are may leaks. Table of otets

185 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s 3.6 Storage Areas No Widows Oe Widow Two or More Widows Used as Desiged Not Used as Desiged Max Poits = 6 Locatio 1 1 2 1 0 2 0 Auditor: ommets: No. Total Poits Door losed Date: Not oditioed STORAGE AREA RATING INSTRUTIONS 1 poit if area is ot temperature-cotrolled. 1 poit if the doors are kept closed. 2 poits if there are o widows i the area. 1 poit if oe widow is i the area. 0 poits if two or more widows are i the area. 2 poits if area is used as it was desiged. 0 poits if area is used for storage but desiged for other use. Table of otets

186 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s Weather Protectio Average Weather Protectio Poor Idividual Stalls Oe Large Area Doors losed Doors Opeed Not Temperature-oditioed Temperature-oditioed Date: Max Poits = 6 Locatio 3 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 Auditor: ommets: No. Total Poits 3.7 Shippig ad Receivig Areas Weather Protectio Good SHIPPING AND REEIVING AREA RATING INSTRUTIONS 3 poits if the shippig ad receivig area is well protected from outside temperature. 1 poit if the shippig ad receivig area is reasoably protected from outside air etry. 0 poits if the shippig ad receivig area has o protectio from the ambiet coditios. This would be a ope area directly exposed to the outside coditios. 1 poit if idividual truck stalls exist so that the uused areas ca be closed. 0 poits if oe large area exists ad the etire dock must be exposed if a sigle truck is loaded or uloaded. 1 poit if the doors are closed whe ot i use. 0 poits if the doors are left ope as a matter of coveiece. 1 poit if the area does ot receive coditioed air. 0 poits if the area receives coditioed air. Table of otets

187 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s Reflectio Poor Source Appropriate Source Not Appropriate Lights Veted Lights Tured Off Illumiatio Adequate Excessive Illumiatio 1 1 0 2 1 0 2 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 Lightig level measuremets ca be made with small, low-cost portable light meters that are available i a variety of lux rages. The lux is the uit of illumiace, where oe lux is equal to oe lume per square metre; the lume is the uit of measure for the light emitted by a source. Portable light meters have a typical accuracy of ±15%; therefore, care eeds to be take that they are used i accordace with operatig istructios. Guidelies for recommeded levels of illumiatio are provided i Table 3.1. Table of otets Total Poits Reflectio Average Max Poits = 10 Locatio Reflectio Good No. Diffusers Poor Diffusers Average ommets: Diffusers Good Auditor: Light Etire Room Date: Light Work Area 3.8 Lightig No Decorative Lightig

188 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s Table 3.1 Illumiatig Egieerig Society of America (IES) Recommeded Levels of Illumiatio for Differet lasses of Visual Task lass of Visual Task Examples Illumiatio (lux) Public Areas with Dark Surroudigs Lobbies 20 50 Simple Orietatios for Short Temporary Visits orridors; Storage Rooms 50 100 Workig Spaces where Visual Tasks Are oly Occasioally Performed Waitig Rooms 100 200 Performace of Visual Tasks of High otrast or Large Size oferece Rooms; Prited Material; Typed Origials; Ik Hadwritig; Rough Idustrial Work 200 500 Performace of Visual Tasks of Medium otrast or Small Size Egieerig Office; Medium Pecil Hadwritig; Poorly Prited or Reproduced Material; Medium Idustrial Work 500 1000 Performace of Visual Tasks of Low otrast or Very Small Size Hard Pecil Hadwritig o Poor Quality Paper; Faded opies; Difficult Idustrial Work 1000 2000 Performace of Visual Tasks of Low otrast ad Very Small Size over a Prologed Period Fie Idustrial Work; Difficult Ispectio 2000 5000 Performace of Very Prologed ad Exactig Visual Tasks Extra-fie Work Performace of Very Special Visual Tasks of Extremely Low otrast ad Small Size Surgical Procedures; Sewig 5000 10 000 10 000 20 000 ILLUMINATION RATING INSTRUTIONS 1 poit if extesive decorative lightig has bee elimiated where used for appearace oly (ot security, walkway lightig ad other ecessities). 1 poit if lightig has bee arraged to illumiate oly the work area. 0 poits if lightig has bee desiged to illumiate the etire room to a workig level. 2 poits if light fixture diffuser is clea ad clear. 1 poit if diffuser is slightly yellowed or dirty. 0 poits if diffuser is oticeably yellowed or dust is visible. This restrictio ca amout to 10% or more of the light flux beig trasmitted. 2 poits if fixture iteral reflective surface is i good coditio (the pait is reflective ad clea). 1 poit if the fixture iteral reflective surface gives dirt idicatio o clea white cloth. 0 poits if the reflective surface is yellowed ad dull. 1 poit if the light source (T8, HPS, MH, LED lamps) are appropriate for the applicatio. 0 poits if a iappropriate light source is used. 1 poit if lights are properly veted the heat ca escape to ceilig space, providig that ceilig space is vetilated to prevet heat build up. 1 poit if lights are tured off whe area is ot occupied. 1 poit if illumiatio level is adequate for desiged usage. 0 poits if area is overillumiated for desiged use. 0 poits if two or more lamps have blackeed eds or are glowig without lightig. Table of otets

189 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s Access Doors losed Good Vet Hoods Average Vet Hood Poor Vet Hood Adequate Vetilatio Refrigeratio Equip. Good Refrigeratio Equip. Average Refrigeratio Equip. Poor Heat Recovery System Max Poits = 15 Locatio Faucets Leakig No. Faucets Not Leakig Refrigeratio Doors Ajar ommets: Refrigeratio Doors losed Auditor: Equipmet Left O Date: 2 0 1 0 1 0 3 2 1 0 1 2 1 0 3 FOOD AREA RATING INSTRUTIONS 2 poits if the food preparatio equipmet is oly eergized whe actually eeded. This icludes, but is ot limited to, oves, warmers, steam tables, delivery equipmet ad coffee urs. 0 poits if equipmet is tured o ad left o all day. 1 poit if refrigerator ad freezer doors are kept tightly closed. 0 poits if refrigerator ad freezer doors ca be left ajar. 1 poit if faucets ad valves are i good coditio ad ot leakig. 0 poits if faucets ad valves are leakig. Leaks may be outside or iside the system. 3 poits if doors betwee kitche area ad other areas are kept closed. 2 poits if adequate vet hoods are used over heat producig equipmet. 1 poit if some vet hoods are used over heat producig equipmet. 0 poits if o or iadequate vet hoods are used. 1 poit if vetilatio air supply is adequate to remove most of the heat produced by the kitche equipmet. 2 poits if refrigerator equipmet is i good repair, seals are good, codeser is clea, ad air passage over codeser is clear. 1 poit if refrigeratio equipmet is i average coditio, dust ad dirt exist o codesers but the airflow is ot restricted, ad door gaskets seal all aroud although they may have lost some resiliecy. 0 poits if refrigeratio equipmet is i poor coditio, a large collectio of dust ad dirt o the codeser or the fis may be bet to restrict airflow, ad door gaskets do ot seal all aroud, are brittle, broke or missig. 3 poits if heat recovery systems are utilized. These ca be applied to the exhaust air, the hot wastewater or the refrigeratio equipmet. Table of otets Total Poits 3.9 Food Areas Equipmet Tured Off

190 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s Isulatio Poor Flages Isulatio No Leaks Some Leaks May Leaks Automatic otrols Stadard Op. Procedures Steam Meter Fuel Meter Make-Up Water Meter Prevetive Maiteace Fix as Required Eergy Recovery Ecoomizer otrols 2 1 0 2 2 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 3 2 Date: Auditor: ommets: No. Max Poits = 15 Locatio HEATING SYSTEM (GENERATION) RATING INSTRUTIONS 2 poits if the isulatio is i good coditio with o broke or missig sectios. The isulatio must ot be wet, crumbly or cracked. 1 poit if isulatio is i average coditio with small sectios broke or missig. The isulatio must ot be wet or crumbly. 0 poits if isulatio is i poor coditio with sectios missig, broke, wet, crumbly or cracked. 2 poits if flages, valves ad regulators are isulated with removable laggig. 2 poits if the steam system has o leaks. 1 poit if the steam system has mior leaks aroud valve packig, shaft seals, etc. 0 poits if the steam system has may leaks, ad if valves, regulators ad traps have drippig leaks, steam plumes, etc. 1 poit if boiler combustio cotrols are automatic. 1 poit if defiite stadard operatig procedures are used. These should be writte ad posted ear the boiler cotrol pael. 1 poit if each boiler has a idividual steam flow meter. 1 poit if each boiler has a idividual make up water meter. 1 poit if each boiler has a idividual fuel flow meter. 1 poit if a defiite prevetive maiteace schedule is followed. 0 poits if equipmet is maitaied or repaired oly whe it breaks dow. 3 poits if a eergy recovery system is used. This may be a water-to-water heat exchager, a air wheel or ay of several types i commo use. 2 poits if heat geeratio is cotrolled by a system usig a ecoomizer ad comparig iside ad outside temperature. Table of otets Total Poits Isulatio Average 3.10 Heatig ad Boiler Plat Isulatio Good

191 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s Isulatio Poor Flages Isulatio No Leaks Some Leaks May Leaks otrol Good otrol Average otrol Poor Stadard Op. Procedures Prevetive Maiteace Fix as Required oditio as Required Miimum Fresh Air Zoe otrol Good Zoe otrol Average Zoe otrol Poor 2 1 0 2 2 1 0 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 2 1 0 Date: Auditor: ommets: No. Max Poits = 14 Locatio Total Poits Isulatio Average 3.11 Heat Distributio Isulatio Good HEATING SYSTEM (DISTRIBUTION) RATING INSTRUTIONS 2 poits if isulatio is i good coditio with o broke or missig sectios. The isulatio must ot be wet, crumbly or cracked. 1 poit if isulatio is i average coditio with small sectios broke or missig. The isulatio must ot be wet, crumbly or cracked. 0 poits if isulatio is i poor coditio with sectios missig, broke, wet, crumbly or cracked. 2 poits if flages, valves ad regulators are isulated with removable laggig. 2 poits if the steam system has o leaks. 1 poit if the steam system has mior leaks aroud valve packig, shaft seals, etc. 0 poits if the steam system has may leaks, ad if valves, regulators ad traps have drippig leaks, steam plumes, etc. 2 poits if the cotrol system for each area is adequate. The cotrol system maitais the temperature i each room close to the thermostat settig. 1 poit if the cotrol system for each area is oly a geeral cotrol without the ability to cotrol each room. 0 poits if the cotrol system has little or o cotrol over the area temperature. Also icluded here is a cotrol system that allows the heatig ad coolig systems to oppose each other i the same geeral area. 1 poit if defiite stadard operatig procedures are used. These should be writte ad posted. 1 poit if a defiite prevetive maiteace schedule is followed. 0 poits if equipmet is maitaied or repaired oly whe it breaks dow. 1 poit if the area is coditioed oly whe occupied. This will apply especially to auditoriums, work rooms, hobby shops, TV rooms, etc. 1 poit if the vetilatio system cotrols provide a miimum fresh air volume for a healthy eviromet rather that a fixed fresh air volume. 2 poits if the zoe cotrol is good ad certai areas ca be secured whe ot i use or require less temperature coditioig. 1 poit if the zoe cotrol allows oly geeral areas to be secured whe coditios dictate. 0 poits if zoe cotrol caot be secured without securig a large geeral area. Table of otets

192 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s Isulatio Poor Flages Isulated Stadard Op. Procedures Id. Power Meter Prevetive Maiteace Fix as Required Eergy Recovery Outside Air Used (Free ool) Ethalpy otrol (T & RH) 2 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 3 2 1 Date: Auditor: ommets: No. Max Poits = 12 Locatio Total Poits Isulatio Average 3.12 oolig Plat Isulatio Good OOLING SYSTEM (GENERATION) RATING INSTRUTIONS 2 poits if the isulatio is i good coditio with o broke or missig sectios. The isulatio must ot be wet, crumbly or cracked. losed-cell isulatio will be cosidered average coditio because of deterioratio that occurs i this type of material. 1 poit if isulatio is i average coditio with small sectios broke or missig. The isulatio must ot be wet or crumbly. The outside shell of ope-cell isulatio must be itact with oly mior breaks. 0 poits if isulatio is i poor coditio with sectios missig, broke, wet, crumbly or cracked. 1 poit if flages ad valves are isulated. 1 poit if defiite stadard operatig procedures are used. These should be writte ad posted ear the cotrol pael. 1 poit if uit has a idividual watt hour meter so that the real time power cosumptio ca be determied. 1 poit if a defiite prevetive maiteace schedule is followed. 0 poits if equipmet is maitaied or repaired oly whe it breaks dow. 3 poits if a eergy recovery system is used. This may be a water-to-water heat exchager, a air wheel or ay of several types i commo use. 2 poits if outside air is used to help coditio areas that require coolig eve o cold days. 1 poit if the fresh air ratio is regulated by comparig iside requiremets with outside temperatures. Table of otets

193 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s Isulatio Poor Flages Isulatio Stadard Op. Procedures otrol Good otrol Average otrol Poor Prevetive Maiteace Fix as Required oditio as Required ostat oditioig Zoe otrol Good Zoe otrol Average Zoe otrol Poor 2 1 0 2 1 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 2 1 0 Date: Auditor: ommets: No. Max Poits = 11 Locatio Total Poits Isulatio Average 3.13 oolig Distributio Isulatio Good OOLING SYSTEM (DISTRIBUTION) RATING INSTRUTIONS 2 poits if the isulatio is i good coditio with o broke or missig sectios. The isulatio must ot be wet, crumbly or cracked. losed-cell isulatio will be cosidered average coditio because of deterioratio that occurs i this type of material. 1 poit if isulatio is i average coditio with small sectios broke or missig. The isulatio must ot be wet or crumbly. The outside shell of ope-cell isulatio must be itact with oly mior breaks. 0 poits if isulatio is i poor coditio with sectios missig, broke, wet, crumbly or cracked. 1 poit if flages ad valves are isulated. 1 poit if defiite stadard operatig procedures are used. These should be writte ad posted ear the cotrol pael. 2 poits if the cotrol system for each area is adequate. The cotrol system maitais the temperature i each room close to the thermostat settig. 1 poit if the cotrol system for each area is oly a geeral cotrol without the ability to cotrol each room. 0 poits if the cotrol system has little or o cotrol over the area temperature. Also icluded here is a cotrol system that allows the heatig ad coolig systems to oppose each other i the same geeral areas. 1 poit if a defiite prevetive maiteace schedule is followed. 0 poits if equipmet is maitaied or repaired oly whe it breaks dow. 1 poit if the area is coditioed oly whe occupied. This will apply especially to auditoriums, work rooms, hobby shops, TV rooms, etc. 0 poits if the area is coditioed all the time regardless of occupacy. 2 poits if the zoe cotrol is good ad certai areas ca be secured whe ot i use or require less temperature coditioig. 1 poit if the zoe cotrol allows oly geeral areas to be secured whe coditios dictate. 0 poits if zoe cotrol caot be secured without securig a large geeral area. Table of otets

194 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s Usage Patter Power o. oordiatio Power Peak Warig Power Demad Limited Stadard Op. Procedures Prevetive Maiteace Fix as Required 90% Power Factor Date: 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 2 Auditor: ommets: No. Max Poits = 10 Locatio Total Poits 3.14 Electrical Power Distributio Recordig Meter ELETRIAL POWER DISTRIBUTION RATING INSTRUTIONS 2 poits for operatio of a recordig ammeter. 1 poit for hourly electrical usage patter of buildig beig determied. 1 poit for study of electrical requiremets with power compay staff. 1 poit for istallatio of a power peak warig system. 1 poit for aalysis to elimiate power peak demads. 1 poit if defiite stadard operatig procedures are used. These must be writte ad posted ear the cotrol pael. 1 poit if a defiite prevetive maiteace schedule is followed. 0 poits if equipmet is maitaied or repaired oly whe it breaks dow. 2 poits for overall system power factor of 90% or above at mai service. Table of otets

195 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s Isulatio Poor No Faucet Leaks Faucet Leaks Stadard Op. Procedures Prevetive Maiteace Fix as Required DHW Temperature < 60 Process HW Temp. Optimized 2 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 2 Date: Auditor: ommets: No. Max Poits = 8 Locatio Total Poits Isulatio Average 3.15 Hot Water Service Isulatio Good HOT WATER SERVIE RATING INSTRUTIONS 2 poits if the isulatio is i good coditio with o broke or missig sectios. The isulatio must ot be wet, crumbly or cracked. 1 poit if isulatio is i average coditio with small sectios broke or missig. The isulatio must ot be wet or crumbly. 0 poits if isulatio is i poor coditio with sectios missig, broke, wet, crumbly or cracked. 1 poit if faucets ad valves are i good repair. 0 poits if faucets ad valves leak exterally or iterally. 1 poit if defiite stadard operatig procedures are used. These should be writte ad posted. 1 poit if a defiite prevetive maiteace schedule is followed. 0 poits if equipmet is maitaied or repaired oly whe it breaks dow. 1 poit if the DHW temperature is set less tha 60. 2 poits if process hot water temperatures have bee optimized for the particular requiremet. Table of otets

196 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s Faucet Leaks Stadard Op. Procedures Prevetive Maiteace Fix as Required No Equip. Use Water Oce Equipmet Off Date: 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 Auditor: ommets: No. Max Poits = 5 Locatio Total Poits 3.16 Water Service No Faucet Leaks WATER SERVIE RATING INSTRUTIONS 1 poit if faucets ad valves are i good repair. 0 poits if faucets ad valves leak exterally or iterally. 1 poit if defiite stadard operatig procedures are used. These should be writte ad posted. 1 poit if a defiite prevetive maiteace schedule is followed. 0 poits if equipmet is maitaied or repaired oly whe it breaks dow. 1 poit if there is o equipmet that uses oce through coolig water ad discharges to sewer. 1 poit if water cosumig equipmet is tured off whe ot i use. Table of otets

197 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s ompressors Sized ompressors o Demad Stadard Op. Procedures Prevetive Maiteace Fix as Required Supply Pressure Miimized Air Quality Appropriate otrols Prevet Blow-Off 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 Date: Auditor: ommets: No. Max Poits = 8 Locatio Total Poits Outlet Leaks 3.17 ompressed Air No Outlet Leaks OMPRESSED AIR SERVIE RATING INSTRUTIONS 1 poit if outlets ad valves are i good repair. 0 poits if outlets ad valves leak exterally or iterally. 1 poit if compressors are properly sized to shave peak demads. 1 poit if additioal compressors are brought o-lie as demad requires ad ot ru cotiuously. 1 poit if defiite stadard operatig procedures are used. These should be writte ad posted. 1 poit if a defiite prevetive maiteace schedule is followed. 0 poits if equipmet is maitaied or repaired oly whe it breaks dow. 1 poit if the compressor discharge (supply) air pressure has bee miimized for applicatio. 1 poit if the air quality (dew poit, temperature, clealiess) is appropriate, ot better tha required. 1 poit if the cotrols prevet blow-off of air for cetrifugal compressors. Table of otets

198 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t o d i t i o S u r ve y h e c k l i s t s Isulatio Poor Exhaust Process Air Stadard Op. Procedures ombustio Efficiecy Prevetive Maiteace Fix as Required 1 2 0 1 1 1 1 0 Date: Auditor: ommets: No. Max Poits = 6 Locatio Total Poits High Temp. Areas Isulated 3.18 Process Heatig Flue Gas Waste Heat PROESS HEATING RATING INSTRUTIONS 1 poit if the flue gas waste heat from processig equipmet is extracted to heat relatively low temperature make-up, process ad space heatig water. 2 poits if all high temperature pipig, oves, dryers, taks ad processig equipmet are covered with suitable isulatig material. The isulatio must ot be wet, crumbly or cracked. 0 poits if isulatio is i poor coditio with sectios missig, broke, wet, crum bly or cracked. 1 poit if process air is exhausted. 1 poit if defiite stadard operatig procedures are used. These should be writte ad posted ear the cotrol pael. 1 poit if gas heated equipmet is checked for combustio efficiecy o a regular basis. 1 poit if a defiite prevetive maiteace schedule is followed. 0 poits if equipmet is maitaied or repaired oly whe it breaks dow. Table of otets

199 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g 3.19 hecklist Template Date: Auditor: ommets: Total Poits No. Max Poits = P Locatio Total Poits for Sectio Ratig for Boiler Plat Systems = ( 100 Total Poits ) Number of Items P Referece Eergy Efficiecy Plaig ad Maagemet Guide, Natural Resources aada, 2002 oee.rca.gc.ca/publicatios/ifosource/pub/cipec/efficiecy/idex.cfm Table of otets

200 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g 4 Istrumetatio for Eergy Auditig 4.1 Itroductio This sectio describes the istrumetatio ad measuremet techiques relevat to eergy audit activities. A brief review of measuremet priciples is provided. Fially, a umber of useful, relatively easy-to-use ad readily available istrumets have bee selected from the toolboxes of experieced auditors ad are preseted i practical terms. Basic istrumet types ad usage are described alog with sample specificatios, sources ad tips for effective use. While these will meet all the requiremets of the type of eergy audit described i this guide, the more experieced auditor ca supplemet them with more advaced sesors ad recordig devices. A eergy auditor must have a basic uderstadig of measuremet techiques ad istrumetatio i order to be kowledgeable about the purchase or retal ad use of the equipmet. Both the correct istrumet ad its correct use are fudametal requiremets for obtaiig useful measured data. 4.1.1 Safety First Measuremets of ay physical system or process should always be udertake with due regard for safety procedures by persos traied i ad familiar with the specific equipmet ad processes ivolved. Measuremets of electrical eergy use, amps, volts, watts, etc. are geerally made o live equipmet ad coductors ad should be udertake oly by properly traied ad qualified techical staff. Uder o circumstaces should live electrical equipmet be opeed by uqualified persos. 4.2 Uderstadig Measuremet for Eergy Auditig 4.2.1 Represetative Measuremet Ordiarily, a eergy audit of the type discussed i this guide takes place over a limited period of time, usually of o more tha a moth i legth. Durig the course of the audit measuremets will be take to form the basis for the may eergy calculatios ivolved i developig eergy ivetories, profiles ad evetually estimates of eergy savigs. Most audit measuremets provide istataeous or short-term records of performace over a short time iterval. O the other had, most savigs calculatios are made o a aual basis, because most orgaizatios wat to kow what the eergy maagemet measures will save them ext year. While the accuracy of ay of these measuremets is importat, as discussed i the ext sectio, just as importat is the relevace of these short-term audit measuremets to the coditios that exist over the log term, that is, the aual period for which savigs calculatios are beig made. While it may be easy to measure the power cosumptio of a air compressor motor accurately with a hadheld power meter ad the multiply by Table of otets

201 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g the hours of operatio per year to determie aual eergy cosumptio, we eed to cosider whether the readig that we took is represetative of the power cosumptio tomorrow, ext week or ext moth. The most accurate istataeous measuremet may be accurate oly to +/ 50% o a aual basis. learly, care must be exercised whe extrapolatig short-term measuremets to loger-term results. A useful techique for avoidig such errors is to attempt to take measuremets durig periods that are represetative of the operatio of the particular equipmet ivolved. Tips for takig valid ad represetative measuremets with each istrumet are icluded i the followig sectios. To some extet, the eergy balace techiques preseted i this guide provide a check agaist gross errors. For example, power measuremets take o equipmet must sum to the total load as registered o the utility s demad meter ad recorded o the bill. Likewise, the idividual eergy cosumptios derived from the applicatio of operatig hours must sum to the total metered eergy o the bill. While this is ot a guaratee agaist this type of error, lookig for these balaces also forces the auditor to thik i terms of log-term coditios. 4.2.2 Measuremet Accuracy The accuracy of the measurig device (istrumetatio) ad the proper use of the istrumet are two items that ca affect measuremet accuracy. Before purchasig or leasig istrumetatio, it is importat to determie how accurate the measuremet eeds to be ad to select istrumetatio ad measuremet strategies that meet those eeds. Oe ca geerally expect to pay more for more accurate istrumetatio, but more expesive ad accurate istrumets ofte demad more careful ad time-cosumig measuremet techiques. For specialized ad oce oly measuremets it may ofte be beeficial, both i terms of accuracy ad overall cost, to egage competet idepedet techicias to do the measuremet. Whe evaluatig istrumetatio for purchase or lease, it is useful to kow how differet maufacturers defie the accuracy of their equipmet. Some commo ways of defiig accuracy are: q percetage of full scale q percetage of actual readig value, a resolutio ; this is commo for istrumets with digital read-out ad is ofte stated as the umber of digits I most cases, particularly for quality istrumets, the stated accuracy will be for a particular set of circumstaces: e.g. the type of wave forms or frequecy might be stated for electrical measuremets. Ofte some idicatio will be give of loss of accuracy that will occur whe the istrumet is used outside the particular circumstaces. Table of otets

202 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g For the purposes of the macro eergy audit, the requiremet for accuracy may ot be extremely demadig. As stated previously, a highly accurate measuremet today may be of oly limited accuracy over the log term. Accordigly, the auditor may redirect effort ad expese from the purchase ad use of highly accurate istrumets to better iterpretatio of less accurate data over a log period. 4.2.3 Spot ad Recordig Measuremets Although may of the measuremets take i ay eergy audit are istataeous or spot measuremets, there may be a opportuity to perform short-term recordig measuremets. Recordig measuremet, applied over carefully selected time itervals, ca provide far more represetative data for log-term calculatios. For example, the auditor may have oted from spot measuremets of a air compressor that its idle power, cosumed whe ot supplyig a air demad, was 70% of expected full power. This suggests that applicatio of a cotroller to shut dow the compressor whe ot required might be a good eergy savigs opportuity. But, does this coditio exist for a sigificat period of time? Plat staff report that the compressed air demad is fairly steady. I this situatio the use of a recordig power meter, takig miute-bymiute readigs for 48 hours over the course of a full productio day ad possibly oe shutdow day, could provide a better picture of the situatio. The recordig power meter is a extremely valuable tool for the eergy auditor. Other useful recordig tools, ofte called data loggers, iclude the followig: q temperature logger q illumiatio logger q occupacy logger q evet logger q geeral purpose data logger 4.2.4 Useful Features of Digital Istrumetatio For auditig ad may other purposes, digital meters (DMs) are replacig covetioal aalogue istrumets because of lower cost ad ease of use. Their accuracy is ormally more tha adequate for most auditig purposes. Some features that are otably useful iclude: Multiple measuremets itegrated istrumets that ca measure ad i some cases record two or more parameters such as temperature, humidity, o/off states, illumiatio levels ad oe or more geeral-purpose aalogue iputs (see below) for other sesors. Readig freeze fuctio facilitates readigs where the display caot be read as the measuremet is take. Display ivert may make readig the meter easier i difficult locatios tachometers ofte feature this capability. Table of otets

203 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g Aalogue output a stadard aalogue sigal (0 10 V, 4 20 ma, etc.) proportioal to the readig it ca be used with a strip chart recorder or geeral-purpose data logger to provide a recordig fuctio. 4.3 The Auditor s Toolbox The followig sectios iclude details of the istrumets commoly foud i the eergy auditor s toolbox: q electric power meter q combustio aalyser q digital thermometer q ifrared thermometer q psychrometer (humidity measuremet) q airflow measuremet devices q tachometer q ultrasoic leak detector 4.3.1 Other Useful Tools & Safety Equipmet I additio to the istrumets, there are a few other items that have bee foud to come i hady: q bioculars ad a small flashlight for readig ameplates q duct tape ad tie wraps for securig recordig meters q multi-screw driver, adjustable wrech ad pliers q tape measure q bucket ad stopwatch for gaugig water flows to drai q safety glasses, gloves ad ear plugs q cautio tape for alertig others to the presece of recordig meters 4.4 Electric Power Meter Electric power measuremet istrumets, are some of the most powerful ad useful tools available to the eergy auditor. With existig measuremet ad data-recordig techology, a modest ivestmet will provide a wealth of iformatio. Electrical power ad eergy measuremets provide a operatioal figerprit of the may systems ad pieces of equipmet i a facility. They show clearly where ad how electrical power ad eergy are used ad provide isight ito how equipmet ad systems cosume other forms of eergy. Typical audit applicatios are provided below. Table of otets

204 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g With today s techology there is o eed for a auditor to carry separate volt, amp ad power factor meters i order to be able to measure electrical power i watts. The moder portable wattmeter provides all of these measuremet fuctios, itegrated i oe package. This sectio describes selected types of wattmeters applicable to eergy audits ad icorporatig all the above measurig fuctios. For the reader requirig kowledge of basic electrical measuremets, a techical overview of curret, voltage ad power factor is provided i the eergy basics sectio. Further iformatio ca be foud i ay basic electricity textbook. As stated previously, ay measuremets with these types of istrumets should be take oly by traied staff who are authorized to work o live electrical equipmet. 4.4.1 Hadheld Sigle-Phase Digital Wattmeter The sigle-phase wattmeter will measure voltage via two cotact probes ad curret with the use of a clip-o curret trasformer, commoly referred to as a curret clamp. A typical meter is illustrated i Figure 4.1. The cofiguratio show o the left-had side of Figure 4.1 is capable of meterig 600-V systems up to a maximum curret of 200 amps. Usig the flexible curret trasducer show o the right-had side of Figure 4.1, this type of meter ca meter currets from 30 to 3000 amps. The particular meterig show ca also record or log up to 4000 data poits for short-term surveys or profiles. While spot measuremets require oly istataeous cotact with coductors for voltage readigs, the recordig measuremets require the use of optioal alligator clips as show i Figure 4.1. Figure 4.1 Hadheld Wattmeter Primarily iteded for measuremets i sigle-phase circuits, these meters ofte provide the fuctioality required to perform measuremets o balaced three-phase power systems. Typical coectios are illustrated i Figure 4.2. Table of otets

205 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g Figure 4.2 Typical oectio for Sigle-Phase Wattmeter 4.4.2 Three-Phase Digital Wattmeter For true measuremets o three-phase systems, depedig upo whether the system is three- or four-wire, two- or three-phase currets ad three-phase voltages must be measured. Figure 4.3 shows a three-phase typical coectio diagram. Figure 4.3 Three-Phase Typical oectio 4.4.3 Applicatios Developmet of load ivetories As detailed i the Eergy Ivetory Sectio B-7.2, the hadheld wattmeter ca expedite collectio of idividual load kw values. Demad profilig of a service etrace, sub-statio or M For developig plat, buildig or system-wide demad profiles as detailed i the Demad Profile Sectio B-6.2. This will require the use of a three-phase meter, ofte with optioal curret trasducers similar to those show i Figure 4.1, to meter the large currets i the buss bars ad coductors. Process system or equipmet It may be possible to isolate a group of loads specific to a particular system, equipmet, maufacturig cell or plat process. Idividual load meterig For motor loads, either oe-or three-phase, a sigle-phase wattmeter may be deployed for spot or recordig measuremets with the recordig fuctio, typical operatig profiles of fas, pumps ad compressors ca be developed. Table of otets

206 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g Electric process characterizatio Electrical eergy cosumptio data ca be measured ad correlated to productio data over a sample iterval to characterize the cosumptio patters of a process. This is particularly useful for processes such as electric furaces, dryers ad kils. Depedig upo the cofiguratio of the equipmet ad power supply, it may be possible to coduct such a survey with a sigle-phase power meter; the threephase meter will work i most situatios. Measurig cosumptio of office equipmet Usig a simplified power meter for determiig eergy cosumed over a typical period of operatio, as illustrated i Figure 4.4. Figure 4.4 The Brultech EM1200 Measurig omputer Moitor Eergy osumptio 4.4.4 Sample Specificatios For hadheld wattmeter q Volt, amps, watts, VAr, VA, W, Hz, kwh (import/export), kvarh. q All measuremets are true RMS. q Memory adequate for recordig multiple measuremets over a varyig iterval. q 1% accuracy icludig clamp error. q Backlit LD display. q Battery-powered. Table of otets

207 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g For three-phase wattmeter q Portable power meter for both sigle-phase ad three-phase systems, providig measuremet of true RMS values for up to 33 parameters icludig volts, amps, watts, VAr, VA, W, Hz, kwh (import/export), kvarh. q 1% accuracy icludig clamp error. q High-cotrast backlit LD display. q At least 1MB o-board memory for data storage over exteded survey periods icludig waveform capture for curret ad voltage. q Supplied complete with Ts, voltage leads ad all accessories i a strog carry case. q Dowload to P via high-speed serial lik. q P (Widows-based) software for data dowload, aalysis ad export to spreadsheets. q Fully programmable for all T/VT ratios, star/delta/sigle-phase coectio ad power itegratio period. q Dual voltage power supply 230/110VA with iteral rechargeable backup battery. q O-board clock/caledar. 4.4.5 Useful Features There are may features available o these types of meters beyod the basic power measuremet fuctios. While hady, these additioal fuctios are ot etirely ecessary. Some that have prove useful for eergy-auditig activities are listed below. For hadheld sigle-phase wattmeter q Measuremet ad aalysis of power quality parameters icludig harmoics. q D measuremet with optioal Hall effect sesor. q Automatic recogitio of clamp type. q PEAK feature captures max curret/power values. q MEM fuctio provides data hold ad allows real time compariso of ew readigs agaist stored values. For three-phase wattmeter q Stad-aloe battery-powered fuctio to allow istallatio i, ad safe closure of, electrical cabiets. q Measuremet ad aalysis of power quality parameters icludig harmoics. q Suitable for D measuremet (via optioal D clamp). q Optioal iputs for recordig of other parameters such as temperature. Table of otets

208 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g 4.4.6 Tips for Effective Use Validate readigs at time of collectio Whe deployig meters for recordig esure that the istataeous readigs are reasoable. May data collectio errors are the result of a miscoected meter ad ca be avoided at coectio time. By checkig readigs agaist ay existig meterig such as pael meters or utility meters, the auditor ca validate readigs quickly. Uexpectedly low or high power factor readigs are a commo clue to icorrect coectios. Power readigs may appear valid while power factors will ot. Utilize as short a itegratio or averagig time iterval as possible for recordig power ad eergy readigs Ideally, oe-miute itervals. Power meters will typically average the measured values over the recordig iterval. Iformatio is lost i the averagig process. Shorter itervals provide more electrical figerprits of loads, simplifyig iterpretatio of the resultig profiles. 4.5 The ombustio Aalyser Moder combustio aalysers are portable electroic istrumets used to measure the combustio efficiecy boilers, furaces or other equipmet with fuel combustio systems. Figure 4.5 illustrates the essetial elemets of the combustio process. The primary objective of combustio aalysis is to esure that the optimum ratio of air to fuel is beig utilized. Excess air will appear i the flue gases ad carry away heat that could otherwise be used. Isufficiet air will lead to icomplete combustio ofte idicated by sigificat levels of carbo mooxide (O) i the flue gases. Figure 4.5 The ombustio Process Flue Gas (TS) Fuel - carbo - hydroge - sulpher ombustio ombustio Air (T) - oxyge - itroge - O2 - itroge, NOx - water - excess air - SOx - VO - O Heat (75-85%) The determiatio of combustio efficiecy is based o multiple measuremets icludig flue/stack temperature ad the compositio of stack gases typically carbo dioxide (O2) or oxyge (O2). Ofte istrumets measure a umber of other parameters idicative of combustio system performace, as described below. Table of otets

209 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g 4.5.1 Istrumet Descriptio All electroic combustio aalysers itegrate a umber of measuremet fuctios ito oe uit, which is ofte battery-powered ad uses a digital display ad keypad as a user iterface. A basic aalyser will measure: q flue/stack gas temperature q combustio air temperature q oxyge (O2) q carbo mooxide (O) The user selects from a display meu the fuel beig used i the combustio system. Based upo a iterally programmed algorithm cotaiig data regardig fuel compositio, the aalyser will the compute ad display the combustio efficiecy ad determie the excess air ad carbo mooxide (O) level. A typical combustio aalyser is show i Figure 4.6. This uit is appropriate for testig boilers, plat-heatig equipmet ad a limited set of process combustios systems. I additio to the parameters above, this uit ca also measure stack draft the pressure i the stack/flue drivig the flow of hot gases from the combustio system. Figure 4.6 Electroic ombustio Aalyser Table of otets

210 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g 4.5.2 Applicatios ombustio aalysers ca be used i a wide variety of combustio equipmet, fired by gas, oil, coal ad a umber of other fuels icludig wood. Applicatios iclude but are ot limited to: q boilers q uit heaters q hot water heaters q heatig furaces q process furaces q process oves q kils q dryers q ladle preheater q material preheaters For applicatios other tha buildig heatig equipmet, the reader is ecouraged to cosult with istrumet suppliers to esure selectio of appropriate istrumet rages ad fuctios. 4.5.3 Sample Specificatios q Measure O2, O2, efficiecy, excess air, draft ad O (325-1 oly) q Large, meu-drive display q Optioal NOx measuremet q Temperature measuremet Measuremet rage/resolutio: 40 to +1112 / 0.1 Accuracy: Sesor: ±0.5 Thermocouple Type K q Draught/pressure measuremet Measuremet rage/resolutio: ±16 i H2O / 0.1 i H2O q Gross/et efficiecy Measuremet rage/resolutio: 0 to 120% / 0.1% q O2 measuremet Measuremet rage/resolutio: 0 to 21 vol.% / 0.1 vol.% Accuracy: ±0.2 vol.% absolute q O2 measuremet Measuremet rage/resolutio: 0 to O2 max. (calculatio from O2) / 0.01 vol.% Accuracy: Table of otets ±0.2 vol.%

211 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g q O measuremet (325-1 oly) Measuremet rage/resolutio: 0 to 2000 ppm/1 ppm Accuracy: ±20 ppm (to 400 ppm) 4.5.4 Useful Features q Alarms for abormally high carbo mooxide levels to protect both the equipmet ad user. q For idustrial ad high temperature applicatios, optioal high temperature sesors may be required. q Multiple gas aalysis capability icludig, i additio to O2 or O2 ad O, NOx, SOx ad combustibles. q User-etered fuel compositio data for off-stadard fuels. q A itegrated priter for pritig idividual sample results. q Optioal, loger probes for use o larger pieces of equipmet. 4.5.5 Tips for Effective Use Take multiple measuremets uder a rage of differet firig rates The efficiecy of combustio equipmet is a fuctio of firig rate, ad the calibratio of fuel/air cotrols may chage over the rage of firig rates at which the combustio equipmet operates. Esure steady state coditios for measuremets Allow combustio equipmet to reach ormal operatig temperature before takig readigs. alibratio Typically, gas aalysis equipmet is ot as stable as may types of temperature ad pressure measuremet devices. This meas that the equipmet should be calibrated frequetly. The frequecy will deped upo the importace of the readigs for successful operatio ad the drift tedecy of the calibratio. This could mea that the calibratio check should be coducted weekly or, with experiece, it might be determied that it could be exteded to a mothly basis before the calibratio drifted sigificatly. Gas aalysis istrumets are calibrated with bottled test gases that have a certified compositio similar to that of measured gases. A frequetly calibrated aalyser with good repeatability should provide good performace. Table of otets

212 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g 4.6 Light Meters Light or illumiace meters provide a simple ad effective method for determiig actual delivered light levels. It is useful to compare actual levels with suggested or recommeded levels for specific activities or areas. A illumiace meter typically utilizes a sesor corrected for: q light colour light sources vary i colour q agle of icidece the cosie law is used to correct for reduced apparet illumiatio at small agles to the horizotal A basic meter is show i Figure 4.7. It is battery-powered, ca measure from 0 to 50 000 lux ad has a separate light sesor with a flexible cord. Figure 4.7 A Basic Light Meter 4.6.1 Sample Specificatios q Measures 0 50 000 lux i three rages (0 2000/0 20 000/0 50 000) q Accuracy to 5% q Automatic zero adjustmet q Sesor housed i a separate uit from display with flexible cord coectio q Battery-operated q LD display 4.6.2 Useful Features q Aalogue output fuctio for recordig Table of otets

213 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g 4.6.3 Tips for Effective Use Esure measuremets are take uder steady state coditios May lamps require a warm-up period before reachig full light output. Esure that daylight does ot ifluece readigs Take readigs at ight, use blids, or take two readigs with ad without lights ad subtract daylight cotributio to yield artificial illumiatio levels. Assess wall reflectace By takig the ratio of the reflected light to the icidet light o the wall with a light meter. Take icidet light readig about 0.5 metres from wall, tur sesor to face wall ad take reflected light readig. Esure that the light colour rage of the sesor beig used is appropriate for the light source preset If ot, apply correctio factors as per light meter maual istructios. Esure comparable readigs Lamp light output decreases with age, so avoid comparig old lamps with ew oes. 4.7 Temperature Measuremet Temperature measuremets provide the auditor with opportuities to quatify thermal eergy cosumptio ad losses i a variety of ways. Air, gas, fluid ad surface temperatures are commoly measured i ay audit. 4.7.1 Types of Istrumets Temperature may be determied by mechaical or electrical meas usig a variety of cotact measuremets ad by others usig o-cotact or radiatio-based measuremets. Bimetallic thermometers are costructed from two thi strips of metal with dissimilar coefficiets of expasio boded together i a coil. The coil is attached to a had or poiter o a scale, which rotates as the metals expad or cotract with varyig temperatures. Thermocouples are based upo the priciple that a voltage proportioal to the temperature is produced at the juctio of two dissimilar metals. It is widely used sice the sesor ca be used with wires for remote readig or recordig. Resistace temperature detectors (RTDs) are based o the fact that, i the case of certai metals, the resistace icreases as the temperature icreases. These devices require a exteral curret source for the sesor to create a voltage that ca be sesed ad related to temperature. Table of otets

214 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g Pyrometers (o-cotact thermometers) operate o the priciple that objects radiate differet amouts of eergy accordig to their temperatures. These istrumets measure radiatio without makig cotact with the object ad operate uder a assumptio cocerig the object s emissivity (ability to radiate eergy), which may be fixed or set by the user. The followig chart summarizes the temperature measuremet optios available to the eergy auditor. Type Pros Glass stem thermometer Low cost Bimetallic Low cost Thermocouple Simple Type T Rugged Type J Wide variety Type K Wide temp. rage Type R & S Self-powered os Fragile Hard to read Limited rage Not a remote sesor Typical Rages Accuracy % of Spa 50 to +800 1% to 2% 60 to +425 1% to 4% No-liear 150 to +260 Referece required 160 to +800 Least stable 150 to +1500 Least sesitive 15 to +1700 Most stable Expesive 150 to +260 Most accurate urret source required 255 to +650 Pyrometers (o-cotact) Safe Relatively expesive +760 to +3500 1% to 2% Optical Easy to use 1% to 2% oveiet Accuracy may be compromised by other sources i field of view 0 to +3300 Ifrared +500 to +3900 0.5% to 1% RTD Nickel Platium 0.3% to 1% 0.1% Radiatio Figure 4.8 shows a typical thermocouple-based temperature measuremet device. This cosists of a thermocouple probe, i this case housed i a rugged stailess steel sheath, ad a digital display uit to covert the juctio s output voltage to a temperature readig. Table of otets

215 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g Figure 4.8 Thermocouple-Based Digital Thermometer Figure 4.9 illustrates a pyrometer or o-cotact temperature measuremet. The uit is for close proximity readigs (0.05 to 0.5 m). Figure 4.9 Ifrared Temperature-Measurig Device Table of otets

216 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g 4.7.2 Selectig a Istrumet for Eergy Auditig For most eergy auditig purposes thermocouples provide adequate rage ad accuracy. There is a wide rage of sesors icorporatig thermocouples for virtually ay applicatio. The sesor show i Figure 4.8 is a immersio probe appropriate for air ad water applicatios. Most suppliers provide a wide rage of probes for may applicatios ad temperatures. Digital thermometer display uits similar to the oe show i Figure 4.8 ca accommodate a rage of thermocouple styles ad types, makig them a versatile auditig tool. 4.7.3 Sample Specificatios For thermocouple-based digital thermometers q Accuracy of 0.1% readig + 0.5 q Iput rages for Type K: 200 to 1300 q Resolutio: 0.1 q Ambiet: 0 to 50, 0 to 90% RH q Readig rate: 1 per secod q Battery-powered q 6-digit LD display For ifrared (o-cotact) thermometers q ircle or dot laser sightig q Rage: 20 to 420 (0 to 788 F) q Resolutio: 1 /1 F q Emissivity: 0.95 fixed q Spectral respose: 6-14 mm q Optical field of view: D:S = 8:1 q Respose time: 500 ms q Accuracy: 20 to 100 : 2 ; 101 to 420 : ±3% q Operatig ambiet: 0 to 50, less tha 80% RH Table of otets

217 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g 4.7.4 Useful Features For thermocouple-based digital thermometer q Aalogue output to allow recordig measuremets usig a geeral-purpose data logger q Max./mi. capture fuctios uit will display maximum ad miimum temperature sesed (the uit show i Figure 4.8 has this fuctio) q Two thermocouple iputs with a differetial fuctio to display differece betwee the two thermocouple readigs (the uit show i Figure 4.8 has this fuctio) For ifrared (o-cotact) thermometer q Variable emissivity for materials where emissivity ot close to 0.95 q Laser sightig with a arrow field of view 4.7.5 Tips for Effective Use Surface temperature measuremets should be shielded from exteral iflueces Isulatig material should be used to shield a cotact temperature measuremet sesor from cotact with the air. For example, whe usig a themocouple sesor to measure pipe surface temperature, hold the sesor agaist the pipe with a piece of isulatig foam (providig surface will ot melt the material). Shield sesor from sources of thermal radiatio Ofte ambiet radiatio sources such as a hot radiator, coil or the su will ifluece temperature readigs if the sesor is ot shielded from the radiatio. This also applies to air or gas temperature sesors located ear hot surfaces or i the su. Specifically, a flue gas temperature sesor may be iflueced by radiatio from hot surfaces withi the combustio equipmet if readigs are take too close to the combustio zoes. Take multiple readigs over a represetative area I order to reduce error i readigs due to local hot spots o a surface. Esure that sesor is ot iflueced by leakage ito a duct or air stream Whe airflow readigs are beig take i ducts uder egative pressures, the access hole may itroduce air ito the duct that will ifluece readigs. This also applies to sesig temperatures i combustio flues or vets that may be uder egative pressure. 4.8 Humidity Measuremet Humidity measuremets are ofte used i the eergy audit to assess the coolig load preset i a system or to determie the amout of latet eergy preset i a exhaust airflow. Table of otets

218 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g 4.8.1 Types of Istrumets The psychrometer, or wet ad dry bulb thermometer, is the most commo istrumet used ad cotais two temperature sesors, oe of which has a cotto sock soaked with distilled water. The sesor with the sock will register a temperature close to the thermodyamic wet bulb temperature. Kowig the dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature ad the barometric pressure, the auditor ca determie the relative humidity from psychrometric tables or software. Figure 4.10 depicts the so-called slig psychrometer, amed for the maer of use. The thermometers are rotated like a slig i the air to obtai a represetative readig. Figure 4.10 The Slig Psychrometer Electroic or digital psychrometers offer ot oly basic wet ad dry bulb readigs but also computatios ad direct readig of humidity- ad data-recordig capability. I additio to dedicated humidity-measurig istrumets, a umber of the geeralpurpose data loggers described i Sectio 4.12 iclude RH measuremet fuctios. For basic eergy auditig activities, the slig psychrometer offers reliable ad low-cost measuremet, uless you have a requiremet for data-loggig/recordig of humidity measures. 4.8.2 Tips for Effective Use alibratio of digital meters is importat. The various types of sesors used are susceptible to cotamiatio or damage. Recalibratio or sesor replacemet may be required. Whe selectig a uit, esure that the sesig elemet is suitable for the eviromet i which it will be used. Some sesors are particularly sesitive to high humidity, oil vapours ad other orgaic compouds that may be preset i the air. Psychrometers caot be used whe the air temperature is below 0. They eed frequet cleaig ad replacemet of the cotto sock. If they are properly maitaied, the accuracy is about +/ 0.5 above 20% RH. Table of otets

219 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g 4.9 Airflow Measuremet Airflow measuremets are useful whe aalysig facility HVA ad exhaust systems. Accurate airflow measuremets are geerally difficult to make ad require specialized equipmet. Withi the cotext of a macro or basic micro eergy audit, there are some simple airflow measuremets that ca be made to provide data for iitial estimates of eergy use ad savigs. For more accurate measuremets, we recommed retaiig the services of a competet air balace cotractor or techicia. 4.9.1 Types of Istrumets These relatively low-cost ad simple-to-operate istrumets are suggested for basic eergy audit purposes: Digital vae-aemometer a rotatig vae whose speed is proportioal to the air speed. The uses for this device are limited due to the size of the uit ad difficulty i placig the sesor i the air stream. Typically, it could ot be used for i-duct measuremets. Digital thermo-aemometer sesig air speed by sesig the temperature of a hot wire beig cooled i the air stream. This istrumet ca be used i ducts ad pleums. Air meter a very simple maometer ad pitot tube assembly for low air pressures ad velocity (Figure 4.11). Figure 4.11 Simple Pitot Tube ad Maometer Measurig Airflow (left side) ad Maometer Measurig Pressure (right side) Pitot tube ad maometer is perhaps the most versatile airflow measuremet device. More sophisticated maometers tha the oe pictured i Figure 4.11 are available. Hadheld digital maometers with data-loggig fuctios are available for advaced applicatios, as are more robust aalogue maometers for istataeous readig. The added beefit of the pitot tube ad maometer is that the maometer ca measure pressure required for assessmet of air power. Table of otets

220 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g 4.10 Ultrasoic Leak Detectors Whe gas is forced through a small opeig a leak i a pressure or vacuum system a ultrasoic soud is created. This soud is very directioal, ad this directioality is used to locate the source or leak. The ultrasoic leak detector is sesitively tued to this frequecy of soud. Typically, these uits have a display to idicate the stregth of a leak sigal, ad the adjustable sesitivity makes it possible to pipoit the locatio of the leak. Figure 4.12 Ultrasoic Leak Detector ad Trasmitter Figure 4.12 shows a typical ultrasoic leak detector with its compaio, the ultrasoic trasmitter. I areas where leakig gases are at low pressure or where a system is yet to be filled with gases, there may be o ultrasoic soud to detect. This uit allows a area to be artificially pressurized with ultrasoud so that small cracks ad opeigs ca be detected. Leaks ca be detected i refrigeratio ad air-coditioig systems, heatig systems, steam traps, compressors ad compressed air systems. This uit is useful for checkig air leaks aroud door ad widow seals ad gaskets, water leaks i roofs ad leaks i vacuum vessels. Typically, the detector ad trasmitter are available i a kit that icludes earphoes or headphoes ad extesios for leak detectio i areas that are difficult to access. Table of otets

221 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t I s t r u m e t a t i o f o r E e r g y Au d i t i g 4.11 Tachometer Tachometers are useful to the eergy auditor for determiig the speed of a motor or drive device. Fa, pump ad compressor speeds are useful whe comparig actual performace with ameplate or specificatio performace. For fas ad pumps, flow is directly proportioal to pump or fa speed. Motor speeds, whe compared with the ameplate rated speed of the motor, ca be a idicatio of the load o a motor. Figure 4.13 Typical Tachometer A practical tachometer for eergy auditig is show i Figure 4.13. This uit is capable of cotact or o-cotact measuremets. otact measuremets require the uit to be held agaist the ed of a rotatig shaft or agaist a belt o a coveyor to determie rotatioal or liear speed. No-cotact measuremets require a light beam to be reflected off the rotatig shaft. Typically, a patch of reflective tape is applied to the shaft whe the device is locked off. This provides a easy target with high reflectivity. The uit i Figure 4.13 is battery-powered ad has a memory fuctio. This allows a readig to be take, for example, ear the ed of a shaft where the display is ot visible ad the viewed with the memory butto. 4.12 ompact Data Loggers With compact data loggers, the eergy auditor ca quickly ad easily collect data from a wide variety of sesors ad other istrumets. These devices rage from self-cotaied temperature ad humidity loggers to geeral-purpose multi-chael loggers with stadard aalogue ad digital iputs. Table of otets

222 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve to r y M e t h o d 4.12.1 Descriptio A data logger is a electroic istrumet that records measuremets of temperature, relative humidity, light itesity, o/off ad ope/closed state chages, voltage ad evets over exteded periods of time. Typically, data loggers are small, stad-aloe, batterypowered devices equipped with a microprocessor, memory for data storage ad sesor or group of sesors. Sesors may be iteral or exteral. Data loggers have some form of iterface with a P ad come with software for cofiguratio ad retrieval of data collected. ofiguratio eables the user to set operatig parameters for the logger icludig exteral sesor types coected samplig itervals survey start ad stop times (if ot immediate) real-time clock Typically, the memory istalled i these loggers is sufficiet for the collectio of 10 000 or more data records, which could spa may hours or days depedig o the measuremet iterval selected. Measuremet itervals may be as frequet as oe secod or as log as oe hour or more. Oce a data survey is completed, the data must be dowloaded from the logger for viewig or aalysis with the software provided or exported to a spreadsheet for further aalysis. 4.12.2 Applicatios Temperature ad humidity ad illumiatio level loggig with iteral sesors Loggig of other aalogue sigals such as pressure ad O2 sesors or ay sesor with a stadard curret or voltage iterface Evet loggig such as motor, lights or heater o/off evets Loggig of sigals from other istrumets such as light meters, digital thermometers, airflow meters ad electric curret clamp meters 4.12.3 Useful Features Data collectio/shuttle/trasfer capability This feature of some data loggers eables you to dowload ad restart the data loggers while i the field. The data trasfer device is portable ad coects to a computer for the fial dowload of data. Small size Some of the ewer data loggers are very small ad easy to istall i tight locatios. Self-powered A data logger that is self-powered is much easier to deploy i locatios without power or where accessig power may be hazardous or icoveiet. Table of otets

223 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve to r y M e t h o d 5 Electrical Ivetory Method 5.1 How to ompile a Load Ivetory This sectio outlies a method for compilig a load ivetory usig forms, samples of which are show below. The forms cotai istructios. I additio to these forms, a clipboard, pecil ad calculator are required. Istrumetatio is ot a ecessity; a simple clip-o ammeter is probably adequate i most situatios. Other istrumetatio is discussed i Sectio -2. Step 1 The followig iformatio is required: A period of time o which the ivetory will be based, usually a moth, correspodig to the utility billig period; it could also be a day, week or year. Select a period that is typical of your operatios. Determie the actual demad i kilowatts (kw) ad the eergy cosumptio i kilowatt-hours (kwh) for the period selected. If the period selected is a moth, iformatio is available from the utility bill. If the facility demad is measured i kva, this will require a calculatio based o the peak power factor to covert kva to kw. (See Eergy Fudametals for details.) Record the actual values o Summary Form LD1, as Actual Demad & Eergy. Step 2 Idetify each of the major categories of electricity use i the facility. You may have to take a walk through your facility ad list categories as you otice them. Record each category o Form LD1. Whe idetifyig the various categories of use, it is useful to cosider both the type of electricity use ad the activity i each area. Selectig categories with similar operatio patters is a good approach. The example o the sample form separates the motor use from the lightig use i the office, productio (multiple categories) ad exterior areas. Step 3 Guess the percetage of demad attributable to each category. This may be based o prior kowledge, a rough idea of the size of the loads, the size of the distributio wirig, etc. You ca also use ay iformatio available from the demad profile whe preparig this estimate. Record the demad percetages o Form LD1 ad calculate the estimated demad for each category of use based o the actual demad. Step 4 Guess the percetage of eergy used i each category. This should be based o occupacy, productio, or other such factors relatig to the itesity of use i each category. Record the eergy percetages o Form LD1 ad calculate the estimated eergy for each category of use based o the actual eergy. Step 5 Select the category of largest demad or eergy use. Table of otets

224 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E e r g y Fu d a m e t a l s Step 6 Use forms LD3, LD4 ad LD5 to list each ad every load i the category selected. Oly record ameplate ad kw load iformatio up to ad icludig the total kw. Each form is desiged for a differet type of iformatio. Use Form LD2 to summarize the iformatio collected o each of these forms. For each load, select oe method of recordig iformatio accordig to the followig criteria: LD3 Simple Load Iformatio Use this form for such thigs as lightig, electric heat, office equipmet, or ay load for which the load i kw is kow. LD4 urret Voltage Method Use this form to record detailed ameplate data from loads such as coolers, small motors ad appliaces whe kw load data is ot kow. This form should also be used for ay device for which measuremets have bee take. LD5 Motor Load Method This form should be used oly for motors. It provides a method of estimatig kw load based o motor horsepower, loadig ad efficiecy. Do ot use this method if actual motor currets ad voltages have bee measured. Istead, use Form LD4. Step 7 For each load, estimate the hours of operatio for the period selected ad idicate if this load is o durig the peak demad period or at ight. At this poit, do ot attempt to estimate the diversity factor. Step 8 Repeat steps 6 ad 7 for each category of use, workig dow from highest eergy use ad demad to the lowest. If the estimated eergy use or demad i a category is relatively small (less tha 5%), it is probably ot worthwhile coductig a detailed ivetory. 5.2 Load Ivetory Forms Load ivetory forms are provided i the Spreadsheets sectio of this guide. Samples of each form are show here, with guidelies for completig them. Table of otets

Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve t o r y M e t h o d 225 Form LD1 Load Ivetory Summary Form ategory of Use Estimated Demad (%) (a) Estimated Eergy (%) (b) Estimated Demad (kw) (c) Estimated Eergy (kwh) (d) alculated Demad (kw) (e) alculated Eergy (kwh) (f) alculated Night Load (kw) (g) Air ompressors 22 6 113 13 500 Lights 10 10 51 22 500 HVA 35 33 179 74 250 Refrigeratio 30 50 154 112 500 Outside 3 1 15 2 250 Estimated Percetages Actual Demad & Eergy 512 225 000 alculated Demad & Eergy alculated Night Load Period for Eergy alculatios Day Week Moth Year Hours per period 24 168 732 8 760 heck period used 4

Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve t o r y M e t h o d 226 Form LD1 Load Ivetory Summary This form is the startig poit ad fiishig poit for the load ivetory. Iitial estimates of the load breakdow are etered here, ad the fial totals of calculated loads i each category of use are summarized o this form. Data Etry Item Uits Descriptio Estimated Demad % A percetage represetig the fractio of demad i this category Estimated Eergy % A percetage represetig the fractio of eergy i this category Estimated Demad kw The Estimated Demad % multiplied by the Actual Demad Total Estimated Eergy kwh The Estimated Eergy % multiplied by the Actual Eergy Total alculated Demad kw The total alculated Demad from Form LD2 for each category of use alculated Eergy kwh The total alculated Eergy from Form LD2 for each category of use alculated Night Load kw For each category of use, the alculated Night Load from the detail forms Estimated Percetages % Should always be equal to 100%, the total of each of the demad ad eergy percetages Actual Demad & Eergy kw & kwh The Actual Demad ad Eergy osumptio for the period possibly from the electricity bills alculated Demad & Eergy kw & kwh The total of the alculated Demad ad Eergy colums alculated Night Load kw The total of the alculated Night Load colum

Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve t o r y M e t h o d 227 Form LD2 ategory of Use Summary for: The Etire Facility Form No Descriptio kwh/ Period Peak kw Night kw LD3 Simple Load Iformatio 4 087 15.9 0.235 LD4 Detailed Load Iformatio 30 680 76.1 0.000 LD5 Motor Load Iformatio 432 1.9 1.900 Total alculated 35 199 93 9 2 100 Form LD2 ategory of Use Summary This form is used to summarize the detailed load iformatio from forms LD3, LD4, ad LD5. Eter the total value for kwh/period, Peak kw ad Night kw from each of the forms, ad the add the three colums.

Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve t o r y M e t h o d 228 Form LD3 Simple Load Iformatio ategory of Use: Lightig Descriptio Qty (a) Uit Load (b) Total kw (c) = a x b Hrs / Period (d) kwh/ Period (e) = d x c O @ Peak Y or N Div ty Factor (f) Peak kw (g) = f x c O @ Night Y or N Night kw Office Floor 50.047 2.350 290 682 Y 100 2.55 N 0.000 Warehouse 30.45 13.500 250 3375 Y 100 13.50 N 0.000 orridor 5.047.235 129 30 Y 30 0.07 Y 0.235 Totals /a /a /a /a 4087 /a /a 15 90 /a 0 235

Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve t o r y M e t h o d 229 Form LD3 Simple Load Iformatio This form is used to record simple load iformatio ad to calculate demad ad eergy for each item. Eter the total kwh/period, Peak kw, ad Night kw o the last row of the form. Data Etry Item Uits Descriptio Quatity (a umber) The quatity of this particular item Uit Load kw The load i kw for oe item of this particular load Total kw kw Quatity x Uit Load Hrs./Period hours The estimated hours of use per period kwh/period kwh Total kw x Hrs./Period O @ Peak Yes/No Is this load o durig the peak period idetified i the demad profile? Diversity Factor (Div ty Factor) 0 100% That fractio of the total load that this particular item cotributed to the peak demad Peak kw kw If the load is o peak, the this value is equal to the Total kw x Diversity Factor O @ Night Yes/No Is this load o at ight? Night kw kw If this load is o at ight, the this is equal to the Total kw; otherwise, it is 0

Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve t o r y M e t h o d 230 Form LD4 Detailed Iformatio (urret-voltage Method) ategory of Use: Descriptio Qty (a) Volts (b) Amps (c) Phase (d) PF (e) Total kw (f) Hrs / Period (g) kwh/ Period (h) = g f O @ Peak Y or N Div ty Factor (i) Peak kw (j) = i f O @ Night Y or N Night kw Roofig Uits 10 575 15 3 0.85 126.8 242 30 680 Y 0.6 76.1 N 0 Totals /a /a /a /a /a /a /a 30 680 /a /a 76 1 /a 0 Total kw = (f) = (a) x (b) x (c) x (d) x (e) for sigle phase, use (d) = 1 for three phases, use (d) = 3 = 1.73

Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve t o r y M e t h o d 231 Form LD4 Detailed Iformatio (urret-voltage Method) This form is used for collectig detailed data whe curret ad voltage ameplate data or measured data is available. Eter the total kwh/period, Peak kw, ad Night kw o the last row of the form. Data Etry Item Uit Descriptio Qty. N/A The umber of uits i operatio Volts volts The lie voltage (measured or ameplate) for this load Amps amps The curret draw by this load, measured or from the ameplate; for a three-phase load, record oly the curret per phase Phase 1 or 3 The umber of A phases used by this load Power Factor 0 100% The estimated or measured power factor of this load Total kw kw Qty. x voltage x amps x 1.73 x power factor Hrs./Period hours The estimated hours of use per period kwh/period kwh Total kw x Hrs./Period O @ Peak Yes/No Is this load o durig the peak period idetified i the demad profile? Diversity Factor (Div ty Factor) 0 100% That fractio of the total kw for this particular load that cotributed to the peak demad Peak kw kw If the load is o peak, the this value is equal to the Total kw x Diversity Factor O @ Night Yes/No Is this load o at ight? Night kw kw If this load is o at ight, the this is equal to the Total kw; otherwise, it is 0

Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve t o r y M e t h o d 232 Form LD5 Detailed Load Iformatio (Motor Load Method) ategory of Use: Air ompressor Descriptio 5-hp Air ompressor Qty (a) Motor hp (b) Motor Load % (c) Motor Eff % (d) Total kw (e) Hrs / Period (f) kwh/ Period (g) = e f O @ Peak Y or N Div ty Factor (h) Peak kw (i) = e h O @ Night Y or N 1 5 75 78 3.6 120 432 Y 5 1.9 Y 1.9 Night kw Totals 1 5 75 78 3 6 120 432 5 1 9 1 9 Total kw (e) =(a) (b) 0.746 (c) (d)

Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve t o r y M e t h o d 233 Form LD5 Detailed Load Iformatio (Motor Load Method) This form is used to estimate motor power loads from motor loadig ad efficiecy data. Eter the total kwh/period, Peak kw, ad Night kw o the last row of the form. Data-Etry Item Uit Descriptio Qty. N/A The umber of uits i operatio Motor hp hp The ameplate motor horsepower Motor Load % 0 100% The fractio of the ameplate horsepower that this motor is estimated to be deliverig to its drive load Motor Efficiecy % 0 100% The estimated or measured motor efficiecy from electrical power iput to shaft power output (this value will deped o the Motor Load % it is ot simply the ameplate efficiecy) Total kw kw Qty. Motor hp 0.746 Motor Load % Motor Eff. % Hrs./Period hours The estimated hours of use per period kwh/period kwh Total kw Hrs./Period O @ Peak Yes/No Is this load o durig the peak period idetified i the demad profile? Diversity Factor (Div ty Factor) 0 100% That fractio of the total load that this item cotributed to the peak demad Peak kw kw If the load is o peak, the this is equal to the Total kw Div ty Factor O @ Night Yes/No Is this load o at ight? Night kw kw If this load is o at ight, the this is equal to the Total kw; otherwise, it is 0

234 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve to r y M e t h o d 5.3 ollectig ad Assessig Lightig Iformatio Lightig is geerally the easiest data to collect. Normally there are oly a few differet wattages ad lamp types i use i ay give facility. Oce the basic types ad wattages are idetified, use a checklist to add up the various types by category ad ru time. Note the followig whe gatherig lightig data: Do ot forget to iclude the ballast wattage i your total fixture wattage. Here are some typical ballast wattages. Ballast Type 5.4 Ballast Watts Stadard 4 2-tube Fluorescet 14 Eergy-Efficiet 2-tube Fluorescet 9 Electroic Fluorescet Ballasts 5 ompact Fluorescet Lamps (7, 9, 11 or 13 watts typical) 3 heck fluorescet fixtures from which the lamps have bee removed to make sure that the ballasts have bee discoected as well. A fluorescet ballast will still cosume power eve if o lamps are istalled. Use time clock settigs or operatio schedules wheever possible to get a good estimate of ru times. Group the load iformatio by lamp type ad operatig hours i order to make your kwh estimates accurate. ollectig ad Assessig Motor ad Other Data Some rules of thumb ad suggestios for data gatherig ad assessmet: If motors are supplied at 600V/3ø, the full-load kva is approximately equal to the full-load amps (ameplate). This is due to the relatioship betwee kva ad curret o three-phase systems: kva = V I (per phase) 3 For example, if a motor is rated at 600V/5.7A, the full-load kva would be 600 5.7 1.73 = 5.9 kva The power factor must the be applied to this to obtai the kw load as oted i Form LD4. This ca rage from 50% to 90%, depedig o motor type ad loadig ad whether power factor correctio capacitors have bee istalled. Table of otets

235 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve to r y M e t h o d kwh cosumptio of household ad office type equipmet such as refrigerators ad photocopiers ca sometimes be evaluated from tables. Loads o refrigeratio equipmet will vary with the ambiet temperature ad load. O large refrigeratio compressors, it may be useful to actually measure the operatig periods over a give time spa (time with a stopwatch). If you do this at a time whe the load o the equipmet is typical, you ca calculate the load factor (percetage of operatig time) accurately. Note that the load factor durig off-hours would geerally be somewhat lower. Verify load ivetory data usig a clip-o ammeter to measure the amps o a feeder circuit if 1. the feeder circuit serves oe specific type of load (e.g. a lightig pael); 2. reasoably accurate data is available o the equipmet powered by the feeder; ad 3. the loads beig measured are ot cyclig. This type of spot curret meterig ca sometimes show up loads that may be operatig uecessarily, such as out-of-the-way electric heaters or small motors. 5.5 Recocilig the Load Ivetory with Utility Bills Oce the load ivetory iformatio is collected, you ca recocile it agaist the peak or maximum demad ad eergy cosumptio registered by the utility meter. The result will be a detailed breakdow of eergy cosumptio ad maximum demad. 5.5.1 Peak Demad Breakdow For each of the loads idetified i the ivetory, a total demad i kilowatts (kw) was calculated. The electrical demad that the particular load cotributes to the peak demad must be less tha or equal to this value. The questio that must be aswered at this poit is: How much does each load cotribute to peak demad? For a give load, the relatioship betwee the total load ad the amout that it cotributes to peak demad is Peak Load = Total Load Diversity Factor The diversity factor takes ito accout a umber of situatios that result i the cotributio to peak demad beig less tha the total load: The load cycles o ad off ad is o for less tha 30 miutes at a time. After 15 miutes, the utility thermal demad meter will register 90% of the total load. (The respose of the demad meter is detailed i Sectio -1, Eergy Fudametals. ) Table of otets

236 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve to r y M e t h o d % by Thermal Demad Meter % Registered by Digital Demad Meter (15 mi. widow) 1 miute 15% 33.3% 5 miutes 52% 33.3% 10 miutes 78% 66.7% 15 miutes 90% 100% 30 miutes 97% 100% >30 miutes 100% 100% O-Time of Load The load may or may ot be o durig the peak demad periods; the diversity factor i this situatio becomes a coicidece factor ratig the chace that the load is o at the time of the demad peak. 5.5.2 Recociliatio of Peak Demad Recocilig the peak demad from utility ivoices with the calculated peak demad derived from the load ivetory ivolves determiig from the utility bill or the utility meter the peak demad for the period of iterest if billed i kva, covertig the billed kva to kilowatts (kw) usig the o-peak power factor. The o-peak power factor should be determied with a power meter or a power factor meter estimatig the diversity factor for each load that is o durig the peak, calculatig the total diversified demad comparig the calculated peak to the actual peak ad adjustig the calculatios to recocile the values as required The task of estimatig the amout of peak demad that is attributable to a particular load ivolves two questios: i) What effect does the duty cycle of ay give load have upo the demad meter, cosiderig the respose of the meter? ii) What is the coicidece betwee the particular load ad all other loads i the facility? Table of otets

237 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve to r y M e t h o d As described previously, the diversity factor takes ito accout these two effects; this is illustrated i Figure 5.1. I the example, the duty cycles of various loads are show alog with a estimate of the diversity factor, ad it is assumed that the peak period occurs betwee 2:00 p.m. ad 5:00 p.m. Figure 5.1 The followig ratioale uderlies diversity factor estimates. Air ompressor The uit cycles o ad off every 15 miutes. The demad meter will register 90% of demad i 15 miutes. This load is o at the same time as (coicidetally with) a umber of the other loads durig the peak period. Therefore the full 90% is used. Overhead Lights These are o cotiuously durig the peak period, so the demad meter will register 100% of full load i coicidece with all other loads. Puch Press The puch press motor operates for oly 0.6 miutes; the demad meter would register about 8% i that time. However, sice the load is ot completely coicidet with all other loads, a 50% allowace is made for coicidece. The result is a 4% diversity factor. Large Brake The motor o this machie operates for 1.5 miutes at full load; ad is coicidet with the other loads at least oce durig the peak period. Therefore, the 1.5-miute meter respose of 20% is used for the diversity factor here. oveyor Motors Sice the off-time of the coveyors is ot log eough for the meter idicatio to drop sigificatly, a 100% diversity factor is used. Batch oolig Pump The pump cycles o for a log period (35 to 40 miutes); the meter should register the etire demad. A 10% allowace is made for the o-coicidece of this load ad other short ruig large loads. Therefore, 90% is used as a diversity factor. Table of otets

238 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve to r y M e t h o d There are alterative methods for estimatig diversity factors. The followig method may be useful: Step 1 Assume that all diversity factors are 100% ad calculate the sum of all the total loads. This is called the Maxload. It represets the demad that would occur if all loads were o cotiuously. Subtract the Actual Peak Demad from Maxload. This differece will be referred to as Diff-A. Step 2 Determie which loads are o cotiuously for these loads the diversity factor will be 100%. Add each of these loads; the total is called the otload. Subtract the otload from the Actual Peak Demad; the differece is Diff-B. Step 3 Divide Diff-B by Diff-A ad multiply by 100. This value is a average diversity factor for all loads that do ot operate cotiuously (itermittet loads). It is called the Average Factor. Step 4 For each of the itermittet loads, determie what factor their duty cycle results i at the utility meter from the table listed above. If this factor is less tha the Average Factor, the use this value; otherwise use the Average Factor as the diversity factor for this load. Step 5 For each diversity factor that is adjusted dowwards, you will eed to adjust aother load upwards to maitai the average. This implies that a load cotributes more to the peak demad tha the Average Factor allows. These adjustmets should take ito accout the coicidece betwee the loads. Step 6 Review each of the loads i this maer ad the calculate the peak demad agai. ompare this with the Actual Peak Demad. If the differece is greater tha 5%, repeat steps 5 ad 6. Exercise some judgmet whe adjustig loads upwards. Remember that the overall objective here is to make the best estimate possible of what each load cotributes to the peak demad. Useful Hits Use the iformatio i the demad profile, such as load patters ad duty cycles. It may be ecessary to adjust ot oly the diversity factors but also the basic load data to achieve a recociliatio. May devices use less tha their ameplate ratigs. I such a case, use a ammeter. It may be ecessary to proceed to the recociliatio of eergy use (described i the ext sectio) to assist i recociliatio of the peak demad. If the basic load data is icorrect, it will affect both eergy ad demad. The eergy recociliatio may provide more iformatio. Use a recordig meter if possible o groups of loads for which the duty cycle is ukow. Differeces are usually a result of bad assumptios, ot bad ameplate or measured data. Table of otets

239 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve to r y M e t h o d 5.5.3 Eergy Breakdow The load ivetory (kw) iformatio, alog with the estimated ru times, is used to geerate a eergy breakdow. As with the peak demad breakdow, the aim is to match the total eergy metered i a period to the sum of idividual loads calculated for the same period. The basic relatioship for eergy cosumed by a idividual piece of equipmet is Eergy (kwh) = Load (kw) Operatig Time (hours) Rated Load (kw) is the ameplate draw o the equipmet or Volts x Amps x Power Factor (if applicable) x 1/1000 (x 3 for 3-phase) x Loadig (%). Operatig Time (hours) is the total time the equipmet is eergized durig the period beig evaluated x Duty ycle (%). Duty ycle (%) is applicable oly for loads that cycle o ad off automatically while eergized. A example of this would be refrigeratio equipmet. If they do ot cycle, Duty ycle = 100%. Loadig (%) is applicable to equipmet that ca ru uder less tha full load coditios, such as motors drivig cetrifugal loads. Note that here we are referrig to the percetage of the full load i kw beig draw by the device. Examples 1. A refrigeratio compressor rus o a 30-percet duty cycle with a ameplate ratig of 600V/22A, ad its power factor is 75 percet. The evaluatio period is 33 days. The compressor is eergized all the time ad rus fully loaded. The cosumptio would be 600(V) 22(A) 3 75% (PF) 1/1000 33 (days) 24 (h/day) 30% (duty cycle) = 4074 kwh 2. A bak of 20, 400W HID lights is operated 10 hours per day, 5 days per week. Each has a 50-watt ballast. For the same evaluatio period of 33 days, the cosumptio is 20 lamps (400 + 50) watts/lamp x 10 h/day 5 days/week 1/1000 33/7 weeks = 2121 kwh 3. A 50-hp motor is rated at 600V/50A/83 percet PF. It rus for 5 hours per day, 5 days per week at a 75 percet loadig. For 33 days, the cosumptio is 600 50 3.83 x.75 1/1000 5 days/week 5 h/day 33/7 weeks = 3812 kwh Table of otets

240 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t E l e c t r i c a l I ve to r y M e t h o d 5.5.4 Eergy Recociliatio with Utility Bills After calculatig the eergy use of all the differet loads i the load ivetory, you must recocile these calculatios with the utility bills. If you have evaluated all the loads carefully, the umbers may be reasoably close. If there is a large differece, the followig poits may help to recocile the variace: If you have more tha oe meter or have your ow sub-meterig, break dow the eergy to match the idividual meters. Evaluate the loads you kow the most about first geeral lightig, equipmet o time clocks, motors ruig at costat loads, etc. Assume these are correct ad the errors are i other less costat loads such as refrigeratio. Go back to your first geeral assumptios (percetage of breakdow) ad see how they match up with your more detailed breakdow. Double-check schedules, time clocks, etc. to see if equipmet is ruig loger tha you thought. Averagig weeks ito a mothly period ca itroduce errors, depedig o where weekeds fall withi the billig period. Whe estimatig heatig equipmet ru times, if the oil cosumptio is kow, you ca calculate the operatig hours as (oil cosumed i the period)/(firig rate of the burer). This would work oly for a sigle-stage burer. If available, use your demad profile (strip chart) to estimate duty cycles of cyclical loads. Night loads are ofte cotiuous. Try to accout for all of your ight loads. Table of otets

241 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6 Guide to Spreadsheet tool 6.1 Geeral Istructios Each spreadsheet is desiged as a stad-aloe template to assist i each step of the audit methodology. The sheets provide data etry istructios to complemet the eergy applicatio iformatio cotaied i each chapter of the audit guide. Users are ecouraged to become familiar with the iformatio i the audit guide prior to usig the templates. 6.1.1 ompatibility The spreadsheets were created i Microsoft Excel 2000 ad should fuctio properly i Excel 97 ad later versios. 6.1.2 Data Etry Fields Each spreadsheet is protected to prevet data etry i cells that cotai formulas. ells that will accept data have a blue text or umber colour. Each data etry cell is described i the sectios below. Selected cells have drop-dow lists to assist i selectio of the correct iput data. You ca clear sample data from the data etry fields by highlightig the field ad usig the delete key. After clearig data from a template, save it uder a ew fileame ready for use. I may situatios you will wat to create more tha oe copy of the template for differet plat areas or buildigs. 6.1.3 Pritig Each tab (or sheet) of each spreadsheet workbook has bee formatted to fit o oe page. Simply click o the priter tool butto or select Prit from the File meu. I some cases with log data lists, oly the first part of the data rage is prited. The prit rage will eed to be respecified usig the meu commad File Prit Area Set if you eed to prit the etire list. 6.1.4 Save Your Data You may save your data uder the origial spreadsheet ame or select a ew oe. I some cases you may eed to create multiple versios of the spreadsheets for differet sets of data. As with ay software applicatio, savig your data frequetly is a good idea. Be wared may versios of Excel do ot have Auto File Save features. 6.1.5 Advaced User Modificatio to Spreadsheets Advaced users may wish to modify the spreadsheets to meet their ow eeds. While each sheet is protected, it may be uprotected from the Tools meu of Excel. There is o password protectio, ad oly sheet-level protectio is applied. For those familiar with Visual Basic, there is VBA code i a umber of the sheets, providig additioal fuctios Table of otets

242 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l for techical calculatios. Those that are modifiable are ot protected with passwords. Advaced users are ecouraged to explore the spreadsheets ad adapt, ehace or otherwise modify them to meet their ow eeds. 6.1.6 Summary of Template Features ad Beefits Template Features Beefits 6.2 oditio Survey oditio assessmet of various buildig ad oditio Survey.xls plat systems reates a report card for each system/area Helps to prioritize areas of eed Accommodates multiple areas for each system a be revisited to plot progress Examies systems from ay eergy use 6.3 Electricity ost Electricity ost.xls Tabulates demad ad cosumptio Awareess of costs Performs/verifies billig calculatios Spots billig errors reates basic graphs a be used to check differet rates a be used to evaluate savigs based o demad ad eergy reductios 6.4 Gas ost Gas ost.xls Tabulates cosumptio Awareess of costs Performs/verifies billig calculatios Spots billig errors reates basic graphs a be used to check differet rates a be used to evaluate savigs based o cosumptio reductio 6.5 Fuel ost Fuel ost.xls Tabulates cosumptio Awareess of costs Performs/verifies billig calculatios a be used to evaluate savigs based o cosumptio reductio reates basic graphs 6.6 omparative Aalysis Tabulates eergy versus weather omparative Aalysis.xls ad productio data Idetifies treds i historical data Idetifies aomalies i historical data Regressio aalysis Provides a meas of establishig real targets USUM aalysis based upo existig cosumptio patters Target aalysis Table of otets

243 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l Template Features Beefits 6.7 Profile Plots a time series profile of kw ad power Facilitates aalysis of the electrical figerprit Profile.xls factor of a facility Plots load duratio curves Helps to idetify demad ad eergy savigs opportuities 6.8 Load Ivetory Load Ivetory.xls Tabulates demad ad eergy for list of loads Idetifies major demad ad eergy cosumptio Performs peak demad ad eergy calculatios Provides a summary of how a facility uses reates a pie chart of demad ad eergy electricity breakdow 6.9 Fuel Systems Tabulates fuel combustio system capacity ad Focuses attetio o eergy use by quatifyig Fuel Systems.xls performace specs usage alculates combustio efficiecy Makes techical calculatios easier Tabulates major thermal eergy use processes Focuses attetio o eergy use by quatifyig 6.10 Thermal Ivetory Thermal Ivetory.xls Performs air, water, steam, psychrometric ad coductio calculatios usage Makes techical calculatios easier Provides a summary table ad pie chart 6.11 Evelope Evelope.xls Simple buildig evelope heat loss calculator Focuses attetio o eergy use by quatifyig usage Aalyses widow, door, wall, roof, slab vetilatio ad exhaust heat loss Makes techical calculatios easier Provides a oe-page worksheet of data ad results 6.12 Assess the Beefit Provides a template for opportuity descriptio, reates a professioal-lookig aalysis of a savig Assess the Beefit.xls eergy, cost ad GHG savig calculatios opportuity Ecoomic aalysis by simple payback, NPV ad Helps to sell the opportuity IRR methods Table of otets

244 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.2 oditio Survey This sheet provides a template for recordig coditio survey iformatio. The template ca be copied ad customized to survey those coditios deemed importat for the systems preset. The detailed audit methodology provides sample survey templates for various systems. oditio Survey.xls Table of otets

245 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.2.1 oditio Template Iput Field Name oditio Survey Fields System Eter the descriptio of the systems to be surveyed. Date Eter a date for the survey. Auditor Eter your ame. ommets Eter ay commets applicable. Locatio Eter a ame for each area to be surveyed. riteria I the vertical cells, eter each of the criteria you will use to rate the system. Poits Eter the poits scored if each criteria is met. Note that some fields are mutually exclusive; for example, i the Lightig System survey above, the lights are cotrolled either by motio sesors (2 poits) or by switches (1 poit), ot both. Maximum Poits Eter poits to represet the maximum score that could be achieved. If there are two or more criteria that are related, with ascedig scores, eter oly the maximum score, as i the example above. Actual Poits Eter poits score for each area survey. Overall Ratig The sheet will calculate a score for each area (scale of 0 100%), with 100% represetig a score equal to the maximum poit score specified above. The sheet will the sum all areas for a overall aggregate score. Validatio of Data Table This is ot a iput field. Data that is iput ito the colums of the mai table must be valid. The score assessed must ot be greater tha the score at the top of the colum i the Locatio/Poits row. I additio, the Maximum Poits (2d row) must ot exceed the top row either. Either coditio will trigger a red X i the appropriate colum of this table. 6.3 Electricity ost This spreadsheet provides a facility for tabulatig electricity cosumptio, rate ad cost data. It provides a breakdow of mothly costs ito major bill/rate compoets ad provides iformative graphs o a aual basis. Table of otets

246 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.3.1 Electricity osumptio Data This sheet is used to eter electricity cosumptio data. osts ad graphs are displayed. Electricity ost.xls Iput Field Name Electricity osumptio Data Fields Locatio Eter the locatio of the electricity meter as a title. Billig Date Eter the date as show o the bill ideally the mothly meter readig date. Metered kva If kva values are show o the bill, eter them here; otherwise, leave blak. Metered kw Eter the metered kw values for each moth as show o the bill. Billed kw (kva) The sheet will display the kw values used for the bill adjusted for PF, if this is specified o the rates sheet (see below). Power Factor Eter the power factor values for each moth if they are show o the bill; otherwise, leave this field blak. Eergy (kwh) Eter the mothly eergy cosumptio show o the bills. Days The system will calculate the legth of the billig period for every moth but the first sice the last billig date is ot etered. Eter the umber of days sice the last billig date. Table of otets

247 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.3.2 Electrical Rate Data O this sheet, the electricity rate iformatio is etered to facilitate calculatio of mothly costs o the previous page. Table of otets

248 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l Iput Field Name Electricity Rate Data Fields Rate Name, Moth & Year Eter descriptors for the rate ame ad the applicable dates. Service harge Eter the service charge per meter i dollars. Demad Billig Uits Select either kw or kva as the demad billig uits. Utility Desired PF Eter the desired power factor that the utility uses to calculate billed demad (i.e. maximum of metered kw or 90% of metered kva). Demad harges (3 fields) Eter the charge i dollars for each of the respective demad blocks. If oly oe block, eter the charge i the remaider field. Demad Blocks (2 fields) Eter the size of the first two demad blocks if applicable. Eergy harges (5 fields) Eter the charge i dollars for each of the respective eergy blocks. If oly oe block, eter the charge i the remaider field. Eergy Block Size (5 fields) Eter the size of the first three eergy blocks if applicable. If the block sizes deped upo demad, eter the block size multipliers here. Per kw? (2 fields) If the eergy block size depeds o demad, idicate that with a Y here ad esure that the eergy block size etries are multipliers. Trasformer redit Eter the credit per kw if the trasformers are owed by customer. Primary Meter redit Eter the credit per kwh for primary meterig. Adjustmets Eter adjustmet factors either as a percetage of the etire bill or as a amout that will be egative for discout ad positive for surcharge. Tax Eter the tax rate to be applied to the etire bill after adjustmets. Estimated PF If the power factor is ot idicated o the bill but kva demad is, eter a PF to be used to calculate kw for the load factor calculatio. Table of otets

249 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.4 Gas ost This spreadsheet provides a facility for tabulatig atural gas cosumptio, rate ad cost data. It provides a breakdow of mothly costs ito major bill/rate compoets ad provides iformative graphs o a aual basis. Gas ost.xls 6.4.1 Natural Gas osumptio Eter atural gas cosumptio data o this sheet. osts ad graphs are displayed. Iput Field Name Natural Gas osumptio Data Fields Locatio Eter the locatio of the gas meter as a title. Billig Date Eter the date as show o the bill ideally the mothly meter readig date. osumptio (m3) Eter the mothly gas cosumptio show o the bills. Days The system will calculate the legth of the billig period for every moth but the first sice the last billig date is ot etered. Eter the umber of days sice the last billig date. Table of otets

250 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.4.2 Natural Gas Rate Eter atural gas rate iformatio o this sheet to facilitate calculatio of mothly costs o the previous page. Iput Field Name Natural Gas Rate Fields Rate Name, Moth & Year Eter a descriptor for the rate ame ad the applicable dates. Billig Uits Eter the billig uits for the gas (typically GJ or m3). Eergy otet Eter the eergy cotet i GJ per uit specified above. Service harge Eter a dollar amout for the service charge. Delivery harges (4 fields each for witer & summer seasos) Eter charges for delivery of gas, witer ad summer if applicable. If oly oe block, eter i 4th field. Delivery harge Block (3 fields) Eter a size for each of the delivery charge blocks. Demad harge (2 fields, oe for witer, oe for summer) Eter a demad charge for delivery of gas, witer ad summer if applicable. otract Demad (two fields) Eter a cotract demad typically volume per moth ad a applicable rate per cubic metre. Supply harge (2 fields, oe for witer, oe for summer) Eter a charge for supply of gas, witer ad summer if applicable. Table of otets

251 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l Iput Field Name Natural Gas Rate Fields Storage harge (2 fields, oe for witer, oe for summer) Eter a charge for storage of gas, witer ad summer if applicable. Other harges Eter a amout for other charges, either as a percetage or as a fixed amout. Adjustmets Eter adjustmet factors either as a percetage of the etire bill or as a amout, which will be egative for discout ad positive for surcharge. Tax Eter the tax rate to be applied to the etire bill after adjustmets. 6.5 Fuel ost This spreadsheet provides a facility for tabulatig fuel ad other eergy cosumptio, rate ad cost data. It provides a breakdow of mothly costs ito major bill/rate compoets ad provides iformative graphs o a aual basis. Fuel ost.xls 6.5.1 Fuel osumptio Eter fuel or other eergy cosumptio data o this sheet. osts ad graphs are displayed. Table of otets

252 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l Iput Field Name Fuel osumptio Fields Locatio Eter the locatio of the fuel delivery or meterig poit as a title. Billig Date Eter the date as show o the bill ideally the mothly meter-readig date. osumptio (litres) Eter the mothly fuel cosumptio show o the bills. Days The system will calculate the legth of the billig period for every moth but the first sice the last billig date is ot etered. Eter the umber of days sice the last billig date. 6.5.2 Fuel Rate Eter fuel rate or price iformatio o this sheet to facilitate calculatio of mothly costs o the previous page. Iput Field Name Fuel Rate Fields Supplier, Moth & Year Eter a descriptor for the rate ame ad the applicable dates. Fuel/Eergy Type Eter descriptor for the type of fuel/eergy. Uit of Measure Eter the uits or measure for the fuel/eergy. Eergy otet Eter the eergy cotet i GJ per uit specified above. Table of otets

253 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l Iput Field Name Fuel Rate Fields Service harge Eter a dollar amout for the service charge. Delivery harges (4 fields each for witer & summer seasos) Eter a charge for delivery of fuel/eergy, witer ad summer if applicable. If oly oe block, eter i 4th field. Delivery harge Block (3 fields) Eter a size for each of the delivery charge blocks. Demad harge (2 fields, oe for witer, oe for summer) Eter a demad charge for delivery of fuel/eergy, witer ad summer if applicable. otract Demad (two fields) Eter a cotract demad typically volume per moth ad a applicable rate per uit or measure. Supply harge (2 fields, oe for witer, oe for summer) Eter a charge for supply of fuel, witer ad summer if applicable. Storage harge (2 fields, oe for witer, oe for summer) Eter a charge for storage of fuel, witer ad summer if applicable. Other harges Eter a amout for other charges, either as a percetage or as a fixed amout. Adjustmets Eter adjustmet factors either as a percetage of the etire bill or as a amout, which will be egative for discout ad positive for surcharge. Tax Eter the tax rate to be applied to the etire bill after adjustmets. 6.6 omparative Aalysis This sheet performs oe simple variable regressio aalysis o eergy versus driver data to geerate a liear baselie model. omparative Aalysis.xls 6.6.1 Regressio Aalysis of Baselie Iput Field Name Regressio Aalysis of Baselie Fields Period (headig) Eter the descriptio of the period you will use. Period (data) Eter a sequece umber for each period. Date Optioal eter a data for each period for labels o time sequece graph. Driver (uit label) Eter the uits for the driver you will use. Driver (data) Eter the value of the driver for each period. Eergy (uit label) Eter the uits for the eergy you will aalyse. Eergy Data Eter the value of the eergy use for each period. Baselie Period Start Select from the sequece umber list the start of the period to be regressed. Baselie Period Ed Select from the sequece umber list the ed of the period to be regressed. Table of otets

254 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.6.2 USUM Aalysis O this sheet, apply the USUM1 techique to compare historical data with the baselie as defied by the regressio aalysis. This gives a period of best performace sice the baselie ca be selected. Iput Field Name USUM Aalysis Fields USUM Period Start Select start of period of historical data to compare agaist baselie period usig USUM techique. USUM Period Ed Select ed of period of historical data to compare agaist baselie period usig USUM techique. Period of Best Performace Start Select start of period of historical data that USUM idetifies as period of best performace versus the baselie. Period of Best Performace Ed Select ed of period of historical data that USUM idetifies as period of best performace versus the baselie. USUM is the cumulative sum (ruig sum) of the differece betwee the predicted eergy cosumptio ad the actual eergy cosumptio. See Sectio B-5, omparative Aalysis, for a detailed explaatio. 1 Table of otets

255 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.6.3 Settig a Target This sheet compares the various types of targets that could be set for the improvemet of eergy cosumptio relative to the driver. The average performace represeted by the historical data is compared with the followig: baselie performace defied by the regressio aalysis. period of best performace model defied o the USUM sheet. estimated performace defied as a percetage of the baselie model (slope & itercept). Table of otets

256 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l Savigs i each case are calculated for a specified umber of periods as defied o the Regressio Aalysis sheet ad for a specified value of the driver variable. Iput Field Name USUM Aalysis Fields Estimated % of Baselie Slope Eter a estimate of the percetage to which the slope of the baselie model could be reduced. Estimated % of Baselie Itercept Eter a estimate of the percetage to which the itercept of the baselie model could be reduced. Weeks per Year Eter a umber of periods (defied o regressio aalysis) per year. Aual (Value of Driver Variable) Toes Eter the total value of the driver variable for oe year. Table of otets

257 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.7 Profile This spreadsheet displays ad aalyses demad profile data i the form of power (kw) ad optioally power factor (PF) values for up to 3000 arbitrary itervals. It geerates displays ad graphs of a subset of the full data set both as a time series ad i the form of a load duratio curve. The load duratio curve shows the legth of time the recorded load was above a certai value ad is useful for scoopig demad cotrol opportuities. Profile.xls 6.7.1 Profile Aalysis Iput Field Name Profile Aalysis Fields Profile Locatio Eter the descriptio of the locatio where the profile was measured. Measuremet Start-O Eter a date for the first value i the profile data. At Eter a time for the first value i the profile data. Iterval Eter the time iterval (miutes) used for recordig of data (1 mi., 15 mi., etc.) Aalysis Start Eter the first time period that you wat to display o the graph ad iclude i the statistics. (Select from drop-dow i cell.) Ed Eter the last time period that you wat to display o the graph ad iclude i the statistics. (Select from drop-dow i cell.) Time Axis Uits Eter the uits to appear o the x-axis of the profile (time or date). Demad Profile kw I this colum eter kw data values recorded for each time iterval esure that the first time correspods to the first data item properly. Table of otets

258 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.7.2 Profile The profile page provides a full-size demad profile graph, liked to the mai data set. It is uprotected ad may be formatted to suit other report purposes. This graph ca the be copied ad pasted (Edit Paste Special Picture) to ay other documet, as illustrated below. 6.7.3 Load Duratio The load duratio sheet provides a full-size load duratio curve graph, liked to the mai data set. It is uprotected ad may be formatted to suit other report purposes. This graph ca the be copied ad pasted (Edit Paste Special Picture) to ay other documet, as illustrated below. 500 450 400 350 300 kw Value 250 200 150 100 50 0 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% % o f Tim e L o ad Exceed s kw Valu e Table of otets

259 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.8 Load Ivetory The Load Ivetory spreadsheet categorizes loads i five categories, provides a survey iput for each category with appropriate iput fields, ad summarizes i tabular form ad i a pie chart the demad ad eergy breakdow for the loads ivetoried. Total loads couted are compared for recociliatio purposes with the mothly demad ad eergy values from utility ivoices as iput. Load Ivetory.xls 6.8.1 Summary This sheet defies the categories of loads ad provides a tabular ad graphic summary of demad ad eergy by category. Table of otets

260 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l Iput Field Name Summary Fields Locatio Eter the descriptio of the locatio for the load ivetory. Descriptio of Load Group Eter a alterative ame for each of the five categories. Although the ames o the graphs ad at the top of each of the load ivetory sheets will chage accordigly, the tab at the bottom of the spreadsheet will retai the origial ames. Each category ame is permaetly hyperliked to the appropriate load ivetory sheet. Mothly Utility Bills Peak Demad kw Eter the value for peak demad i kw from a typical or selected utility bill with which you wat to recocile the load ivetory. Mothly Utility Bills Eergy kwh Eter the value for total eergy i kwh from a typical or selected utility bill with which you wat to recocile the load ivetory. 6.8.2 Motors This sheet ivetories the motor loads, usig horsepower, loadig ad efficiecy data to derive the uit kw values. Alteratively, these could be measured ad etered o aother sheet as uit kw values. alculatios are defied i the Eergy Ivetory sectio of the audit guide. Iput Field Name Profile Aalysis Fields Motor Descriptio Eter the descriptio of the motor. Qty. Eter the quatity of this type of motor. Motor HP Eter the ameplate horsepower (HP) of this motor. Motor Load Eter the mechaical loadig (% or ameplate HP) for this motor. Motor Eff y Eter the ameplate efficiecy at the specified loadig of this motor. Hours/Moth Eter the umber of hours per moth that this motor operates. Diversity Factor Eter the diversity factor the factor represetig the fractio of this motor s total load that is registered o the peak demad meter. Table of otets

261 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.8.3 Lightig, Process Loads, Heatig Loads, Other Loads The remaiig four sheets (Lightig, Process Loads, Heatig Loads, Other Loads) ivetory loads o the basis of uit kw values, which may be estimated, ameplate or actual measured loads. Load Ivetory of Lightig View Summary for AB Maufacturig Facility Sub-Totals for Lightig Load Ivetory of Heatig for AB Maufacturig Facility Uit 5,640 kwh Total 4 kw (Peak) View Summary Hours Total Diversity Peak kw Load Descriptio Qty kw kw /MothkWhkWh Factor Demad Sub-Totals for Heatig 6,000 5 kw (Peak) Load Ivetory of Process View Summary Boiler Room for AB Maufacturig Electric Humidifier 200 Facility 0.047 9.4 600 5,640 0.45 4.2 Uit Total Hours Total Diversity Peak kw Load Descriptio Qty kw kw /Moth Factor Demad Sub-Totals for Process 4,000 kwhkwh 9 kw (Peak) View Summary Office Areas Load Ivetory of Other Loads Fluorescet Lightig (4') Maufacturig 1 Facility 15.000 15.0 400 6,000 0.30 4.5 for AB Uit Total Hours Total Diversity Peak kw Load Descriptio Qty Sub-totals for Process Widget Baker Degreasig Elemets 4 kw kw 2.5 10.0 Uit Load Descriptio Me's Washroom Hairdryers Table of otets Qty kw 2 /Moth kwh 92 kwh Factor Demad 1 kw (Peak) 400 4,000 0.90 9.0 Total Hours Total Diversity Peak kw kw 2.3 4.6 /Moth 20 kwh Factor 92 0.20 Demad 0.9

262 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l Iput Field Name Lightig, Process Loads, Heatig Loads, Other Loads Fields Load Descriptio Eter the descriptio of the particular load. Qty. Eter the quatity of this load. Uit kw Eter the ameplate, estimated or measured kw for this load. Hours/Moth Eter the umber of hours per moth that this load operates. Diversity Factor Eter the diversity factor the factor represetig the fractio of this total load that is registered o the peak demad meter. 6.9 Fuel Systems This spreadsheet tabulates fuel-cosumig systems ad estimates the combustio ad, if applicable, the boiler efficiecy for these devices. Fuel Systems.xls 6.9.1 Summary The summary sheet simple displays the eergy cosumptio summary for the various systems detailed o the followig sheet. Summary of Fuel osumig Systems Equipmet Mai Boiler DHW Heater Heat Treat Furace Total Fuel Type N. Gas N. Gas N. Gas Estimated Fuel Usage 600000 50000 1000000 Iput Eergy Uits m3 m3 m3 3 ombustio Systems Table of otets Eergy (GJ) 22,560,000 1,880,000 37,600,000 - Eergy Use i Fuel- osumig Systems Mai Boiler 36% Heat Treat Furace 61% DHW Heater 3% 62,040,000

263 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.9.2 Details of Fuel-osumig Systems O this sheet, each of the fuel-cosumig systems is listed ad details regardig fuel cosumptio, type, combustio coditios ad other relevat operatioal data are etered. From this, a prelimiary estimate of the combustio efficiecy of the device is made ad, if applicable, the overall boiler efficiecy is estimated. Iput Field Name Details of Fuel-osumig System Fields Equipmet Eter a descriptio for the fuel-cosumig equipmet. Fuel Type Select a fuel type from the list i the drop-dow. Estimated Fuel Usage Eter a estimate of the total fuel cosumed by this equipmet. ombustio Air Temp Eter the measured temperature of the combustio air i degrees. Stack Temp Eter the measured temperature of the stack (flue) gases i degrees. Stack O2 Eter the measured percetage of O2 i the stack (flue) gases. Duty ycle Eter a estimated duty cycle for the boiler. This may be a average value for the heatig seaso estimated by dividig the actual fuel cosumed by the product of the ameplate firig rate x 8760 hours. Estimated Blowdow Losses If kow, as a percetage of total fuel iput, eter the blowdow losses; if ot kow, eter a default value of 3%. Fuel Type (List) Eter the ame of the fuel, which will appear i the drop-dow above. Table of otets

264 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l Iput Field Name Details of Fuel-osumig System Fields K A costat represetig the compositio of the fuel. A costat represetig the compositio of the fuel. Uits The uits of measure for the fuel. MJ/Uit The eergy cotet of the fuel. 6.10 Thermal Ivetory This spreadsheet provides a selectio of calculators that may be used to estimate the magitude of eergy flow or cosumptio i a umber of commo situatios. Thermal Ivetory.xls 6.10.1 Airflow Sesible Heat This sheet estimates the sesible heat flow i a air stream beig heated or cooled betwee two temperatures. Air Flow - Sesible Heat Air Flow litres/sec 18,000 Meu Mothly Hours 732 Mothly Eergy kwh GJ 243,492 876.6 - alculatio assumes coditios are at or about 50% RH ad 21; for other coditios adjust costat: -1-1 1.232 J-litre Descriptio Mai Plat Exhaust Thigh 20 Tlow 5 Heat Flow kw 332.6 - Iput Field Name Airflow Sesible Heat Fields Descriptio Eter a descriptio of the situatio. Airflow Eter the rate of airflow i litres per secod (1 L/sec. = 2.12 cfm). Thigh Eter the hot side temperature. Tlow Eter the cold side temperature. Hours Label Eter the label for the duratio of the calculatio. Hours Eter the hours that the temperature differece is maitaied. ostat ostat icorporatig the desity ad specific heat of air. Table of otets

265 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.10.2 Airflow Latet Heat This sheet estimates the latet heat flow i a air stream beig heated/cooled ad humidified/de-humidified betwee two temperatures ad relative humidity levels. This sheet utilizes a mathematical fuctio to calculate the psychrometric properties of moist air. Air Flow - Latet Heat Descriptio Dryer Exhaust Air Flow litres/sec 2,000 Thigh () 40 RHhigh (%) 90% Tlow () 20 RHlow (%) 50% Hhigh g/kg 43.8 This calculatio assumes coditios foud i HVA or plat exhaust for which the costat is: Ambiet atmospheric pressure: Hlow g/kg 7.3 Heat Flow Mothly kwhours 219.8 732 -- Meu Mothly Eergy kwh GJ160,920 579.3 --- -1 3.012 J-litre 101,325 Pa Iput Field Name Airflow Latet Heat Fields Descriptio Eter a descriptio of the situatio. Airflow Eter the airflow rate i litres per secod (1 L/sec. = 2.12 cfm). Thigh Eter the hot side temperature. RHhigh Eter the relative humidity for the hot side. Tlow Eter the cold side temperature. RHlow Eter the relative humidity for the cold side. Hours Label Eter the label for the duratio of the calculatio. Hours Eter the hours that the temperature differece is maitaied. ostat ostat icorporatig the specific heat of water. Ambiet Atmospheric Pressure Eter the prevailig atmospheric pressure for correct computatio of the psychrometric properties of moist air. Table of otets

266 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.10.3 Hot or old Fluid This sheet estimates the heat required to heat or cool a fluid betwee two temperatures. Hot or old Fluid Meu Flow kg/s 0.350 Descriptio hemical Reactor oolig Heat apacity kj/kg 4.200 Thigh 40 Tlow Heat Flow Mothly kw Hours 10 44.10 732 - Iput Field Name Hot or old Fluid Fields Descriptio Eter a descriptio of the situatio. Flow Eter the flow rate i kg/secod. Heat apacity Eter the heat capacity of the fluid (for water use 4.2 kj/kgº). Thigh Eter the hot side temperature. Tlow Eter the cold side temperature. Hours Label Eter the label for the duratio of the calculatio. Hours Eter the hours that the temperature differece is maitaied. Mothly Eergy kwh GJ 32,281 116.2-6.10.4 Steam Flow, Leak ad ost This sheet estimates the eergy ivolved i a flow, leak or plume of saturated steam at a give pressure for a give amout of time. It also computes the cost of steam per 1000 kg or 1000 lbs. based o a give set of coditios. Steam Flow, Leak & ost Descriptio Small Dryer i Plat B Meu Steam Flow Steam Pressure Type kpa guage Size Specifier Plume Legth (mmx100) 20.0 520 Steam Flow kg/hr 105.6 Steam Ethalpy kj/kg 2,758 Heat Flow Mothly kw Hours 81 732 Mothly Eergy kwh GJ 59,245 213.3 Estimatio of the ost of Saturated Steam Icremetal ost of Fuel Eergy otet Boiler Efficiecy Saturated Steam Pressure (gauge) Steam Ethalpy (Vapour + Water) ost per 1000 kg ost per 1000 lbs. $0.25 37.60 76% 700.0 2769 $24.23 $11.01 /uit MJ/uit kpa gauge kj/kg /1000 kg /1000 lbs. Note: Steam ethalpies are calculated for saturated steam usig a approximatio with a accuracy of +/- 1%. Table of otets

267 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l Iput Field Name Steam Flow, Leak & ost Fields Descriptio Eter a descriptio of the situatio. Steam Flow Type Select the type of steam flow situatio. For each situatio, there is a uique method of estimatig flow. For each situatio eter the appropriate dimesio: Flow eter the flow rate. Leak eter a estimate of the leak diameter i mm. Size Plume eter the legth of steam plume i mm. (The plume is the area adjacet to a steam vet that is ivisible, idicatig the presece of the vapour as opposed to the visible water droplets, or fog.) Saturated Steam Pressure Eter the pressure of the steam i kpa. This sheet icorporates mathematical calculatios to provide a approximatio to the heat cotet (ethalpy) of the steam. These calculatios assume saturated steam ad the heat cotet as the total ethalpy of water ad vapour. Hours Label Eter the label for the duratio of the calculatio. Hours Eter the hours that the temperature differece is maitaied. Icremetal ost of Fuel Eter the icremetal cost of thermal fuel. Eergy otet Eter the eergy cotet of the fuel. Boiler Efficiecy Eter the overall boiler efficiecy from fuel to steam. Saturated Steam Pressure Eter the pressure of steam geerated at the boiler. 6.10.5 Refrigeratio This sheet estimates the heat flow associated with the heat rejected from a refrigeratio machie operatig at a give coefficiet of performace (OP), power iput ad operatig hours. Refrigeratio Descriptio Moldig Machie hillers Table of otets Meu Power Iput (kw) 100.0 OP 3.20 Heat Flow Mothly kw Hours 320.00 732 - Mothly Eergy kwh GJ 234,240 843.3 -

268 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l Iput Field Name Refrigeratio Fields Descriptio Eter a descriptio of the situatio. Power Iput Eter the power iput to the compressor (measured or estimated) i kw. OP Eter the estimated OP for the uit. Hours Label Eter the label for the duratio of the calculatio. Hours Eter the hours that the temperature differece is maitaied. 6.10.6 oductio This sheet estimates the heat flow associated with heat coductio through a material of kow coductace, betwee two temperatures. oductio Descriptio Warehouse Roof Meu Area oductace 2 2 m W/m 100 0.900 Thigh 20 Tlow 5 Heat Flow kw 1.35 - Mothly Hours 732 Mothly kwh 988 - Iput Field Name oductio Fields Descriptio Eter a descriptio of the situatio. Area Eter the area of material through which heat is coducted. oductace Eter the coductace of the material (determie from product tables). Thigh Eter the hot side temperature. Thigh Eter the cold side temperature. Hours Label Eter the label for the duratio of the calculatio. Hours Eter the hours that the temperature differece is maitaied. Table of otets Eergy GJ 3.6 -

269 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.11 Evelope This spreadsheet is a very simple buildig heat loss calculator. The evelope heat loss is calculated o the basis of buildig heat losses compoets from: coductio through walls, roof, doors, widows ad slab heat loss sesible heat loss from vetilatio, exhaust ad ifiltratio The aual heat loss is estimated from the average mothly outdoor temperature combied with idoor temperature schedules to yield a total aual temperature differece over time value expressed as degree-hours. A word of cautio: This is a very simplistic method iteded as a first approximatio for heatig eergy requiremets. Evelope.xls Table of otets

270 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.11.1 Heat Loss O this sheet the buildig characteristics are iput ad the heat loss is calculated. Iput Field Name Heat Loss Fields Wall Eter a descriptio of each wall. Wall Legth / Height Eter the legth ad width, i metres, of each wall. Wall Slab If this wall is o a slab o grade, select a value from the average slab heat loss table with the pull-dow. Otherwise, eter zero. Edit the table o the top right of the sheet for stadard values. Otherwise, eter zero. Wall U-Val Eter a coductace i watts/m2 for the wall. Widow i Wall Qty. (up to 5 types per wall) Eter, for each widow type preset, the umber of widows i this wall. Door i Wall Quatity (up to 4 per wall) Eter, for each door type preset, the umber of doors i this wall. Wall Schedule Select from the three defied operatig time ad temperature schedules (Setback, Other, 24hrs./7d) applicable to this wall. Roof Eter a descriptio of each roof. Roof Legth/Width Eter the legth ad width, i metres, of each roof. Roof U-Val Eter a coductace i watts/m2 for the roof. Widows i Roof Qty. (up to 5 per roof ) Eter, for each widow type preset, the umber of widows i this roof. Roof Schedule Select from the three defied operatig time ad temperature schedules (Setback, Other, 24hrs./7d) applicable to this roof. Widows Eter a descriptio of each widow. Widow Legth/Width Eter the legth ad width, i metres, of each widow. Widow Ifiltratio Select a value from the ifiltratio rate table with the pull-dow applicable to this widow. This is the ifiltratio rate per liear foot of perimeter. Otherwise, eter zero. Edit the table o the top right of the sheet for stadard values. Otherwise, eter zero. Widow U-Val Eter a coductace i watts/m2 for the widow. Door Eter a descriptio of each door. Door Legth/Width Eter the legth ad width, i metres, of each door. Door Ifiltratio Select a value from the ifiltratio rate table with the pull-dow applicable to this door. This is the ifiltratio rate per liear foot of perimeter. Otherwise, eter zero. Edit the table o the top right of the sheet for stadard values. Otherwise, eter zero. Door U-Val Eter a coductace i watts/m2 for the door. Table of otets

271 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l Iput Field Name Heat Loss Fields Slab Heat Loss Table This table defies the stadard values of slab heat loss per liear legth of wall perimeter. These values ca be selected for each wall i the pull-dow lists provided. Ifiltratio Table This table defies the stadard values of ifiltratio rate per liear legth of widow or door perimeter. These values ca be selected for each widow or door i the pull-dow lists provided. Vetilatio Area/System Eter a descriptio for each vetilatio or exhaust system. Persos The outside airflow rate for each system is calculated as the maximum of the umber of people multiplied by vetilatio required per perso or the system capacity multiplied by the outside air percetage (O/A %). Eter i this field the umber of people. L/s per perso Eter the required amout of outside air per perso. System L/s Eter the system flow rate capacity. Average O/A % Eter a outside air % (typically the miimum OA %). Schedule Select from the three defied operatig time ad temperature schedules (Setback, Other, 24hrs./7d) applicable to this vetilatio system. Occ d (8 fields) Eter a temperature for the occupied period ad occupied hours per day for each day of the week. Uocc d Eter a temperature for the uoccupied period. Temperature Other Eter a temperature for the other schedule. Temperature 24hrs./7d Eter a temperature for the 24hrs./7d schedule. Fuel Type Select from the drop-dow list the fuel type used i the heatig system. ombustio Efficiecy Eter the measured combustio efficiecy if available. Other Losses Eter other losses cotributig to the overall heatig plat efficiecy. Iteral Heat Gais Ofte there are sigificat heat gais iteral to the heated space resultig from heat give off by humas ad the electricity used i the space. Estimate, possibly by ivetory, the heat gais that will offset the heat required of the heatig plat. Table of otets

272 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.11.2 Weather This sheet allows the user to record average mothly temperatures ad to idicate whether the heatig system is o or off for that moth. A overall temperature differece time value i degree-hours is the calculated for use o the previous page. The temperature differece is based upo the average operatig temperature from the schedule ad the average outdoor temperature. Iput Field Name Weather Data Fields Site Eter a descriptio for the locatio of the weather statio. Mothly Ave Temp Eter mothly average temperature for each of 12 moths, as available from a weather source such as Eviromet aada. For typical data log-term averages. Heatig O/Off Idicate the moths i which the heatig plat is operatioal. 6.11.3 Heat Loss alcs The Heat Loss alcs (calculatios) sheet cotais the detailed calculatios behid the result. It is provided for the advaced user who may wish to ehace or modify the calculatios. Table of otets

273 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.12 Assess the Beefit This spreadsheet is a template for a simple estimate of electrical ad thermal eergy savigs, greehouse gas savigs ad a basic ecoomic aalysis. Assess the Beefit.xls 6.12.1 Eergy Savigs Table of otets

274 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l Iput Field Name Eergy Savigs Fields Label/Title Eter a title for the opportuity. Existig oditios Eter a descriptio of the existig coditios ad assumptios. Proposed oditios Eter a descriptio of the proposed coditios ad assumptios. Demad Savigs Eter the expected demad savigs i kw resultig from the EMO. This is the expected reductio i peak kw registered at the demad meter. Eergy Savigs kw Eter a kw value to be used i the calculatio of the eergy savigs. This value does ot eed to be the same as the demad-savig value. Eergy Savigs hours Eter the hours to be used i the computatio of eergy savigs. Icremetal ost of Electrical Eergy Based upo a aalysis of the electrical rate, eter the icremetal cost of eergy the cost of the ext kwh saved. Icremetal ost of Electrical Demad Based upo a aalysis of the electrical rate, eter the icremetal cost of demad the cost of the ext kw saved. GHG Factor for Electricity Select the provice/territory i which the electricity is saved i order to select the correct provicial/territorial greehouse gas factor, as defied o the GHG Factors sheet. Reduced Heatig Load kw Eter the reductio i heatig load that this EMO will achieve. This may be a average value of heat flow expressed as kw, but ot ecessarily electrical. Reduced Heatig Load hours Eter the umber of hours applicable to the heatig load reductio. Heatig System Efficiecy Eter the overall boiler or heatig plat efficiecy. Fuel Type Select the fuel type from the drop-dow list defied o the GHG Factors sheet. Icremetal ost of Fuel Eter the icremetal cost of the applicable heatig fuel. Table of otets

275 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.13 Fiacial Base ase, Pessimistic ase ad Optimistic ase These sheets represet a basic life cycle costig aalysis of a eergy maagemet opportuity. Net Preset Value (NPV) ad Iteral Rate of Retur (IRR) idicators are calculated. EMO Life ycle ash Flow Aalysis osts for Per d 1 2 Base Fiacial ase 3 4 5 6 EMO Life ycle ash Flow Aalysis 7 8 Iteral Rate of Retur (IRR) : $230 9 $234 10 Pessimistic ase $244 Asset depreciatio osts for Period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Lease costs apital ost $50,000 EMO Life ycle ash Flow Aalysis Optimistic ase EMO Life ycle ash Flow Aalysis Taxes Maiteace $200 $204 $208 $212 $216 $221 $225 $230 $234 $239 $244 Isurace Asset depreciatio Labour osts for Period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Lease costs Other apital ost $50,000 Sub-total osts Taxes $50,200 $204$200 $208$204 $212$208 $216$212 $221$216 $225$221 $230$225 $234$230 $239$234 $244$239 Maiteace $244 Isurace Asset depreciatio Labour Lease costs Savigs for Period Other Taxes$10,500 Electricity $10,500 $10,500 $10,500 $10,500 $10,500 $10,500 $10,500 $10,500 $10,500 $10,500 Sub-total osts $50,200 $204 $208 $212 $216 $221 $225 $230 $234 $239 $244 Isurace $5,535 Gas or Fuel $5,535 $5,535 $5,535 $5,535 $5,535 $5,535 $5,535 $5,535 $5,535 $5,535 Labour Water Savigs for Period Other Maiteace Electricity $10,500 $50,200 $10,290 $10,084 $9,883 $9,685 $9,491 $9,301 $9,115 $8,933 $8,754 $8,579 Sub-total osts $204 $208 $212 $216 $221 $225 $230 $234 $239 $244 Taxes Gas or Fuel $5,535 $5,424 $5,316 $5,209 $5,105 $5,003 $4,903 $4,805 $4,709 $4,615 $4,522 Isurace Water Labour Savigs for Period Maiteace GHG Factors Electricity $10,500 $10,710 $10,924 $11,143 $11,366 $11,593 $11,825 $12,061 $12,302 $12,548 $12,799 Sub-total Savigs Taxes $16,035 Gas or Fuel$16,035 $5,535$16,035 $5,646$16,035 $5,759$16,035 $5,874$16,035 $5,991$16,035 $6,111$16,035 $6,233$16,035 $6,358$16,035 $6,485$16,035 $6,615 $6,747 Isurace Water Labour Maiteace$15,831 Net ash Flow ($34,165) $15,827 $15,823 $15,819 $15,814 $15,810 $15,805 $15,801 $15,796 $15,791 GHG Factors Taxes Net Project Value ($34,165) ($18,334) ($2,507) $13,316 $29,134 $44,948 $60,758 $76,563 $92,364 $108,160 $123,951 Sub-total Savigs $16,035 $15,714 $15,400 $15,092 $14,790 $14,494 $14,204 $13,920 $13,642 $13,369 $13,102 Isurace Labour Discout 15.00% NetRate ash Flow ($34,165) $15,510 $15,192 $14,880 $14,574 $14,274 $13,979 $13,691 $13,408 $13,130 $12,858 GHG Factors Discouted ash Flow Value ($34,165) $13,766 $11,967($3,463) $10,404$11,417 $9,044$25,991 $7,862$40,264 $6,835$54,243 $5,942$67,934 $5,165$81,342 $4,490$94,472 $3,903 Net Project ($34,165) ($18,655) $107,330 $19,547 Sub-total Savigs $16,035 $16,356 $16,683 $17,016 $17,357 $17,704 $18,058 $18,419 $18,788 $19,163 Net Preset Value (NPV) : $45,215 $225 $239 45% DiscoutNet Rate 15.00%($34,165) $16,152 ash Flow $16,475 $16,804 $17,140 $17,483 $17,833 $18,189 $18,553 $18,924 $19,303 Discouted ash Flow ($34,165) $13,487 ($18,013) $11,487 ($1,539) $9,784 $15,266 $8,333 $32,406 $7,096 $49,889 $6,044 $67,722 $5,147 $85,911 $4,383$104,465 $3,732$123,389 $3,178$142,692 Net Project Value ($34,165) Notes: Net Preset Value (NPV) : $38,506 Rate 15.00% Maiteace costs are adjusted Discout for a iflatio at a rate of 2% per year. Discouted ash Flow ($34,165) $14,045 Net Preset Value (NPV) : $52,642 Notes: Iteral Rate of Retur (IRR) : $12,457 $11,049 $9,800 42% $8,692 Iteral Rate of Retur (IRR) : $7,710 $6,838 $6,065 $5,379 $4,771 48% Electricity ad atural gas savigs are adjusted for deflatio at a rate of -2% per year, while maiteace is iflated by 2% per year. Notes: Electricity ad atural gas savigs ad maiteace costs are adjusted for iflatio at a rate of 2% per year. Iput Field Name Fiacial Base, Pessimistic ad Optimistic ase Fields Descriptio of osts for Period (7 fields) Modify/eter a descriptio for each of the costs to be cosidered. Etries are optioal. ost for Period (fields for 7 costs for 10 years) For each cost category, eter the cost for each year, as they exist; zero or a empty cell is valid as zero. ost ca be escalated year over year by usig the formula i years 2 to 10 ad a base value i year 1: Previous Year ost x (1+ e/100), where e = escalatio rate i %. Descriptio of Savigs for Period (8 fields) Modify/eter a descriptio for each of the savigs to be cosidered. Etries are optioal. Savigs for Period (fields for 8 costs for 10 years) For each savigs category, eter the savigs for each year, as they exist; zero or a empty cell is valid as zero. Savigs ca be escalated year over year by usig the formula i years 2 to 10 ad a base value i year 1: Previous Year Savigs x (1+ e/100), where e = escalatio rate i %. Discout Rate Eter a discout rate, used to compute the NPV of each of the future cash flows. Table of otets

276 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l 6.14 GHG Factors This sheet defies the tables of GHG factors used i the savigs calculatios. Table of otets

277 Te c h i c a l S u p p l e m e t G u i d e t o S p r e a d s h e e t To o l Iput Field Name Fiacial Base, Pessimistic ad Optimistic ase Fields Factor eq kg O2 per kwh For each provice/territory, eter the provicial/territorial margial greehouse gas factor for electricity. Defaults are as at 2001. For other factors, cosult Natural Resources aada or SA limate hage, GHG Registries. Fuel Type Eter a short descriptio for each fuel type. Factor eq kg O2 per uit For each fuel, eter the GHG factor. Defaults are as at 2001. For other factors, cosult Natural Resources aada or SA limate hage, GHG Registries. Uit of Measure Eter a uit of measure for each fuel type. GJ per Uit Eter the eergy cotet of the fuel. Table of otets