Brown & Brown, Inc. presents Glories of Ancient Egypt Teacher s Guide

Brown & Brown, Inc. presents Glories of Ancient Egypt Teacher s Guide Museum of Arts and Sciences, Daytona Beach Written by Jean M. West

2 Foreword This guide is designed to illustrate how artifacts from ancient Egypt may be used throughout the scope and sequence of social studies in Florida to support the Sunshine Standards along with the National Standards for History and the language arts vocabulary segment of FCAT. Examples have been drawn from the Brown & Brown, Inc. presents Glories of Ancient Egypt exhibit at the Museum of Fine Arts, Daytona Beach, Florida, November 18, 2005-May 7, 2006. Taken together, the artifacts cover the full range of ancient Egyptian civilization and may be coordinated with the time line. They also represent a wide range of objects, materials, and were used by different social groups in ancient Egypt. Objectives Specific standards are listed for each lesson, with their designation in the Florida Sunshine Standards. Vocabulary is provided in each lesson along with Egypt appropriate vocabulary drawn from FCAT preparatory material at the end of the guide. Lessons The guide contains ten lessons. Two lessons have been designed for grade levels K-2, six for grades 3-5, one for middle school and one for high school. The lessons for grades 3-6 may be used separately, or as a complete unit of study. If using them as a unit, be aware that the lessons are presented in a sequence which builds content knowledge and skills. Of course, the artifacts themselves were not created by the ancient Egyptians with subject or age levels in mind, so teachers may wish to look at all the artifacts in this guide to determine whether they might be useful in their classrooms. For example, teachers using Lesson 6, Daily Bread, Model of a Granary should also consider using the woman grinding grain, an artifact from Lesson 10. Lesson and Artifact Summary Chart This chart provides a quick reference to lesson topics and artifacts. The artifacts in this exhibit traveled from the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. Artifacts whose numbers are not in parentheses on the following chart may be viewed at the MFA online collection by going to the collections section of the website and typing the number into the collection search box which will find the object in their large online database. Artifacts whose numbers are in parentheses were not available to view at the time this guide was printed, but may be available in the future, so you may wish to enter them (without the parentheses) or enter a description (such as scribal palette ) to view comparable artifacts. Additional Features Historical Introduction Map Time Line Egyptian Art Basics Glossary of Gods

Resource List of Books, Activity Items, and Internet Sites for Students and Teachers FCAT Vocabulary in Ancient Egyptian Context for grades 3-5 and 6-8 3

4 Lesson Number and Title #1: Cartouches #2: Nile Crocodile #3: Horus, the Falcon Grade Level Artifact Era Material K-2 Lintel from the tomb of Nofer 21.3080 K-2 Crocodile from San el-hagar (85.539) 3-5 Fragmentary relief of Horus 37.l590 #4: Pharaoh 3-5 Stele of Hebi 11.1474 #5: Boat 3-5 Model of a boat (72.4910) #6: Daily 3-5 Model of a granary Bread 1992.193 #7: Hieroglyphics 3-5 a) Coffin Fragment of Satmeket with Hieroglyphics 21.810 b) Statue of Scribe 1979.205 c) Scribal Palette (72.4299) #8: Mummies 3-5 Cartonnage Coffin of Ankhpefhor 72.4837a #9: Pyramids 6-8 a) Stone tools 13.3452 and 13.3454 b) Reserve head 14.717 c) Opening of the mouth cup 11.770 d) Goose shaped case 13.3478 e) Model offering table and vessels 13.2957 #10: Archaeology 9-12 a) Mummy of a kitten (72.4907) b) Gold finger and toe caps 29.1521 and 29.1522 c) Painted pottery jar 1990.311 d) Beadnet dress 33.1020 e) Female serving figure grinding grain 38.2129 Old Kingdom Late Period Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Middle Kingdom Middle Kingdom a) Middle Kingdom b & c) New Kingdom Third Intermediate a-e) Old Kingdom a) Ptolemaic b) Late Period c) Predynastic d & e) Old Kingdom limestone faience limestone sandstone wood wood a & c) wood b)limestone wood and cartonnage a) flint b) limestone c) quartz d) limestone e) copper a) linen and mummified kitten b) gold c) clay d) faience e) limestone

5 Historical Introduction to Ancient Egypt The very phrase ancient Egypt conjures exotic scenes in the mind s eye: we imagine pyramids along the Nile, the gold gleam of Tutankhamun s mask, Pharaoh s chariots thundering after the Hebrews in the parted Red Sea, and perhaps a bedecked Elizabeth Taylor recreating Cleopatra s triumphant entry into Rome or her demise. Ancient Egypt conjures images in our students minds as well, no less vivid than our own: some from cartoons of Aladdin and Jasmine s flying carpet ride past the Sphinx; others from movies of flesh-eating scarabs in The Mummy; and yet others from television of Tutankhamun s CAT-scan and facial reconstruction or computer simulations of the Battle of Kadesh. This guide is designed to nourish the spirit of curiosity that ancient Egypt stirs so that our pupils become life-long students of that mysterious, alluring, glorious civilization. We take for granted the vast amount of knowledge about ancient Egypt that is available to us today, yet this is a comparatively recent development. For over a thousand years, we had lost the ability to read hieroglyphs so our main written sources for Egypt s history were those of non-egyptians: the Hebrew Old Testament, Greek and Roman writers. There were structures and artifacts aplenty, from pyramids, obelisks, and colossal statues to mummies, but they were shrouded by time and uncertainty as Stonehenge is to us today. Only with the deciphering of hieroglyphs in the early 19 th century and the prodigious effort of Egyptologists translating scores of inscriptions and papyrus in the ensuing century has our knowledge come this far. While there are still areas of dispute and maddening silence about other aspects of the history of ancient Egypt, we are confident about the general outline. Over the past ten thousand years, as the River Nile nourished the soil along its banks it also nourished the people of ancient Egypt, from peasant to pharaoh, who cultivated not only their fields but their intellect and spirit. Egypt was not defined by lines on the map, but by geography and by the life-sustaining annual flood of the Nile which deposited new, fertile silt along the Nile s flood plain. Kemet, the Black Land, was the ribbon of land on either side of the Nile with its dark silt that supported barley and wheat. All else was the Red Land, Deshret the Sahara. While the floods might be poor some years or crops could fail due to drought or other calamity, the fields along the Nile along with its fish and game, generally produced ample amounts of food to sustain life. The people of Egypt built their civilization upon this agricultural foundation. As they gave up nomadic lives, they created structures of wood, reed and brick. They created pottery, slate cosmetic palettes, and beaded necklaces. Artifacts show that they revered the falcon and cow, and other animal-deities. They also arranged the bodies of the dead in the fetal position, facing west, and supplying them with grave goods, suggesting a belief in the afterlife. To count and keep track of trade items, the Egyptians create a simple system of pictographs. For thousands of years, the people of Egypt were divided by geography. Upper Egypt lay to the south, where the Nile River threaded between steep cliffs and desert unifying the

6 river dwellers. Lower Egypt was found in the north, where the Nile River branched out forming the Nile Delta s marshes and fertile fields, dispersing the river dwellers. Around five thousand years ago, the legendary King of Upper Egypt, Menes, conquered Lower Egypt and unified the country. The land was also united by Egyptian s deeply held belief in the afterlife and the rituals necessary for ensuring eternal survival. The unification of Egypt solidified the idea of divine kingship and rulers took their title from the palace in which they lived, the great house or per-ao pharaoh. Pharaoh was a god-king, whose ka (immortal spirit) needed an everlasting body, which was achieved through mummification. Royal mummies were entombed in mastabas (flattopped, rectangular brick structures), their eternal dwellings. The hawk-headed god, Horus, originally the patron of the Upper Egypt, emerged as the supreme god of united Egypt. Through the Pre-dynastic and Early Dynastic period the growth of the royal court and centralized government was aided by the refinement of their simple pictograph writing into a complex set of hieroglyphs representing both sounds and ideas. Egyptian bureaucrats also created a 365-day solar calendar. Builders experimented and grew skilled in using stone for construction while artists refined their style for depicting images on flat surfaces and in sculpture. Traders (some sailing in new square-rigged ships) supplied the elite with luxury goods including frankincense from Arabia, ivory from Nubia, lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, and cassia bark from India. Scribes, craftsmen, traders, and other specialists created a social stratum that was neither ruler nor peasant. The Old Kingdom was the age of pyramid-building, beginning with Djoser s step pyramid, continuing through Sneferu s collapsed and bent pyramids, and culminating with the Red Pyramid at Saqqara and the only remaining wonder of the ancient world, the Great Pyramid of Giza. Stonemasons also created the Sphinx during this era. Religious devotion to the sun-god, Re (incorporated with Horus as Re-Harakhty), led to the construction of solar temples, first of mud-brick and later of stone. Hieroglyphs were used for the first time to decorate the walls of a pharaoh s burial chamber and the oldest papyrus scrolls date from this period. Famine and drought brought an end to the Old Kingdom. Egypt reverted to two lands during the First Intermediate Period with Upper Egypt ruled from Thebes and Lower Egypt from Memphis. Mentuhotep II of Thebes reunified Egypt and an era of peace and prosperity followed, known as the Middle Kingdom. During this time major irrigation projects were undertaken, including canals to bring water to fields more distant from the Nile. A bucket and lever system which is still used, called a shaduf, drew water from the river. Recipes for medicine as well as magic spells were written down by Egyptian doctors in early medical texts. Literary classics such as the Tale of Sinuhe, Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor, Precepts of Amenemhet, and the Eloquent Peasant were the crowning achievement of this period, as opposed to pyramids. Egypt expanded southwards into Nubia, seizing slaves (source of the opera Aïda) and building fortresses. Rulers of foreign lands, heqa-khasut or Hyksos, swept into Egypt from the east conquering Lower Egypt and establishing their capital in the delta at Avaris. They brought with them new and improved technologies of war including the chariot, bronze

7 weapons and armor, and composite bows. Yet, they also brought new musical instruments including the lyre and lute. During this Second Intermediate Period, Upper Egypt, although governed by its own lords from Thebes, was compelled to pay tribute to the Hyksos. Ahmose I of Thebes finally expelled the Hyksos, regained lost Nubian lands and initiated the period of the New Kingdom. The ram-horned god, Amun, patron of Thebes, assumed new importance when Thebes became capital of reunited Egypt, although worship of Re- Horus was incorporated into ritual. The powerful priests of Amun controlled huge tracts of land, livestock, and laborers. On the east bank of the Nile, surrounding Thebes, succeeding pharaohs added to and beautified the great temple complex at Karnak and also erected the Temple of Luxor. Royal burials were moved to the west bank of the Nile, into secretive tombs in the Valley of the Kings to foil grave robbers; elaborate mortuary temples were constructed a distance from the burial site where prayers could be offered by the priests and the achievements of the pharaoh commemorated. Books of the Dead, papyrus scrolls with maps and spells to guide the spirits of the death through the underworld, Duat, were first buried with mummies at this time. This was the zenith of the Egyptian Empire, which would extend east to Mesopotamia and north into Syria. Hebrew slaves captured during this period would remember their sojourn in Egypt in the Old Testament along with their exodus from Egypt led by Moses. Although the New Kingdom produced great warrior kings, such as Tuthmosis I and Ramses III; the greatest woman pharaoh, Hatshepsut; and the heretical monotheist pharaoh Akhenaten (husband of the beautiful Nefertiti) who moved the capital to Tell al-amarna and worshipped the sun-god, Aten; ironically, the most famous pharaoh today is the boy-king Tutankhamun whose hurried, forgotten tomb and the wonderful things within were discovered by Howard Carter in 1922. Eventually, struggles between the pharaohs, now residing in the delta, and the priests of Amun led to the civil disorder of the Third Intermediate Period. Libyans moved into the delta region, but eventually Nubians reunited Egypt. However the Assyrians, with their weapons of iron, overthrew the Nubian pharaoh Taharqa. During this period, demotic script emerged for document use. A brief Egyptian resurgence ended when pharaoh Nectanebo II was defeated by Persian king Artaxerxes III around 343 BC; he was the last Egyptian-born ruler until the 20 th century. Alexander the Great defeated the Persians under Darius III and established a new capital in the delta which is one of Egypt s greatest cities today: Alexandria. In the wake of Alexander s death the Greek satrap Ptolemy declared himself pharaoh; he distinguished himself by establishing the Library of Alexandria which became the most important center for learning in the ancient world. Alexandria produced the father of geometry, Euclid; Eratosthenes, who correctly estimated the size of the earth; and the astronomer Ptolemy, who incorrectly placed the earth at the center of the universe. The Ptolemaic dynasty ended when the last of the pharaohs, Cleopatra VII, allied herself with Roman ruler Julius Caesar, who was assassinated, and then allied herself with the triumvir Marc Antony. Her defeat at the naval battle at Actium by Octavian Caesar led to

8 her capture and death in Alexandria. Three thousand years of pharaonic rule came to an end and Egypt was absorbed as a province into the Roman Empire. Yet, ancient Egypt had endured longer, with greater continuity of religion, culture, and art than any civilization and that may be the greatest of its glories.

9 Time Line of Ancient Egypt 5000-3850 BC: Prehistoric Egypt Climate changes expand the Sahara Desert Early evidence of human settlement in the Nile Delta Osiris worshipped at Abydos 3850-2960 BC: Predynastic Period Earliest hieroglyphs are developed Early mummification of royals Egyptians develop a square-rigged ship The Scorpion King wages war in Upper Egypt Upper Egypt is ruled from Hierakonpolis Narmer, King of Upper Egypt, depicted in the Palette of Narmer 2960-2649 BC: Early Dynastic Period Menes conquers the Delta region of Lower Egypt and establishes the capital of unified Egypt at Memphis Mastaba tomb burials at Abydos and Saqqara Hieratic script is used for writing on papyrus Sun-worship of Re-Horus centered at Heliopolis 2649-2100 BC: Old Kingdom Djoser (Zoser) orders the architect Imhotep to the Step Pyramid at Saqqara, the first pyramid Sneferu s collapsed pyramid at Maidum, is succeeded by the Bent Pyramid and the first true pyramid, the Red Pyramid, at Saqqara Khufu (Cheops) orders the construction of the Great Pyramid at Giza Khafre (Chephren) orders the construction of the Sphinx and second Giza pyramid Menkaure orders the construction of the third Giza pyramid Extensive inscriptions are included in pyramids and nobles tombs; earliest papyrus scrolls Astronomers create a 365-day solar calendar; solar temples become important 2100-2040 BC: First Intermediate Period Period of drought and famine triggers political and social strife; Lower Egypt is ruled by Memphis while Upper Egypt is ruled by Thebes Inscriptions are placed on coffins rather than on walls

10 2040-1640 BC: Middle Kingdom Mentuhotep II of Thebes regains control of Upper Egypt to reunify the country A new era of peace and prosperity; important classical period literary works on papyrus include Tale of Sinuhe, Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor, Precepts of Amenemhet, and the Eloquent Peasant Earliest medical references for diagnosis and treatment; major irrigation projects Amenemhet moves the capital of unified Egypt back to Memphis Egypt invades and conquers Lower Nubia 1640-1550 BC: Second Intermediate Period Hyksos invaders, bringing their technologies of bronze armor and weapons, composite bows and horse-drawn chariots, seize control of the Nile Delta and make Avaris their capital; they also contribute vertical looms and musical instruments including the lyre Sais in upper Egypt serves as Egypt s dynastic capital although under Hyksos subjugation; the Theban lords pay tribute to the Hyksos 1550-1070 BC: New Kingdom Ahmose I, a warrior king, expels the Hyksos and restores Thebes as capital of Egypt and center of the worship of Amun The Valley of the Kings (on the west side of the Nile across from Thebes) is first used for the burial of pharaohs; first examples of the Book of the Dead Thebes becomes the center of worship to Amun. The Great Temple of Amun at Karnak becomes an vast complex, culminating with the Hypostyle Hall along with the Temple of Luxor Tuthmosis I, another warrior king, expands Egyptian control into Mesopotamia and Nubia Hatshepsut becomes the first woman pharaoh and builds the great mortuary temple at Deir el Bahri Akhenaten, the heretic pharaoh, rejects the worship of Amun and proclaims the worship of the sun-disk Aten as a monotheistic religion Akhenaten moves the capital to Tell el-amarna where, along with his beautiful wife Nefertiti, he is depicted in a much less formal style of art Tutankhamun, the boy king, is buried in the only pharaoh s tomb which will not be looted Ramses II, the Great fights for control of Syria against the Hittites at the Battle of Kadesh and conquers ancient Palestine; Ramses III builds more monuments during his 67-year reign than any other pharaoh including Abu Simbel; the mortuary temple for his wife Nefertari in the Valley of the Queens; the fallen colossus at his mortuary temple at Thebes, the Ramesseum; and the new capital city of Pi-Ramesses Old Testament accounts of Moses and the Hebrew Exodus believed to have taken place in the later years of the New Kingdom

11 1070-712 BC: Third Intermediate Period Egypt falls into another period of strife between the priest-kings of Amun in Thebes and the pharaohs of Tanis in the Delta; Bubastis, the center of the worship of the cat goddess Bastet, becomes a political power and Libyan military leaders rule The capital moves from Tanis to Nubia to Thebes and then to Sais followed by Nubia and Thebes during this unstable era Egypt enters the iron age Warfare with Libya and Nubia (the kingdom of Kush) culminating in the Nubian conquest of Egypt Egypt reunified under Nubian rulers Piye and Shabako 712-525 BC: Late Period Extensive influx of foreigners including Phoenicians and Greeks Demotic script, a simplified writing system, replaces hieratic script on documents The Assyrians defeat Nubian pharaoh Taharqa and rule Egypt Kushite kingdom formed at Meroë 525-332 BC: Persian Period Warfare with Persia results in the end of independent rule with the fall of the last Egyptian pharaoh, Nectanebo II Egypt is administered by satraps as a conquered land by renowned Persian kings Darius I, the Great and Xerxes 332-30 BC: Greek Period Alexander the Great defeats the Persians under Darius III and establishes a new capital, Alexandria The Greek satrap Ptolemy declares himself pharaoh, establishing the last dynasty of pharaohs, the Ptolemies Euclid of Alexandria writes The Thirteen Books of the Elements, the foundation of geography The Lighthouse is built at Alexandria; the Temple to Isis built at Philae The Library of Alexandria is established to collect texts in the known world in conjunction with a temple to the muses, the Musaeum; library director Eratosthenes calculates the true size of the earth The Rosetta Stone is carved in 196 BC in Greek, hieroglyphs and demotic script to commemorate Ptolemy V s coronation Cleopatra VII rules as the last pharaoh of Egypt until defeated at the Battle of Actium and captured in Alexandria by Octavian Caesar 30 BC-395 AD: Roman Period Following the death of Cleopatra, Egypt was absorbed as a province of the Roman Empire for the next two centuries serving as the breadbasket of Rome Ptolemy the astronomer and geographer described a universe with the earth at the center which would be accepted until the Renaissance

12 Portrait masks are placed on mummies Last known positively dated hieroglyphic inscription comes from the Temple of Isis at Philae, 394 AD Christian Emperor Theodosius orders the closure of all pagan temples although Philae operates until 536 AD 395-641 AD: Byzantine Period Hieroglyphic writing is discontinued and its meaning forgotten 642-1517 AD: Arab Conquest and the Umayyad and Abbasid C aliphates: Egypt is conquered by Arab Muslims and adopt Islam as its religion Caliph Al Mamun enters Great Pyramid of Giza Pyramids of Giza are stripped to build Cairo Saladin becomes sultan of Egypt, founding the Ayyubid dynasty 1517-1914 Ottoman Empire Ottoman Turks conquer and rule Egypt as part of their Empire Napoleon conquers Egypt; Napoleon s soldiers find the Rosetta Stone in 1799 Jean François Champollion deciphers hieroglyphs and restores knowledge of ancient Egypt to the modern world, 1822 Suez Canal built Great Britain seizes control of Egypt to safeguard the canal 1922 AD: Howard Carter finds the Tomb of Tutankhamun in the Valley of the Kings; Egypt becomes partially independent from Great Britain (full independence follows World War II) 1960 AD: Aswan High Dam built; while Abu Simbel and is moved out of the reach of the waters, Dendur is moved to New York City, while other monuments are submerged under the waters of the Nile

13 Egyptian Art Basics Egyptian art is symbolic rather than realistic, commemorative rather than narrative. For example, the Palette of Narmer is not a literal history of Narmer in battle, but a symbolic commemoration of his conquest of Upper Egypt. Materials used included limestone (readily available and typically easy to carve), wood, copper, clay, papyrus, linen, plaster, cartonnage (papyrus or linen soaked in plaster and formed like papier-mâché), faience (sand and clay mixture which forms a glaze when fired), and gold. Ka The ka was one of three aspects of the soul. It was the lifeforce which accompanied a person from birth and which, after death, inhabited the mummified remains of the deceased, sustained by offerings. The ka would pass through many dangers to achieve eternal afterlife; symbolic amulets and spells written on papyrus (the Book of the Dead) protected the ka. Free standing sculptures from the tombs kept the ka from wandering too far away and would house the ka if the mummy were destroyed; the upper room of a mastaba housed the ka. False doors enabled the ka to travel between the world of the living and the dead. Ships and barges are included in burials because in Egyptian mythology the ka travels to the afterlife on a boat down the Nile. The other two aspects of the soul were the akh (which interacted with the living) and the ba (the individual personality which makes a person unique). Law of frontality: Pharaohs were both human and divine, so it was necessary to depict them distinctively. In painting or relief (sculpture where figures project from a background), the prescribed way to draw the pharaoh was with profile head, legs, arms, and stomach, but frontal shoulders, torso and eyes. In free-standing sculpture, the perspective of the pharaoh was frontal, at a 90 degree angle, rigid and bisymmetrical. Although the proportions of the figures changed over time, this basic canon was used by artists to depict all Egyptian pharaohs for three thousand years, from Narmer to Cleopatra, with the exception of Akenaten. Amarna Period The art of Akenaten s reign, while still symbolic, incorporates much more realism and informality with a unique sense of movement and expressiveness along with greater use of curves. Nefertiti s famous bust combines realistic portrait of a living subject and also reflects character of individual; Akenaten is portrayed with a bulging stomach and Tutankhamen in a tender moment with his wife. Timelessness: To make the human pharaoh a man-god, artists depicted the concept of pharaoh, rather that create an individual s portrait. They would also fix the age so the pharaoh never aged. This was not done to glorify youth but to provide for

14 eternity an unchanging outward appearance for an immortal ruler who transcends time. Permanence and immortality: While dwellings and businesses were built of impermanent materials, religious and funerary structures designed for the immortal gods, pharaoh, and ka were built of nonperishable materials, culminating with stone. Columns sometimes resemble bundled reeds of papyrus or topped with lotus blossoms because the earliest buildings were not made of stone some took natural form, others were stylized into decorative elements. Pyramids were homes to the sun-god Ra; the pharaoh would join Ra in the afterlife; In Egyptian mythology pyramids symbolized the mound of soil emerging from a flooded earth at the time of creation. Horror vacuii Egyptians feared open spaces being invaded by evil spirits so their panels are filled with registers and friezes while their sculptures have plugs in hands and filled area between limbs. Hieroglyphs in cartouches are arranged to fill them completely. Hierarchy of scale: The largest figure was the most important, both in terms of political power and religious significance; often the figure was repeated, especially in sculpture to emphasize the importance of the pharaoh. In sculpture volume and size are emphasized, with flat planes, and the body attached to a back slab. In addition to size, artists will also make subordinates use deferential or submissive gestures (a wife placing her arm around her husband for support, captives kneeling.) Typically, realism increases as the social status of the person portrayed decreases. Temples: The plan for temples evolved from ritual and remained unchanged for centuries. A high wall surrounded the enclosure. Most people would worship in the open courtyard, while a few dignitaries were allowed in the hypostyle hall. The sanctuary was reserved for the priest and pharaoh.

15 A Glossary of Egyptian Gods Amun-Re Ram or seated on throne with two-feather crown and solar disk; originally god of Thebes, merges with sun god Re to emerge as king of the gods, and protector of the pharaoh during war Ammut Monster with the head of a crocodile, front end of a lion and back end of a hippopotamus which ate the spirits whose heart was heavier than the Feather of Truth. Anubis Jackal; god of embalming, funerals, and mummies Atum Man with crown of the two kingdoms; first god, the creator who brought the world into being; Shu and Tefnut were his son and daughter Bastet Cat; goddess of ripening crops, music and dance, happiness, love and motherly protection (a daughter of the sun, god Re) Bes Mythical lion-dwarf; god of merriment, fertility, the family and newborns Geb Man with green or black skin, lying down or with goose on head; god of earth and plants; brother-husband of Nut Hapy Man with water plants on heat and pot belly; god of the annual Nile flood Harmarchis the Sphinx Hathor Cow, or woman with cow ears, horns, and solar disk; goddess of dancing, music, and love as well as divine mother of pharaoh. In her aspect as lioness, a destroyer. Horus Hawk/falcon; originally god of Hierakonopolis, sun god and supreme ruler of the living of Egypt through his embodiment, the pharaoh; son of Osiris and Isis who sacrifices his eye (the wadjet) to revive Osiris. Also known as Re- Harakhty, hawk or human with solar disk; sun god of the horizon responsible for all creation (people, animals, fertility) Isis Woman with headdress of throne, hieroglyph or cow horns around a sun disk; goddess who brought husband Osiris back to life, Isis (whose name means throne is the goddess of healing, marriage, and motherhood who protects the dead Kephri Scarab; sun god of the morning representing eternal life and rebirth Khnum Ram with curly horns; god of the Nile cataracts and floods Khons Young man or baboon; moon god (son of Amun and Mut) Maat Ostrich feather; goddess of truth and justice, regulates the universe (stars, seasons) and weighs the souls of the deceased in judgment before Osiris

16 Mut goddess who is wife to Amun Nephthys Woman wearing headdress with name in hieroglyphs; goddess of the dead (sister of Isis, Osiris, and Seth) and Seth s wife Nun Man carrying a boat; the waters of chaos before the world was created Nut Lying down with feet to east and head to west with blue, starred dress; goddess of the sky whose body makes up the heavens; swallows Re each night and gives birth to him each morning Osiris Mummy with feathered crown; god of fertility, supreme ruler of the afterlife and the dead; killed by his brother Seth, his pieces were collected by his wife, Isis and brought back to life by the donation of Horus eye Ptah Man wrapped in tight white cloak with staff; god of artisans and creativity Ra Boy, Man, Elder or hawk-headed man, always shown with a sun (solar) disk attached to his head; great sun god who sailed the sky in a golden boat Sakhmet Lion; goddess of war Seshat Woman wearing panther dress and star headdress; goddess of writing and measurement Seth Hippopotamus, dog, or monster with long snout and square ears; god of storms and chaos, the wicked brother who kills Osiris and scatters his remains in the Nile, also fights Horus Shu Ostrich feather; god of air and sunlight who fathered earth (Geb) and sky (Nut) and separated them (often shown holding Nut over Geb) Sobek Crocodile; god of water and fertility Tawaret Hippopotamus; goddess of childbirth Tefnut Lion; goddess of rain and dew Thoth Ibis; moon-associated god of wisdom, patron of writing, spells, and scribes, Thoth was in charge of the scales that weighed the hearts of the dead against the feather of Truth Canopic Gods Hapi baboon; lungs Duamutef jackal; stomach Qebehsenuef falcon; intestines Imsety man; liver Sacred Animals Apis Bull Ba Neb Djedet Ram Bennu Bird Petesuchos Crocodile

17 LESSON 1: Cartouche In this lesson students will be introduced to ancient Egyptian s hieroglyphs and their practice of putting a name into a cartouche. The activities are designed for students at grades pre-k to 2. Sunshine Standards Time, Continuity, and Change Strand 2. The student understands the world from its beginnings to the time of the Renaissance: SS.A.2.1.1 Knows methods of communication from long ago and the technological developments that facilitated communications (e. g., speaking by gestures; transmitting stories orally; the use of pictographs, hieroglyphics and different alphabets; writing by hand and printing with machines). Materials Needed Hieroglyph Chart Duplicating master for cartouche Crayons, Scissors, Glue Lesson 1 Photograph: Cartouche of Nofer, 2400 B.C. Time Required 15-30 minutes Vocabulary Hieroglyphs Ancient Egyptian writing Cartouche a rope loop within which royal names were written; ancient Egyptians believed the loop protected the person named Background Information The Egyptian system of hieroglyphs developed around 3500 B.C. Simple at first, it evolved into a complex system including 25 phonograms (representing sounds), and nearly 700 pictograms and ideograms (representing objects and ideas). Hieroglyphs could be written left to right, right to left, bottom to top, and top to bottom. They were angular at first because they were primarily carved (the word hieroglyph comes from the Greek for sacred carving. ) As scribes wrote hieroglyphs with ink on papyrus, the forms became rounded and a right-to-left script form of hieroglyphic writing called hieratic evolved. Over time the hieratic script was simplified into a faster, third form called demotic script. The last known inscription in hieroglyphs was made in 394 A.D. Within a few hundred years, the meaning was entirely lost, until 1822 when Jean François Champollion deciphered them.

18 Lesson Procedures 1. Tell students that the ancient Egyptians wrote their names using letters that look different from our own. Give them the sheet with the hieroglyphs on it so they can see what the hieroglyphs look like and show them the image of the cartouche of Nofer, inscribed on a door lintel from his tomb. 2. Explain that they are going to write their name using Egyptian hieroglyphs. Have them use scissors to cut out the hieroglyphs which match the letters of their first names. 3. Pass out the cartouche and explain that Egyptian students didn t write their names on lined paper but in cartouche loops, because they thought it would keep their name safe. Provide glue or paste and direct students to glue their names inside the cartouche loop. 4. While the glue is drying, ask students how they think their names look in hieroglyphic writing. Ask them if it would have taken longer if they had to draw each hieroglyph themselves, instead of cutting it out. Discuss whether hieroglyphs or letters are easier to write. 5. After the glue dries, students may color their cartouches. Interdisciplinary Links Mathematics Have students learn hieroglyphs for numbers 1-20. 1 = l 6 = l l l l l l 11 = l 2 = l l 7 = l l l l 12 = l l l l l 3 = l l l 8 = l l l l 13 = l l l l l l l 4 = l l l l 9 = l l l l l 14 = l l l l l l l l 5 = l l l 10 = 15 = l l l l I l l 16 = l l l l l l 17 = l l l l l l l 18 = l l l l l l l l 19 = l l l l l l l l l 20 = Art Have students create a hieroglyphic scroll on either brown wrapping paper or on the plain panel of a brown paper grocery bag, using the name of Cleopatra, Tutankhamun, or an ancient Egyptian of your choice. Depending on the students skill level they may draw the hieroglyphs themselves or cut them out and glue them. When the work is finished, direct students to roll their scroll up and then tie it with jute twine or raffia (or put a rubber band on it.)

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21 Lesson 1: Cartouche of Nofer (upper right of rectangle) Lesson 2: Crocodile

22 LESSON 2: Nile Crocodile vs. American Alligator In this lesson students will learn about the Nile crocodile, why it was special to ancient Egyptians and how it is different from the American alligator. The activities are designed for students in grades pre-k to 2. Sunshine Standards People Places Environment Strand 2. The student understands the interactions of people and the physical environment SS.B.2.1.1 Identifies some physical and human characteristics of places. Materials Needed Lesson 2 Photograph: Crocodile Croco-Facts and Gator-Bits Information Sheet Time Required 15-30 minutes Vocabulary Alligator Crocodile Lesson Procedures 1. Show students the picture of the ancient Egyptian carving of the crocodile, and ask them what animal they think it is. Some children may answer crocodile and others may answer alligator. Ask them where they have seen pictures of alligators and crocodiles. (Some may know the crocodile in Peter Pan, others recognize the University of Florida Gator or other alligator logos, or may know the animals from cartoons or nature shows.) 2. Explain that the animal in the picture is a Nile crocodile, an animal who does not live in the wild in Florida. Instead, it is an animal that lives in Africa, not just now, in the present, but over 2,000 years ago when the carving was made. Tell them that it is not an alligator, but a relative. People of ancient Egypt saw crocodiles in the wild. Ask students how a child long ago might have felt about seeing a crocodile. (Excited? Scared? Awesome?) 3. Crocodiles can be scary animals, so the Egyptians hoped to convince crocodiles not to hurt them by doing some special things. Ancient Egyptians decided the crocodile should be the favorite animal for their god, Sobek, so kept crocodiles at his temples, put glass and gold earrings and bracelets on their front feet, and fed them special treats. If they fell into the river where there were crocodiles, they were supposed to say, Hail you monkey seven cubits tall whose eyes are made of gold and whose lips are like flames. Hold the crocodile so that I can get up safely. Ask your students if you think that worked very well. 4. Explain that there is an American crocodile that lives in South Florida, but that the American alligator is much more common. Share the information in the Croco-Facts and Gator-Bits information sheet so students understand the difference between the Nile Crocodile and the American Alligator. To help illustrate the information, you may have

23 students lie end to end to represent the length of a crocodile or alligator, or have students put counters into two jars to see the difference in the number of teeth. Interdisciplinary Links Language Arts: Read Tomie de Paola s Bill and Pete Go Down the Nile, a story which features a crocodile named Bill (and his best friend, a crocodile bird named Pete) exploring Egypt on a class field trip. A rhyming story about a modern crocodile s ancient Egyptian ancestor is recounted in Philemon Sturges Crocky Dilly (a reversible crocodile/mummy toy may be purchased with the book.) A short ancient story about a pair of artistic Egyptian children and the crocodile they raised may be found at http://www.aldokkan.com/art/crocodile.htm Art: 1. Students can assemble a 3-D alligator (see photo). The alligator is made from: 1 piece of 18 green construction paper 1 piece of 12 green construction paper 1 piece 12 light yellow-green construction paper 1 piece of 18 red construction paper (optional) 1 piece of white paper, pre-cut 2 white paper circles, 1 ½ each 1 piece purple paper 2 ½ x 4 2 black paper scraps pre-cut into almond/eye shapes Fold 18 green piece in half and cut outwards from the hinge a 9 head. Cut the body and four identical trapezoids for legs from the remainder of the piece. Cut out two 12 light yellow-green strips and three 12 green strips, each with one straight edge and one zigzag edge; tear one green strip in half. Alternate green and light green strips on the alligator s tail to create a serrated ridge. Place the two pieces of the half-strip to create the ridge on the alligator s nose. Cut out two squares from purple rectangle so it takes on a barbell shape to form the eye frame. Glue the purple piece so it straddles the ridge. Assemble white circles and black eye/almond shaped pieces as eyes and then glue to purple paper. Draw scales on alligator to complete. [For more advanced students, you have the option to finish the alligator s mouth. Fold one 18 red piece and cut from the hinge another head piece. Glue the red head piece to the green head piece to make the inside of the alligator s mouth. Cut four 9 strips of white, each with one straight edge and one zigzag edge and attach to mouth as teeth.] Idea courtesy of Larry Kaplan, R.J.Longstreet Elementary School 2. Students may want to draw a crocodile, or dress up a crocodile cut-out with jewelry made from sequins, beads, or spray-painted macaroni. 3. Students might try to write the hieroglyph for crocodile in clay using a toothpick or pencil. After the clay has dried they could paint their hieroglyphs, as the ancient Egyptians often did. Mzh is the ancient Egyptian word for crocodile and looks like this: The hieroglyph for M is an owl, Z is a door bolt, and H a twisted rope, with a picture of a crocodile at the end to make the meaning clear. Computer Lab: Students may see video and hear the sound of Nile Crocodiles at National Geographic s Creature Feature: http://www.nationalgeographic.com/kids/creature_feature/0107/crocodiles.html. To see pictures of all types of crocodiles, alligators, caimans and gharials visit the Crocodilian Species List website at http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/herpetology/brittoncrocs/csl.html

24 Croco-Facts Gator-Bits Nile Crocodiles: Have a V-shaped snout Have 64-68 teeth that fit together Both top and bottom show when mouth is shut Sleep with open mouth to cool off Birds clean their teeth while they sleep Are Cold blooded (need to warm in the sun or cool in the shade or water) Grow up to 20 feet long Weigh around 1,000 pounds; up to 2,000 pounds Live 45-80 years Live in Africa in the Nile and in Southern Africa in other rivers, marshes, and lakes Swim by paddling their long tails, although they have webbed back feet Can feel all over their body Will eat almost anything, including fish and meat Other types of crocodiles can live in salt water, and even the ocean Digs nests in sand to lay their eggs out of the water The American Crocodile lives in South Florida American Alligators: Have a U-shaped snout Have 74-80 teeth Only top teeth show when mouth is shut Are Cold blooded (need to warm in the sun or cool in the shade or water) Grow 8-15 feet long; up to 18 feet Weigh 160-400 pounds; up to 1,000 pounds Live 30-75 years Live in the Southern United States and Central America Swim by paddling their long tails, using webbed back feet to slow down Don t like salt water Can feel best around their mouth Will eat almost anything,

25 including fish and meat Cannot swallow under water Make nests out of plants to lay their eggs out of the water The Chinese Alligator lives in China

26 LESSON 3: Eye of Horus In this lesson students will look at Horus, the falcon god of the pharaoh, as an introduction to the ecosystem, pharaoh and religious beliefs of ancient Egypt. The activities are designed for grades 3-5. Sunshine Standards People, Places, Environments Strand 2. The student understands the interactions of people and the physical environment SS.B.2.2.2 Understands how the physical environment supports and constrains human activities. Materials Needed Lesson 3 Photographs: Limestone fragment of Horus, the Eye of Horus, an Egyptian Falcon, and an American Red-tailed Hawk Artifact Analysis Worksheet (optional, follows lesson 8) Time Required 45 minutes Vocabulary Artifacts objects made by humans Falcon a hawk-like bird Amulet good luck charm Lesson Procedures 1. Show students the image of Horus. Tell them it is an artifact, an object made by humans and then ask them, What material is it made from? (It is made from rock, limestone to be exact) How do you think it was made? (Using something hard to carve it) What kind of animal does this look like? (Some students may think it is an eagle or osprey, but it is closest to a hawk. To be precise it is a falcon.) What can you tell me about these types of animals? (Students may need to be prompted about how high they fly, what they eat, and how good their vision is we still sometimes use the expression hawk-eye and where they like to live.) What is different about this animal from the birds we see flying around here? (They should notice the crown; ask how big a bird would fit into a crown.) Why do you think the person who carved the bird would have done that? (They usually guess that this is not supposed to be ordinary, but a super-hawk.) When do you think this was made? 2. Explain to students that the animal in the artifact is a falcon named Horus (Horus means he who is far above. and it comes from ancient Egypt nearly 4,000 years ago. Ancient Egyptians believed that the god, Horus traveled in the shape of a falcon and ruled Egypt in the shape of the human king called the pharaoh. Horus protected the pharaoh. Ask students how a giant falcon might protect the pharaoh (with its sharp beak and the talons, which are not in the fragment.) Tell them the ancient Egyptians spoke a language very different from English, and their word for hawk was byk. The hieroglyph is a leg, a feather, and a basket with side handle, with a hawk on the end to make it clear, and looks like: bqsa

27 3. Show the picture of the Eye of Horus and the falcon. Ask them to trace with their finger on the photograph of the falcon the parts of the Eye of Horus symbol. Explain to students that ancient Egyptians believe the eye of Horus was very special, so they drew it and carved it in many places, wore it as an amulet (good luck charm), and put it on their mummies and tombs. It is also sometimes called the wadjet eye. Tell the simplified version of the Egyptian myth which has parallels to the movie, The Lion King: Osiris was a good king of the gods but his wicked brother, Seth, killed him. Seth tore up Osiris into 14 parts. Osiris wife, Isis, could only find 13 parts. When Osiris son, Horus, grew up, he fought Seth and defeated him, even though Seth pulled out Horus eye and tore it into 64 pieces. The god of wisdom, Thoth, put the eye back together and returned it to Horus. Horus decided to donate it to Osiris and when he did, Osiris became ruler of the Next Life. (Sometimes students bring up organ donation, and it is a nice comparison.) 4. Explain to students that ancient Egyptians thought that the spirits of the dead people had to go through the dark to find their way to the Next Life. Why would having a falcon s vision be helpful? Why might an Eye of Horus amulet be even more helpful? Interdisciplinary Links Mathematics: The ancient Egyptians used parts of the Eye of Horus to represent fractions. Student may look at the diagram and try to draw the hieroglyphs for the following fractions: 1/32 1/8 ½ ¼ 1/16 1/64 Other fractions could be made by drawing more than one piece of the eye. Try to figure out: ¾ 3/8 ½ ¼ 1/8 1/16 1/32 1/64 (Because ancient Egyptian druggists used fractions to mix medicine, the Eye of Horus changed over time to the modern Rx used by pharmacists. If students add up all the fractions in the Eye of Horus, it only comes to 63/64. The ancient Egyptians believed that the final 1/64 was magic and was not to be seen!) Language Arts: Ask students to read the myth of Odin and compare and contrast it with that of Horus perhaps using the Venn Diagram which follows Lesson #5.

28 Lesson 3: Limestone fragment with Horus Sacred Eye of Horus Egyptian Hawk American Red- (also called the Wadjet Eye) Tailed Hawk Credits:(m) www.copyright-free-pictures.org.uk, (r) US Fish and Wildlife Service

29 LESSON 4: Pharaoh In this lesson students will learn about the role of pharaoh in ancient Egypt. The activities are designed for students in grades 3-5. Sunshine Standards Time, Continuity and Change Strand 1. The student understands historical chronology and the historical perspective SS.A.1.2.1 Understands how individuals, ideas, decisions, and events can influence history. Materials Needed Lesson 4 Photograph of the Stele of Hebi Artifact Analysis Worksheet (optional, follows lesson 8) Time Required 45 minutes Vocabulary Pharaoh king of Egypt Palace great house Crook a hook shaped pole a shepherd uses to control sheep Flail a beater a farmer uses to separate grains of wheat from the plant s stem Vizier pharaoh s chief advisor Nome a region of Egypt Nomarch governor of a region of Egypt Ka spirit or life force Lesson Procedures 1. Ask students what things they would add to a person if they wanted to show that they were a king. (Students typically mention crown, throne, robes, and sometimes a sword.) Hand out a copy of the image of the Stele of Hebi to pairs or groups of students explaining that there is a king in the picture. Tell students that they need to decide which figure is king and to give reasons how they know which one is king. 2. Explain to students that the seated figure next to the jackal-headed figure is the king of Egypt, but ancient Egyptians thought it was rude to use a king s name, so they referred to him after the place he lived since it was a palace or great house with many servants, something most people didn t have. The word for great house was per-ao or pharaoh. The hieroglyph looks like this: (Even today we sometimes refer to The White House, where the president lives, instead of the president by name.) The Pharaoh wore a two part crown because long ago Egypt was two countries. Each part had different kings, crowns, and symbols. Northern Egypt Southern Egypt Lower Egypt Upper Egypt Red Crown White Crown Papyrus Plant Lotus Flower Cobra Vulture

30 Around 5,000 years ago Menes united Egypt to become the first pharaoh of the Two Lands. He combined the two crowns into one so it looked like this: 4 Ask students if they can find a bowling pin shaped crown on the pharaoh s head. That is the white crown of Upper Egypt. The back part is the red crown of Lower Egypt. Pharaoh was not considered to be a normal human ruler, because ancient Egyptians believed their pharaoh to be the human form of the god Horus. They thought the pharaoh could control weather, flooding of the Nile, the growth of food crops and the health of animals. He is holding two special objects, a crook (like a shepherd uses to control sheep) and a flail (like a farmer uses to beat grains of wheat free from the stem.) The pharaoh never actually herded sheep or separated grain. Ask students why they think the pharaoh is shown with the crook and flail. 3. Ask students if they think ancient Egyptians treated their god-king, the pharaoh, like a regular person. In fact, they didn t. They believed pharaoh was always right and they treated him specially. What the pharaoh didn t like was considered a crime, so it was important to keep the pharaoh happy. Explain that they often brought him presents and that they were expected to kneel down and touch the ground with their foreheads when they met the pharaoh. Hebi, the man on the left of the carving, is presenting gifts to the pharaoh. Ask students whether they think he has finished bowing down, or is about to, and why. 4. It might sound like being pharaoh was all fun, but remind students that being a godking is hard work. The pharaoh had to lead many religious ceremonies and also had to run the government. Most pharaohs had a vizier, who was their top helper (sort of like the vice president), and then ruled each nome (region or state) of Egypt through nomarchs (governors). Egyptians didn t use money. Ask students how they could have paid taxes. (They paid with goods and working on projects like the pyramids.) When a pharaoh died, the people believed his ka (spirit) rejoined the gods and continued to protect Egypt, so they built special tombs to protect his mummy. The most famous are the pyramids. 5. Ask students what material they think the picture of Hebi was made on, how it was made and to hypothesize why it might have been created. 6. Ask students to make a list of things they would like about being pharaoh and things they wouldn t like with at least five items on the two lists. Then, ask them to write either a complex sentence or a simple paragraph explaining why they would (or would not) like being a pharaoh. Interdisciplinary Links 1. Art The Newbery Honor winning book The Egypt Game by Zilpha Snyder describes how the children playing the game make their own Egyptian regalia. After students have read the book work with the art teacher to make the double crown of the pharaohs. Materials needed for each crown are: 64 inches of 11.9-inch wax paper (enough to go around the head 3 times) 2 pieces of red construction paper (8 ½ x 11 ) 2 pieces of aluminum foil, each about 6-8 wide Tape, stapler, scissors, and pencil

31 a. To make the white crown of Upper Egypt: Wrap the wax paper three times around the head making sure it stands straight up (looking a bit like a chef s hat) and then tape down both sides. Fold over the top to make a ball so that the hat resembles a bowling pin with a wide bottom. b. To make the red crown of Lower Egypt: Fold one piece of red construction paper lengthwise and cut. Using the pattern cut out the back of the crown lengthwise from the second piece of red construction paper. Tape the short end of one of the half-piece rectangles to one side of the crown back, and the other half-piece to the other side. Bring the two flaps around the front of the head and tape so that it fits over the white crown snugly. c. Making the vulture of Upper Egypt and the cobra (uraeus) of Lower Egypt Fold the first piece of foil in half. Roll one end into a tube. Along the other end, keep the foil spread. For the vulture keep the width nearer the middle to form the head and then crumple into a sharp down-pointed beak. For the cobra keep the width to within an inch of the end and flatten slightly to create the snake s hood before shaping the snake s head. Staple or tape the vulture and cobra to the front of the crown Language Arts: Students may write a skit about the day Hebi met the pharaoh and act it out (using the crown in the art activity, if available). They may write it from the point of view of either Hebi or the pharaoh. Students may read a biography or fictional book about a pharaoh such Menes (the Scorpion King), Ramses, or Tutankhamen. They should remember that there were also a few female pharaohs, the most famous of which were Cleopatra and Hatshepsut.

32 Lesson 4: The Stele of Hebi

Lesson 4: Crown Pattern 33

34 LESSON 5: Boat In this lesson, students will learn about transportation in ancient Egypt by focusing on a single artifact. The activities are designed for students in grades 3-5. Sunshine Standards Time, Continuity and Change Strand 2. The student understands the world from its beginnings to the time of the Renaissance SS.A.2.2.3 Understands various aspects of family life, structures, and roles in different cultures and in many eras (e. g., pastoral and agrarian families of early civilizations, families of ancient times, and medieval families). Materials Needed Lesson 5 Photograph: Model Boat Measuring stick (yard, meter, or combination) Artifact Analysis Worksheet (optional, follows lesson 8) Time Required 45 minutes Vocabulary Artifact an object made by humans Hypothesize make an educated guess Rudder the piece at the back of a boat which allows it to be steered left or right Oar a pole with a flat end which is pulled to move a boat Barge boat with flat bottom Background Information The Nile was the main highway of Egypt because carts with wheels were useless in the desert sands and river valley mud. Boats carried people and goods. Heavy loads were dragged from barges on rollers or wooden sledges. The earliest pre-dynastic Egyptians traveled along the water on rafts, dugouts, and papyrus-stalk vessels. Because wood was rare and required more advanced technology, planked boats did not appear until later. Wood planks were shaped with stone tools, lashed together with rope, and caulked with reed to be watertight. Boats were used to carry everything from grain and live cattle to granite obelisks. They could be as small as little fishing skiffs, and as large as the pharaoh s ceremonial barge with a private cabin. Ancient Egyptians believed that boat models would help the deceased sail through the obstacles of the afterlife. Pharaohs sometimes were buried with full scale boats. In 1988, archaeologists at Abydos discovered a fleet of 14 boats, each one 60-80 feet long, which had been buried along with a pharaoh from the 1 st Dynasty. Each boat would have required as many as 30 rowers. However, they were dwarfed by the 140 foot wooden barge buried near the Great Pyramid of Khufu (Old Kingdom), found in 1954. Made of 650 pieces of wood, it probably carried Khufu s mummy to the Great Pyramid, leading the funeral procession. Lesson Procedures 1. Explain to students that they will be looking at another artifact, this one made of wood. Before showing them the picture, tell them that the artifact s dimensions are 16 1/2 tall,

35 25 long, and 6 wide (metric measurements: 42 cm tall, 64 cm long, and 16 cm wide). Direct students to locate each of the three dimensions on a measuring stick and decide if the item is: a) about the size of a slice of bread, b) about the size of a copy paper box, or c) about the size of the classroom. 2. Show the students the image and ask them what it looks like. Remind them of the dimensions and ask them if it is large enough to carry five full-sized people. Since it is not large enough, ask them to hypothesize why it was made. (Ideas may include a toy, or room decoration.) Explain that the ancient Egyptians believed that, when a person died, you needed to put into their tomb everything that they needed when they were alive to be comfortable. 3. Ask students why people in Egypt would need a boat. Remind them that it is not all desert and that the Nile River was the center of life in ancient Egypt. Carts with wheels could get stuck in mud or sand (just like cars they see in town may get stuck in the mud or on the loose sand of the beach.) The easiest way to travel was by boat. Some boats carry people and some carry objects. Ask students which kind of boat the model is and for what reason. Who do they think get to sit under the canopy cover, and why? 4. As the students examine the model boat, ask them if they can figure how the boat moved and how they could steer it. Point out the oars (for propulsion) and the rudder (for steering). Would it be easier or harder to row the boat in the same direction the river was flowing? Against the river s flow? What would be tricky about rowing back and forth across a river? Of the five figures, which ones are working to make the boat move? 5. Select a picture of a modern boat, perhaps a photograph of one from one of the local marinas, fishing fleet, or cruise boat and ask students to compare and contrast the ancient Egyptian boat with the modern boat using the Venn Diagram (follows this lesson.) Interdisciplinary Links Language Arts: Ask students to write a story featuring the boat, for example, the sights the people on the boat saw as they traveled down the Nile River, or perhaps about how it felt to row the boat back and forth taking people from one side to the other. Science: Students could experiment to see what materials float. Fill a plastic bowl or basin with water and ask individuals or teams to formulate an hypothesis about which will float the longest. Supply them with a variety of materials for the experiment: rubber band, rock, wood, plastic, cork, metal paper clip, cloth, glass, leather, paper, or nut, for example. After they have finished testing materials, ask the students to write their conclusion, stating what the results were that they observed, whether their hypothesis was supported by their test results, and offering any explanations why their hypothesis was correct or incorrect. Students might find out how many pennies a piece of balsa wood or a plastic toy boat can hold before sinking. After weighing a penny on a scale to see how much one weighs, students should write a hypothesis. Once they have completed their experiment, ask the students to write a conclusion, stating the results of their test, calculating the maximum weight which could be carried, explaining whether their hypothesis was support by their test results, and offering explanations why their hypothesis was correct or incorrect.

36 Lesson 5: Model Boat Lesson 6: Model of Granary

37 ------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------- Both ----------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------- Venn Diagram --------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------

38 LESSON 6: Daily Bread In this lesson, students will examine the model of a granary to learn about what the ancient Egyptians ate, especially bread. The activities are designed for students in grades 3-5. Sunshine Standards Time, Continuity and Change Strand 2. The student understands the world from its beginnings to the time of the Renaissance SS.A.2.2.3 Understands various aspects of family life, structures, and roles in different cultures and in many eras (e. g., pastoral and agrarian families of early civilizations, families of ancient times, and medieval families). Materials Needed Lesson 6 Photograph: Model of a Granary Artifact Analysis Worksheet (optional, follows Lesson 8) Time Required 45 minutes Vocabulary Artifact an object made by humans Akhet annual flood of the Nile which enriched the valley soil with black mud Fertile full of things that help growth Sow to plant seeds Harvest gather and store crops Seed grain wheat grains saved to start new plants Flail a handle with a free swinging stick attached to it, used for threshing Threshing beating stalks to separate grain (which could be eaten) from straw (which could not be eaten but could be mixed with mud to make brick) Granary a building where threshed grain was stored Mortar a heavy bowl of stone which held grains which needed grinding Pestle a heavy tool of stone or wood used for grinding Chaff outer covering of the grain which could not be eaten Sieve a screen, usually woven from wire-like rush grass Winnowing separating grain kernels from chaff with a sieve Quern a grinding stone Vizier the pharaoh s chief advisor Scribe a person who can read, write, measure, and do mathematics Background Information Most Egyptians were farmers who lived in mud-brick houses. Seed grain was stored in a village granary and a scribe calculated how much see each farmer would receive to plant the new crop, based on how large an area of land the farmer would be planting. In November, when the vizier gave the order to begin planting the fields, the scribe would measure out the grain and the farmers would sow their seeds. In March, all the people in the village would work together to harvest their crops. In July, the Nile would flood and leave behind black mud which would make the fields fertile for the next season.

39 Many fields were planted in wheat. After harvesting the wheat, the farmers would thresh it, either by beating the stalks with a flail to separate wheat grains from the chaff or placing it in an enclosure where donkeys or cattle could stomp it and separate it. Girls often cleaned the wheat by tossing it in the air on a breezy day, when the straw would blow away, leaving the grain behind. Men would usually do another cleaning, winnowing the wheat through a sieve before the grain would be brought to the granary, for storage. The granary scribe would then record exactly how much was brought in by each farmer; in years of bad harvests, they would be careful not to hand out all of the grain, even if the people were hungry. If they used up all the seed, there would be nothing to plant, no new crop, and everyone would starve. Normally women prepared grain every day for baking. They would pound the grain in a limestone mortar with a wooden pestle, and then winnow the mortar s contents a final time through a sieve. Next, they would kneel on the floor and grind the grain into flour on a flat grinding stone known as a quern (see the statue from Lesson 10 for an example.) Once the flour was mixed with other ingredients, they could bake their dough in a pottery mold placed on glowing hot pieces of wood or in an oven. Ancient Egyptians ate bread at every meal. Usually they made flat, round bread, but they sometimes made their dough into fun shapes, like that of fish or human figures (rather like gingerbread men, today.) They made bread in different sizes and textures, including whole-grain, unleavened, yeast and sour dough. Richer Egyptians might flavor their breads with dates, seeds, butter or eggs or spread it with garlic or honey (Egyptians were probably the first bee-keepers.) However, everybody from the pharaoh to the poorest Egyptians wore down their teeth on the bread because they could not keep sand and small bits of stone from getting into the dough. Egyptian farmers also grew vegetables such as onions, leeks, lettuce, beans, lentils, and cucumbers. Some farmers grew fruit in orchards with fig, date, and pomegranate trees, while others had grape vines. Barley was raised to make beer, rather than bread. Cattle were usually raised for milk rather than meat. Hunters provided antelope and other meats for wealthy Egyptians while the poor ate fish. Ancient Egyptians sat on the floor at low tables, ate with their fingers, and dipped their fingers in bowls of water to wash them. Lesson Procedures 1. Ask students how many times a day they eat bread. Discuss how they eat bread, perhaps as toast, in a sandwich, as French toast, or maybe even stuffing or bread pudding. Discuss what flavors and shapes bread comes in. 2. Explain that Egyptians ate bread every day, but they could not go to a grocery story to buy it. Describe the process of raising, harvesting, threshing, winnowing, and grinding wheat. You may wish to have the students mime what it looked like to measure, sow, harvest, thresh, winnow, use a mortar and pestle, use a sieve, and mix dough. 3. Show students the picture of the granary model. After defining granary, ask students what things might spoil the grain. (They may mention heat, water, insects, or other problems.) Ask them what material they think the grain containers were made of that are shown in the model. (They would have been jars of pottery or perhaps stone.) Would those materials have kept the grain safe? Would the jars need lids?

40 4. Explain that one of the two men in the model is holding a sack of grain. A sack of grain is estimated by some modern scholars to have weighed around 125 lbs. Line up several children to illustrate how much 125 pound is. Discuss with students: Would it have been hard work carrying a sack that heavy? What other ways did ancient Egyptians have to move heavy objects? 5. The other man in the model is a scribe who is writing. Discuss with students: Where do wheat plants come from? Why couldn t farmers eat all the wheat they had grown? Why did scribes have to measure out the seed grain? Why did the scribes need to write down how much grain was in the granary and how much they gave out? Why was honesty almost as important for scribes as being able to write and do math? 6. Have students locate vocabulary terms in a word scramble. FERTILE GRAIN MORTAR WINNOW BREAD SOW FLAIL PESTLE QUERN HARVEST THRESH CHAFF VIZIER SEED GRANARY SIEVE SCRIBE S C R I B E B R E A D I H G S F L A F P D W E A R O L Q M E E C I V R A W A U O R S H N E V I Z I E R T T A N R E N T L R T I L F O C S E E D N A L E F W B T A L T H R E S H V G R A N A R Y Q U E R Interdisciplinary Links Language Arts: Give students a word bank with the vocabulary words they have mastered in this lesson and ask them to write a story which uses at least ten of the words. Science: Make a large poster based on the modern U.S.D.A. food pyramid (which may be located at: http://www.mypyramid.gov/) Have students either cut out pictures from old magazines or draw the food items eaten by ancient Egyptians mentioned in the Background Information or other sources. Then, using tape or reusable putty, ask each student to place their item in the proper area of the food pyramid. Discuss as a class whether the ancient Egyptian s diet was a good one, according to modern guidelines. Bread-Making Note: If you wish to bake bread you will need to arrange to use an oven, either at home, or with a parent volunteer, a restaurant which might be a school business partner, or the cafeteria staff at the school. The recipe directs that dough sit overnight before being baked.

41 Materials Needed: 5-lb. bag of whole wheat flour 4 cups of water 2 tsp. salt 4 bowls 2 measuring cups (must be able to measure off ¼ cup as well as whole cups) 2 measuring spoons (1 tablespoon, and ½ teaspoon sizes) 1 tray and towel Divide students into four teams and provide each team with a bowl. Each team will need at least one measurer, one mixer, one kneader, and one shaper. Call up team measurers and supervise as each one measures out 3 ¼ cups of whole wheat flour into the bowl. Once all the teams have their flour, each should measure out ½ teaspoon of salt into the bowl. Call up team mixers and supervise as each measures out 1 cup minus 2 tablespoons of water and then adds the water slowly to the bowl, mixing it well so that it has no dry spots and no big lumps. Tell team kneaders that they should press and fold the dough. They should flatten the dough with the heel (back part) of the palm of their hands. Then, they should fold the back edge of the dough towards them and press down with the heel of their hand, gently pushing it away. Turn the bowl a quarter turn and repeat. When the dough is no longer sticky but is smooth, shiny, and stretchy, it is ready for shaping. Tell team shapers that the most common shapes for ancient Egyptian bread is round or triangle shaped (like a slice of pizza), but that sometimes they made their bread in different shapes, such as a fish or cone (like they see for road work). Tell them to shape the bread and then bring it to the tray. When all four teams have placed their loaves on the tray, cover with a towel Allow the bread to sit overnight, and then bake for 30 minutes at 350 F. Serve the bread plain or, for a special treat, serve with honey.

42 LESSON 7: Hieroglyphic Writing In this lesson students will learn about hieroglyphic writing, papyrus, and the role of the scribe in ancient Egypt. The activities are designed for students in grades 3-5. Sunshine Standards Time, Continuity and Change Strand 1. The student understands historical chronology and the historical perspective SS.A.1.2.2 Uses a variety of methods and sources to understand history (such as interpreting diaries, letters, newspapers; and reading maps and graphs) and knows the difference between primary and secondary sources. Materials Needed Lesson 7 Photographs: Statue of a scribe, a scribal palette, and papyrus plant Lesson 7 Worksheet: Fragment of the Coffin of Satmeket, Hieroglyph Decoder Time Required 45 minutes Vocabulary Hieroglyphs Ancient Egyptian writing (hieroglyphic is the adjective form, although often used as a noun) Pictograms a hieroglyph which represents something (a drawing of a woman represents a woman) Ideograms a hieroglyph which represents an idea (a triangle with an opening represents to give ) Phonograms a hieroglyph which represents a sound, as do the letters of our alphabet (an owl represents the sound of M) Hieratic Script version of hieroglyphs Papyrus tall marsh plant whose stems were cut, flattened, woven, pounded, and dried into pages for writing; symbol of Lower Egypt (while lotus was the symbol of Upper Egypt) Reed tall plant with hollow stem that grows along the Nile River Palette wooden tray used by scribes with places for cakes of red and black ink and a sliding compartment for reed brushes Scroll rolls of papyrus that scribes would write on using reed brushes; one is 135 feet long Scribe a person who was taught reading, writing, and mathematics (some were artists or learned other subjects) Gnats flying insects that sting Background Information Around 3100 BC, the people of ancient Egypt developed a system of writing which included pictograms (representing objects) ideograms (representing ideas) and phonograms (representing sounds). There are no vowels or punctuation marks in hieroglyphic writing. To make matters even more confusing, hieroglyphs may be written (and read) left to right, right to left, top to bottom or bottom to top. When looking at hieroglyphs, check for the direction the faces of the characters are facing because inscriptions usually start in that direction. Ancient Egyptians believed that writing was

43 invented by the goddess, Seshat and had been taught to humans by the ibis-headed god, Thoth. Most Egyptians did not know how to read or write. This was the job of the scribe. Typically, boys whose fathers were scribes became scribes. They would enter scribal school when they were 5 or 6 years old and study for at least 10 years. They would be taught how to write, paint, or carve between 600 and 700 hieroglyphs and the script version of them, called hieratic. They would learn to write by copying letters, stories, account books, and other types of written documents. Since papyrus was expensive, they would practice on flat pieces of limestone rock, pottery, or plastered wood. Teachers were not very patient, one claiming, The ears of a boy are in his back. He listens only when he is beaten. The hieroglyph for scribe has an ink palette, a pot, and a reed brush and was pronounced sesh. This is because scribes carried a wooden palette carved with two oval inkwells, one for red ink, and the other for black ink. (Red ink came from red ochre, while black ink came from the carbon of burnt wood or pans.) They also carried small pots of water to mix with their inks. Finally, they frayed the ends of reeds to create brushes and stored them in a sliding compartment on the palette or in a brush holder. They would sit cross-legged with their linen kilt tight over their knees so they would have a flat surface on which to write. Scribes are usually depicted with their brush in the right hand; they unrolled papyrus with the left hand. Hieroglyphs were usually carved onto hard surfaces, while hieratic was brushed onto papyrus. The hieroglyph for the word writing has four parts: the ink palette, pot, reed brush, and also a tied papyrus scroll. Papyrus grew along the banks of the Nile. The outer rind of the stem was removed and the inner portion sliced into strips. After being soaked in water, these strips were interwoven, covered with linen and beaten with stones or a mallet. The released sap would glue the strips into a strip which, when dry, could be used for writing. Lesson Procedures 1. Read aloud the following extract of instructions for a boy named Pepy from his father, Dua-Khety. (The entire text may be viewed at: http://www.touregypt.net/khety.htm) You may wish to have different students read each of the eleven jobs Dua-Khety warns his son against. Have a recorder keep a list for all the jobs Dua-Khety mentions. Ask the class what he says is bad about each. What good things does he have to say about becoming a scribe? Does Dua-Khety make a convincing argument? If they were Pepy, would they take his advice? Show them the photographs of the statue of a scribe, a palette, and papyrus and share with them the details about how ancient Egyptian scribes worked from the Background Information. Note that you can see the inkwells slung over the scribe s shoulder.

44 The Instructions of Dua-Khety There is nothing better than knowledge! It is a boat upon the water I shall make you love writing more than your mother, and I shall explain why it is so wonderful. It is greater than any other job. There is nothing like it on earth. I have seen a coppersmith at his work at the door of his furnace. His fingers were like the claws of the crocodile, and he smelled worse than a fish. The reed-cutter goes downstream to the Delta to gather reeds. He works too hard...the gnats sting him and the sand fleas bite him as well The potter is covered with dirt, although he is alive. He gets muddier than pigs to bake his cooking pots. His clothes are stiff with mud, and he covers his head with rags The carpenter works for a month putting up the wooden roof and covering it, but while he is away, nobody feeds his children. The gardener wears a wooden frame over his shoulders to carry two containers of water. His shoulders hurt He spends the morning in watering onions and the evening with coriander plants, after he has spent noon working in the palm grove. The farm worker cries When he is taken away to work on the Delta, he wears rags. After he gets there he becomes sick, and then, he s forced to work three times as hard. If he ever comes back from the Delta swamps, by the time he gets home, he is a wreck. Inside the weaving house, the weaver s knees are crushed against his belly. He cannot breathe. If he skips work for even one day, he is beaten with 50 whip lashes. He has to pay the guard to go outside. The messenger goes far away has to worry about lions and enemies. The man who keeps the fires burning his eyes sting because of the heavy smoke. He cannot get clean, even if he washes himself all day long in the day at the reed pond. The laundry man washes dirty clothes at the riverbank near the crocodile He cries when he spends all day with a beating stick and a stone there. I must also mention to you the fisherman. He is the unhappiest worker of all because he has to work a river filled with crocodiles Every worker has a boss, except the scribe. He is the boss! If you understand writing, then it will be better for you than any of the jobs I have described. A day at school is the best thing for you. Start your work early. During noon recess, go outside and study your lesson book No scribes go hungry or are poor. 2. Show students the photograph of the coffin fragment of Satmeket. Explain that the pictures are hieroglyphs and explain that some stand for things, others for idea, and others for sounds. Ask them:

45 How many lines of writing there are? (3; tell them that the lines are called registers by Egyptologists.) Ask them how many black zigzag lines they see? (3) Explain that zigzag line is a phonogram: it stands for a sound, in this case, N. Ask them to find the woman bottom register. Explain that it is a pictogram: it stands for someone or something, in this case, woman. Ask them to find the black and white triangle in the bottom register. It is an ideogram: it stands for an idea, in this case, to give. 3. Explain that Egyptians used hieroglyphs for nearly four thousand years, but after they stopped using them, people forgot how to read them. Champollion used the Rosetta Stone to figure out the meanings again only two hundred years ago. Provide students with the worksheet with the coffin fragment of Satmeket, hieroglyph decoder, and grid where they can mark the English letters or word next to the hieroglyph. Interdisciplinary Links Art Make mock papyrus using the flat leaves of cattails. Soak them in a bucket of water with a teaspoon of bleach to reduce the odor and prevent molding. After they are well soaked, empty the water, rinse the leaves, and then place them back in the bucket. Mix in white glue with a small amount of water, to thin (or wallpaper paste made according to manufacturer s instructions.) On a paper towel, have children weave the cattail leaves. Cover with a piece of wet cotton fabric, smooth out with something flat, heavy and waterproof (such as a stone, iron skillet) and then remove the cotton cloth. Allow the cattail papyrus to dry and then trim the paper towel so it can t be seen from the front but supports the woven cattails. Students can use the papyrus for hieroglyphic or Egyptian art projects. Mathematics When ancient Egyptians wrote their numbers in hieroglyphs, they repeated the number as many times as was necessary, showing as many of each symbol as they needed to represent ones, tens, hundreds, and so forth. For example, 324 would be written: 333 l l l l 1 = l 6 = l l l l l l 2 = l l 7 = l l l l l l l 3 = l l l 8 = l l l l l l l l 4 = l l l l 9 = l l l l l l l l l 5 = l l l l I 11 = L 12 = l l 13 = l l l 14 = l l l l 10 = 15 = l l l l l 16 = l l l l l l 100 = 3 17 = l l l l l l l 1,000 = 4 18 = l l l l l l l l 10,000 = 5 19 = l l l l l l l l l 100,000 = 6 20 = 1,000,000 = 7 Try writing the following numbers in hieroglyphics: 25 = 1,555 = 765,431 = 639 = 36,748 = 2,222,222 = Try translating the following hieroglyphs into numbers: 3333 l l l l l = 433 l l l l = 7666 5 544443333 l =

46 Teacher Key: 455; 1,224; 1,324,431 Lesson 7: Statue of a Scribe, Scribal Palette, and Papyrus Plant

47 Lesson 7 Worksheet: Fragment of a coffin of Satmeket and Hieroglyph Decoder N = J n = U q = I w = M p = F f = TCH s = K x = N l = Woman N q x s l w p w p f w I n l x x s

48 LESSON 8: Mummies In this lesson students will learn about how and why mummies were made and the relationship between mummification and ancient Egyptians religion and beliefs about the afterlife. It is also serves as the culminating lesson if all lessons at this level are used as a unit of study. The activities are designed for students in grades 3-5. Sunshine Standards Time, Continuity and Change Strand 2. The student understands the world from its beginnings to the time of the Renaissance SS.A.2.2.1 Knows the significant scientific and technological achievements of various societies (e. g., the invention of paper in China, Mayan calendars, mummification and the use of cotton in Egypt, astronomical discoveries in the Moslem world, and the Arabic number system). Materials Needed Lesson 8 Photograph: Cartonnage of Ankhpefhor Artifact Analysis Worksheet (follows lesson) Selection from the ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead (optional) Time Required 45 minutes Vocabulary Mummies body that has been protected from rotting; Egyptologists estimate ancient Egyptians created up to 70 million mummies Embalming preserving bodies from rotting Fields of Iaru Egyptian version of the Next Life or paradise, a rich farmland Alabaster easily carved white mineral Natron a special type of salt found along the Nile Linen a woven cloth made from the flax plant Resin a sticky black tree liquid; called momia in Arabic, it is the source of our word, mummy Amulets charms Cartonnage papyrus or linen soaked in plaster and shaped like papier-mâché Sarcophagus stone coffin Tomb burial place Mourn to show sadness Opening of the Mouth a ceremony which made it possible for the person to eat, drink, and speak in the Next Life Lesson Procedures 1. Explain to students that they will be looking at an artifact. Warn them that, even though they may have an idea what it is, they are going to need to answer a few questions before they can offer their interpretation of the artifact. Show them the photograph of the Cartonnage of Ankhpefhor. Ask the students what they think the artifact is made of. (They may guess gold because of the gold mask of King Tut ). Explain that it is actually something similar to papier-mâché, a material called cartonnage. Cartonnage is made by

49 soaking strips of papyrus or linen in plaster. The gold they see is just a thin layer called gilding. Ask students how they think the cartonnage got into the shape they see. Ask students how they think the designs were put onto the cartonnage. Would the cartonnage have been dry or wet when the designs were put on? (The background color is a dark blue, not black.) Ask students what they think the artifact is and what it was used for. 2. Ask students whether the person is male or female. Explain that the figure is that of a young man, Ankhpefor, who died around 900 BC, around 2,900 years ago. Ankhpefor was priest of Thebes, where the Temples of Luxor and Karnak are located. He is shown wearing a wig. (Explain that wealthier Egyptians, both men and women, shaved their head for comfort and then wore wigs made of human hair that would have been attached with beeswax. Sometimes they pinned cones of perfume to their wigs which would melt in the heat.) Have students locate Thebes on the map. 3. Ask students if they know how mummies were made. Explain that, around 5,000 years ago the Egyptian buried bodies in the hot sand and that is when they discovered that bodies naturally dried out and preserved them. By 2000 B.C. ancient Egyptians began mummifying their dead. Review mummy-making basics: Mummies took around 70 days to make First the liver, intestines, lungs, and stomach were removed through a cut in the skin and placed in four separate jars called canopic jars; the brain was pulled out through the nose with hooks and thrown away The heart was left inside so it could be weighed in the afterlife Then, the body was washed with wine and spiced and covered in natron salts to dry for 40 days Then the skin was treated with resin, oil, wax, and other materials to keep it soft The body was packed with linen, sand or sawdust to keep its shape The mummy was wrapped with linen strips which were also treated with resin Amulets and papyrus notes were wrapped in the linen; the process could take up to two weeks and use hundreds of yards of linen The face was covered with a mask resembling the dead person At the funeral the priests performed the Opening of the Mouth so the mummy could eat, drink, and speak in the afterlife The mummy would be placed in at least one coffin and sarcophagus 4. Explain to students that the paintings in the ten registers (rows) on Ankhpefhor s mummy case can help them understand why ancient Egyptians made mummies. The seated figure in the middle of the fifth row is Osiris. Explain he is the ancient Egyptian king of the dead, which is why he holds the crook and flail. He is also the god of rebirth into the Next Life. The object in the row above him is called a djed pillar and represents the backbone of Osiris. The backbone would give the mummy strength after death. In the top row are two Eyes of Horus; Egyptians believed the mummy could see out through these eyes and was also protected by them. Horus is a god and the son of Osiris. He donated one of his eyes to bring Osiris back to life. Horus is also shown as a hawk with a ram s head the next row down, and as a hawkheaded god with a sun-disk on his head below that.

50 In the middle of the bottom row is a scarab beetle. Egyptians believed it was a magical animal. As it pushed dung balls around, it made them think of the sungod Khepri with the sun disk. Because the sun disappears into the west and darkness each night and returns again each morning, the scarab was a symbol of rebirth The jackals in the second row from the bottom stand for the god Anubis who was the god of mummification and watched over the tombs. Wrapped mummies look like cocoons. Winged cobras in the fifth row (where Osiris sits) represent the goddess Meretseger who protected tombs. The goddess Hathor, associated with the sun, is shown as a cow among papyrus in the fourth row from the bottom. Gold shines like the sun and doesn t change over time; dark blue is the color of the heavens Students may read the selection from the Book of the Dead (following the lesson) at this time. After looking at the images and learning what they mean, ask students, why do you think the ancient Egyptians mummified their dead? 5. You may either guide the students through the Artifact Analysis Worksheet aloud, or they may fill it out. 6. As a culminating activity, have students write a letter from Ankhpefhor telling what he thinks of his mummy case. Interdisciplinary Links Historic Preservation: The American University in Cairo Animal Mummy Project is a project which helps to preserve animal mummies. Friends of Mummies who make a donation receive a certificate of adoption and a photograph of the adopted mummy. To learn how your class might adopt-a-mummy visit the Animal Mummy Project website at www.animalmummies.com. Art: Students can mold clay into amulets in the shapes of the ankh, djed, Eye of Horus, scarab or other Egyptian forms. If using a type of clay which may be fired, students could paint them with glaze. Finished amulets may be turned into a necklace or glued onto a mummy-shaped cardboard cutout. Science: Students can see how mummification worked, comparing the effects of the sun with natron. Materials needed: A lamp Clear plastic cup (8 oz.) ½ cup gravel ¼ cup table salt ½ cup sodium carbonate (powder bleach) ½ cup baking soda 1 medium size plastic container with lid 1 apple Popsicle stick or wooden tongue depressor

51 Due to safety issues, it is preferable to prepare several things while students are not present. To prepare the modern version of natron, mix ¼ cup table salt, ½ cup sodium carbonate (powder bleach) and ½ cup baking soda (recipe originated at the Putnam Museum of History and Natural Science, in Davenport, Iowa.) Place the mixture in a medium size plastic container, cover with a lid that seals, and shake. Take care not to touch eyes our mouth until after washing your hands. Place the gravel in the plastic cup Cut the apple in half To begin the experiment, divide the students into two groups. Direct the students to measure and weigh each apple half, recording: Length Width Depth Weight Trace around the apple (flat side down) Color Miscellaneous information such as seeds, stem, bruises One group s apple half will go into the cup and spend the next two weeks (or more) under a lamp. Take the other group s apple half, and place the stick into it to use as a handle. (You may wish to wear glasses or protective goggles and keep students away when you put the apple into the natron mixture.) Carefully dip the apple into the mixture and then leave the apple in the plastic container. Do not put the lid on. Have students observe what is happening to the two halves of the apple on a regular basis, perhaps every third day and record what they see. Did both apples turn into mummies? How long did it take the half in the natron mixture to turn into a mummy? How long did it take the half under the lamp to turn into a mummy? Which worked the best?

Lesson 8: Cartonnage of Ankhpefhor 52

53 Coming Out by Day (The Egyptian Book of the Dead) c. 3100 B.C. There is no single Egyptian Book of the Dead. There are thousands of prayers and instructions written on papyrus scrolls. Together they are like a guidebook telling the spirit of the dead person how to get through the dark, dangerous underworld called Duat. Ancient Egyptians believe the first instructions were written by the ibis-headed god of wisdom, Thoth. The final test was held in the Hall of the Two Truths. Osiris would weigh each person s heart in his scale against the Feather of Truth. Those who had done good things in their life and were truthful had hearts lighter than the feather passed on to The Happy Field of Food (Iaru) where their spirits would live happily ever after. When the person s spirit met Osiris, the Book of the Dead suggested the following greeting: Hail to You, Great God, Lord of Truth and Justice! I have come before you, my Master; I have been brought to see your beauties. I bring you Truth. I have not sinned against others. I have not mistreated the poor. I have not made any man work harder than he would have worked for himself. I have paid my debts. I have not insulted the gods. I have not caused a slave to be mistreated by his master. I have not starved anyone. I have not caused anyone to cry. I have not killed anyone. I have not cheated. I have not taken milk from babies. I have not taken with nets the birds of the gods. I am pure. I am pure. I am pure.

54 Artifact Analysis Worksheet 1. PHYSICAL QUALITIES OF THE ARTIFACT Describe the materials from which it was made. (Check as many as apply.) bone pottery metal wood stone leather glass paper cardboard cloth plastic other material: 2. SPECIAL QUALITIES OF THE ARTIFACT Describe how it looks and feels (Check as many as apply.) shaped sharpened colorful carved textured unusual size/weight moveable parts handles anything stamped, printed, written or painted on it balanced other (describe): 3. USES OF THE ARTIFACT A. Hypothesize the artifact s use. sitting sleeping storing objects inside cooking eating/drinking keeping clean fighting/hunting building making crafts or other tools farming fishing animal care holidays/rituals/religion communicating making clothes lighting medical/dental use other (describe): need more information to decide B. Where might the artifact have been used? C. When might it have been used (dates or historical period)? 4. WHAT THE ARTIFACT TELLS US ABOT THE PEOPLE WHO MADE IT A. Who might have used the artifact? B. What does it tell us about the technology and craft skills of the time in which it was made? C. What does it tell us about the environment in which the people lived, from which they obtained the raw materials for the artifact? D. What does the artifact tell us about their values and/or sense of beauty? E. Is there a modern object which is equivalent to this historical artifact? If so, what is it? Developed by Jean M. West

55 LESSON 9: Pyramids In this lesson students will look at aspects of geography involved in the construction of the pyramid such as identifying what materials were available to Egyptian tomb builders to apply to the technology of pyramid-building; the use of the Nile for transportation of materials and the annual flood which released labor to work on the pyramids; the symbolism of the West and East to death and eternal life. The activities are designed for students in grades 6-8. Sunshine Standards Time, Continuity and Change Strand 2. The student understands the world from its beginnings to the time of the Renaissance SS.A.2.3.4 Understands the impact of geographical factors on the historical development of civilizations. SS.A.2.3.7 Knows significant achievements in art and architecture in various urban areas and communities to the time of the Renaissance (e. g., the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, pyramids in Egypt, temples in ancient Greece, bridges and aqueducts in ancient Rome, changes in European art and architecture between the Middle Ages and the High Renaissance). Materials Needed Artifact Analysis Worksheet (follows Lesson 8) Lesson 9 Photographs: Flint tools, Reserve head, Opening of the Mouth Cup, Gooseshaped case, Model offering table and vessels Time Required Three 45-minute class periods (less if worksheet and research is assigned for homework) Vocabulary Students at this level should find the dictionary definition for the following terms: Pyramid Mastaba Flint Limestone Quartz Opening of the Mouth Ceremony Ka Background Information Ancient Egyptians could not have built the pyramids without the unique physical geography of their land. Central to their success was the Nile River. The annual flood freed thousands of farmers from the fields so that they could work on their pharaoh s pyramid. They were free workers, not slaves. Some paid their taxes with their labor, others worked to help themselves in their own afterlife and to insure that the pharaoh would bless the people of Egypt with prosperity and health, even after he had died. The farmers would be organized into work-gangs of 25, led by a soldier who acted as foreman and paid them in food and clothing. One by-product of the farmers wheat crop was straw; mixed with Nile mud and sand it was baked into bricks, used in mastabas,

56 then in ramps for the construction of the great limestone pyramids building, or as the core of limestone-faced pyramids. Granite quarried 500 miles from Giza, at Aswan just north of First Cataract, could be transported in no other way except by barge up the Nile. The hard, white limestone used to finish the exterior of the great pyramids was quarried on the east side of the Nile, at Tura, and had to be ferried to the west side, to Giza. The raw materials available in Egypt determined not only the materials used to build the pyramids, but the tools and technology used by the ancient Egyptians to build the pyramids. Granite and limestone was too hard to be quarried with copper tools, so they were cut with pounder balls of hard dolerite basalt and smoothed with polishing stones of granite. Flint was used as a drill bit, powered by bow; sand or crushed quartz, mixed with water or olive oil, added to its abrasive power. Copper chisels could be heated used to carve details. Egypt had few trees to spare and imported wood from Lebanon. Wooden tools included squares, plumb rules, mallets, wedges, levers, and rollers, while wood would in the construction of scaffolding and as dovetail clamps for the stones. Halfa grass and other plant material was woven into rope or cord (used in boning rods, stretched over stones to make sure they were finished smooth for a tight fit). Ancient Egyptians didn t need laser levels to make a perfectly level foundation for the pyramids. Instead, they dug ditches around the four sides of the planned base and added water, until all four sides were filled equally. Religion and geography mix in the story of Egypt s pyramids. The ancients believed that the creation of the earth happened as the floods receded, exposing a pyramid of soil. They may have also viewed the pyramids as a staircase for the pharaoh to join the sungod. Certainly, all 180 pyramids of ancient Egypt were located where the sun sets and travels to the world inhabited by the spirits of the dead, the west side of the Nile. They were positioned close enough to receive delivery of quarried stone from the Nile, but high enough to escape damage during the annual flood. They had to be positioned where the massive weight (up to 6.5 million tons) could be supported by limestone bedrock. Pyramids were oriented with each side facing the cardinal directions: north, south, east, and west. Lesson Procedures 1. Provide students with a copy of the photographs from Lesson 9 and the Artifact Analysis Worksheet. Direct students to examine the five artifacts and, using five different colored pencils or marking pens keyed to each artifact, to complete the worksheet. Discuss the worksheets, and explain that all five artifacts come from the Old Kingdom, the era when the pyramids were constructed at Giza. 2. Ask students what they think of when they hear the expression, living in the Stone Age. Were the pyramids largely the result of Stone Age technology? Remind students that the only metal items they have examined were the copper offering table and vessels. 3. Announce five teams, each one focusing on the relationship of one of the artifacts to the pyramids. Either assign students to five teams, or allow them to form the teams themselves. a. Teams will need to find out: What the object is How the ancient Egyptians would have made it What the object was used for and why

57 How it relates to the geography of Egypt How it relates to the pyramids in terms of technology How it relates to the pyramids in terms of ancient Egyptian religious belief b. Teams will also have to make a full-size model of the object. All dimensions can be found online at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts website at http://www.mfa.org/. By going to the collections section of the website and typing the number into the collection search box, they will find the object description in the online database. c. Teams will present their findings in the form of an oral report between 5-10 minutes long. Interdisciplinary Links Science: The PBS NOVA series explored the challenges of pyramid construction in This Old Pyramid, first broadcast in 1992. Egyptologists teamed with stonemasons to construct a mini-pyramid, testing out different theories about how the pyramids were built. Students should view this or similar programs, conduct research into pyramid construction, and then formulate a test to compare two competing construction theories. This might become the basis for a science fair project, so students may wish to set up their results on project boards which conform to the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair standards. Geometry: Egyptian priests wore ceremonial ropes with 13 knots equally spaced, creating 12 equal intervals. Some people believe that Egyptian surveyors used these ropes as well, and could create right angles of 3:4:5. There are even suggestions that Pythagoras might have been inspired by the pyramids, resulting in his theorem. Students can create their own Egyptian ropes with string or yarn (the equal spacing is not as easy as it might seem). Then, after making the 3:4:5 right triangle, they should experiment to see how many other triangles they can form, always making sure that a knot falls on each corner. Afterwards, they can attempt to form other geometrical shapes. Which are symmetrical? Which are not?

58 Lesson 9: Artifacts of the Old Kingdom, the Age of Pyramids Flint Tools 13.3452 and 13.3454 Limestone Reserve Head 14.717 Quartz Opening of the Mouth Cup Limestone Goose-shaped Case 13.3478 11.770 Copper Model Offering Table and Vessels 13.2957

59 LESSON 10: Archaeology In this lesson students look at how the changes in Egyptologists methods and technology have changed the way we conduct archaeology and have interpreted history. The activities are designed for students in grades 9-12. Sunshine Standards 1. The student understands historical chronology and the historical perspective SS.A.1.4.1 Understands how ideas and beliefs, decisions, and chance events have been used in the process of writing and interpreting history. SS.A.1.4.3 Evaluates conflicting sources and materials in the interpretation of a historical event or episode. Materials Needed Lesson 10 Photographs: Mummy of a kitten, gold finger and toe caps, painted pottery jar, beadnet dress, female serving figure grinding grain (unrestored and restored) Time Required Two 45-minute class periods (if research is done outside of class) Vocabulary Archaeology Background Information The archaeological treasures of Egypt have not always been treated scientifically or respectfully. The Rosetta Stone itself was the subject of a custody battle between the French army (whose general Jacques-François Menou had placed with his personal luggage in a Cairo warehouse) and the British (who defeated the Menou at Aboukir) the Egyptians had no say in the matter. There was little systematic excavation through the 19 th century. In, 1834, when Italian Giuseppe Ferlini found a hoard of gold jewelry in a chamber near the top Queen Amanishakheto s pyramid at Meroë, he dismantled the entire pyramid along with several others to try to locate more treasure. The mound of Hisarlik, and its archaeological record of successive cities of Troy, was largely destroyed by Heinrich Schliemann on his obsessive quest for the Homeric level. Mummies fared even worse. During the Renaissance they were exported to be ground up into medicines or to make the painter s pigment mummy brown. They were also featured entertainment at Victorian mummy un-wrapping parties. The shift to systematic, scientific excavation and preservation of artifacts was led by many individuals in Europe and America, some as unexpected as Thomas Jefferson, author of the paleontology paper in America, on the giant sloth, Megalonyx jeffersonii and American portraitist Charles Willson Peale, who excavated a nearly complete mastodon (and painted his expedition.) whose story may be viewed at the Museum of Arts and Sciences and read in detail at the Academy of Natural Sciences website, http://www.acnatsci.org/museum/jefferson/index.html. Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie is considered the father of modern scientific Egyptology. Beginning with his 1880-

60 1883 excavation of the Great Pyramid, introduced systematic stratigraphic study of levels of occupation at archaeological sites; he also pioneered sequential dating based on pottery. Petrie s contemporary, Augustus H. L. F. P. Rivers, was responsible for the idea that all artifacts should be collected and catalogued, not treasure alone. Mortimer Wheeler instituted the grid-system for excavation, a discipline which yielded better quality information. Renowned for his excavations of the Minoan palaces of Crete (1899-1935), Sir Arthur Evans stirred controversy with his practice of restoration and partial reconstruction of site structure. In the United States, Alfred V. Kidder extended site stratigraphy to a regional strategy of cultural chronological steps detailed in his 1924 An Introduction to the Study of Southwestern Archaeology. Around the same time, A. E. Douglass pioneered dendrochronology, the science of using tree-rings for dating. Dr. George A. Reisner, field director of Egyptian excavations and curator of Egyptian art at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, applied scientific methodology to field work, producing extensive site notes, site plans, drawings and pioneering the use of photography (1905-1942). George F. Bass, a dry-land classical archaeologist who took a YMCA diving course in 1959 to examine a Bronze Age shipwreck off the coast of Turkey, systematized nautical archaeology. Lesson Procedures 1. Provide students with the historical background of modern archaeological practices and then explain that advances in scientific technology have allowed archaeologists to extract new information, not only from current sites, but also objects already held in museum and other collections. 2. Tell the class that they are going to be assuming the role of curators working at the Megalopolis Museum of Art and Science, of which you are the director. One day, when expanding the museum food court, workmen discovered a lost storage room with five items in it. Explain that they are labeled as follows: a) Mummy of a kitten b) Gold finger and toe caps c) Painted pottery jar d) Faience beads for beadnet dress e) Female serving figure The museum found no further information with the items and no reference to them in their records. 3. Distribute the Lesson 10 Photographs sheet. 4. Explain that in the next week you, the museum director, want: Team A to determine if the items are genuine without destroying them Team B to determine where the items were originally made Team C to determine whether and how the items should be conserved or restored Team D to determine what response the museum should make if the items were looted or if there are individuals or groups who object to the museum displaying the items 5. Before either assigning students to teams or letting them sign up for teams explain each team s task:

61 Teams A and B will need to consider what methods are now available to scientists in the fields of physics, geology, chemistry, botany and biology to accomplish their task. Both teams A and B will need to Prepare a list of tests on the five items, explaining what they are and why they are appropriate Possible tests include: X-rays (polarized, xeroradiographic, spectrographic) NAA (neutron activation analysis) CT scans Thermoluminescence (TL) Potassium-argon (K/Ar) dating Radiocarbon C-14 dating Fission track dating Macroscopy (magnification with electron microscopes) Petrological geochemical analysis of rock composition Heavy mineral analysis Munsell soil color chart for pottery Experimental archaeology (testing out theories by acting them out) Dendrochronology (tree-ring dating) Biostratigraphy (chronology related to evolution of animals) Flotation to extract pollen and botanical material Endoscopy DNA analysis Blood typing Magnetic dating Sonar Infrared photography Group C will need to investigate the conservation and restoration techniques available for these items and to prepare a list explaining what they are prepare a list of reasons for and against restoration, along with a final recommendation for or again restoration Group D will need to consider the ethics of keeping and showing these items and prepare a list of current issues in the archaeological and scientific community including impact on descendent peoples, artifact repatriation, public outreach, the fight against looting and the illegal antiquities trade prepare a list of reasons for and against displaying these objects, along with a final recommendation 6. After forming the teams, provide the remainder of the period for the teams to meet, organize their work plan (who is going to do what) and provide a copy to you. 7. A week later, convene a meeting of all teams and ask for their recommendations in the form of an oral summary and submission of their written work. Discuss how new techniques may force changes in interpretation of artifacts and what impact that has on how history is written.

Interdisciplinary Links Language Arts: From Byrd Baylor s Caldecott Honor Book for children, When Clay Sings (about Southwestern pottery shards found by modern Native American children) to James Michener s sweeping novel based on an archaeological dig in Israel, The Source, and John Keat s Ode on a Grecian Urn, artifacts have stirred writers imaginations. Select an artifact as the focus of a creative writing project such as: a short story for young readers a poem (perhaps in a specific form such as haiku, or a sonnet) a one-act play Government: Investigate Florida s laws related to use of metal-detectors and disturbing archaeological sites. Prepare a pamphlet based on these laws and the rationale behind them to discourage people from taking arrowheads and pottery or damaging sites by amateur excavating or riding all-terrain vehicles. 62

Lesson 10: Mummy of a kitten, Gold finger and toe caps, painted pottery jar, loose faience beads, beadnet dress, female serving figure grinding grain unrestored and restored 63

64 Resource List of Books, Activity Items, and Internet Sites for Students and Teachers Pre-K to 2: Aliki. Mummies Made in Egypt. New York: Harper and Row, 1979. Nicely illustrated book for the early elementary reader; featured on Reading Rainbow. DePaola, Tomie. Bill and Pete Go Down the Nile. New York: Putnam Publishing, 1987. Bill the Crocodile and his best friend, Pete the crocodile bird, explore the Nile River in this wonderful illustrated book by award-winning author Tomie DePaola. Mike, Jan M. Gift of the Nile. New York: Troll, 1993. Nicely illustrated book based on an ancient folk tale, this book tells the story of the slave girl Mutemwia and the Pharaoh Senefru. Stolz, Mary. Zekmet The Stone Carver: A Tale of Ancient Egypt. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986. This elementary level picture book tells a fictional story about the people behind the building of the Sphinx. Sturges, Philemon. Crocky Dilly. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1999. A rhyming, humorous tale of a Nile crocodile and King Menes suitable for early elementary. Also sold with a reversible crocodile-mummy plush toy. Grades 3 to 5: Allan, Tony. Usborne Time Travellers Book of Pharaohs and Pyramids. London: EDC Publishers, 1977. Well-researched book for the upper elementary reader with cartoon-style illustrations examines New Kingdom daily life, agriculture, war, religion, and how Egypt s monuments were built. Broida, Marian. Ancient Egyptians and Their Neighbors: An Activity Guide. Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 1999.

65 This book for upper elementary and middle school students has excellent content, fine illustrations, projects which range from models and math to recipes. It sets the Egyptians in the context of their neighbors, the Hittites, Mesopotamians, and Nubians. Bryan, Betsy & Cohen, Judith. You Can be a Woman Egyptologist. Culver City, CA: Cascade Press, 1993. One in a younger reader series which investigates science careers for women. Caselli, Giovanni. Everyday Life of an Ancient Egyptian Craftsman. New York: Peter Bedrick Books, 1986. Well-researched book about everyday life in ancient Egypt with nice illustrations; for upper elementary. Green, John. Life in Ancient Egypt: A Coloring Book. New York: Dover, 1989. An informative 44-page coloring book about pharaohs, arts and crafts, mummies, temples and monuments for upper elementary students. Grant, Joan. The Blue Faience Hippopotamus. New York: Green Tiger Press, 1984. For third grade and up, a well-illustrated quest story of love and sacrifice; out of print. Crosher, Judith. Ancient Egypt. New York: Viking, 1992. This book for upper elementary and middle school students focuses on the tools and methods used by the Egyptians. Two-page spreads concentrate on specific areas of accomplishment and are well illustrated; activities for students are also included. Harris, Geraldine. Gods & Pharaohs from Egyptian Myths. New York: Peter Bedrick Books, 1992. The myths of Egypt are recounted along with dramatic illustrations. Good for read-aloud at school or bedtime. Hart, George. Ancient Egypt. New York: Knopf, 1990. Superbly illustrated, excellent reference book filled with photographs of artifacts from DK s Eyewitness Series. Highly recommended for upper elementary and general enjoyment.

66 Howard, Annabelle. Stephen Well, illus. The Great Wonder. (Smithsonian Odyssey Series.) Norwalk, CT: Soundprints, 1996. This combination book and audiotape for elementary students provides the sounds as well as the sights of the construction of the Great Pyramid. McCaulay, David. Pyramid. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1975. This book, illustrated with detailed drawings, describes the construction of an imaginary Egyptian pyramid. An ALA Notable book, Pyramid is also available as a video. For high school students and adults, his Motel of the Mysteries is a tongue in cheek warning about what happens when archaeologists try to infer the beliefs and values of civilizations for which there are no written sources. Manniche, Lise. The Prince Who Knew his Fate. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1981. Printed on a continuous piece of paper in imitation of a papyrus document, this book tells the legend of a prince who is to die by crocodile, snake or dog. Millard, Anne. Pyramids. New York: Kingfisher, 1996. This illustrated book looks at the pyramids of Egypt and other cultures from antiquity to the present. An attractive book for elementary students. Morley, J.; Bergin, M. & James, J. An Egyptian Pyramid. New York: Peter Bedrick Books, 1991. This well-illustrated, thoroughly researched book investigates the lives of ancient Egyptians as well as how they built and used the pyramids. Putnam, James. Mummy. New York: Knopf, 1993. Part of the beautifully photographed DK series "Eyewitness Books." Some of the pictures may frighten very young children, so more suitable for upper elementary and above. Putnam, James. Pyramid. New York: Dorling Kindersley; 1994. Distributed by Houghton Mifflin, Boston. Another superb photo-essay DK Eyewitness book. The book covers Egyptian and other pyramids. Roehrig, Catherine. Fun with Hieroglyphs. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1990.

67 This set includes 24 rubber stamps with inkpad and a book about hieroglyphs. Elementary level children can use the stamps to create their own hieroglyph projects. Scholastic, Inc. Metropolitan Museum of Art: Write Like an Ancient Egyptian. New York: Tangerine Press, 2003. This introduction to hieroglyphs includes stencils and stickers so students can write like an Egyptian. Snyder, Zilpha. The Egypt Game. New York: Atheneum, 1979. This Newbery Honor winner is the account of two girls love of ancient Egypt, the make-believe game they invent, and how they are drawn into a murder mystery. Appropriate for upper elementary and middle school students. Stanley, Diane & Vennema, Peter. Cleopatra. New York: Morrow Junior Books, 1994. This beautifully illustrated book about the last pharaoh of Egypt and her relations with Rome is suitable for elementary students. Grades 6 to 8: Carter, Dorothy. His Majesty, Queen Hatshepsut. New York: Lippincott, 1964. This fictional book for upper elementary and middle school students follows the extraordinary life of Hatshepsut from princess, wife, queen, and regent, to woman pharaoh who rules Egypt for over twenty years. Dexter, Catherine. The Gilded Cat. New York: Morrow Junior Books, 1992. A suspenseful, slightly scary tale for upper elementary and middle school students, the book follows the story of a girl who acquires the mummified pet cat of Thutmose the Utmost and is drawn into the world of Egyptian spirits. Giblin, James Cross. Secrets of the Sphinx. Scholastic Press, 2004. This well-illustrated book for middle school students looks at the history, legends, and commentaries surrounding the Sphinx, with ancient and modern commentary, including the recent discovery of the workers settlement at Giza. McGraw, Eloise. The Golden Goblet. New York: Puffin, 1986. Fictional story about the Egyptian orphan Ranofer and his adventure with tomb robbers. A classic, Newbury Honor winner for middle school students.

68 McGraw, Eloise. Mara: Daughter of the Nile. New York: Puffin, 1985. Fictional tale of a slave girl who becomes a spy during the reign of Queen Hatshepsut; excellent for middle school students. Reeves, Nicholas. Into the Mummy's Tomb: The Real-Life Discovery of Tutankhamun's Treasure. New York: Scholastic Books, 1992. Written by a respected Egyptologist who re-discovers a number of treasures from King Tutankhamun s tomb in the secret cabinets in Lord Carnarvon s mansion 70 years after their removal from Egypt. Service, Pamela. The Reluctant God. New York: Fawcett, 1988. A fictional tale of magic, mystery, adventure and romance between a boy who was to become pharaoh and the daughter of an archaeologist. Suitable for middle school. Usborne Cut-out model: Make this Egyptian Temple. London: Usborne, 1989. This full-color punch-out temple is a challenging project, even for middle school, but it afford students the opportunity to interact with Egyptian architecture. Weeks, John. The Pyramids. (A Cambridge Introduction to the History of Mankind Topic Book, General Editor, Trevor Cairns.) New York: Cambridge University Press, 1971. This short book explains how pyramids were built, their technology, materials, and workers. A brief but good background, well illustrated with drawings and photographs. White, Jon. Everyday Life in Ancient Egypt. New York: Putnam, 1963. A good survey of life in ancient Egyptians of all social levels and ages, male and female, including their work, leisure and religious life. Suitable for middle school and above. Woods, Geraldine. Science in Ancient Egypt. New York: Watts, 1988. A good introduction to Egyptian medicine, astronomy, mathematics, architecture and agriculture and their legacy to the present. Suitable for middle school and above. Grades 9 to 12 and Teacher Resources: Aldred, Cyril. Egypt to the End of the Old Kingdom. New York: Thames and Hudson, Inc., 1982.

69 This book traces the history and culture of Egypt from the earliest times to about 2000 B.C. Includes photographs, drawings, bibliography and index. Casson, Lionel. Everyday Life in Ancient Egypt. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001. This is a well-written introduction to the people of ancient Egypt, from peasant to pharaoh. Includes photographs, notes with full information on sources, and index. Conway, Lorraine. Ancient Egypt: Treasures, Tombs and Tutankhamen. Carthage IL: Good Apple Inc. 1987. Excellent workbook for ancient Egypt. Edwards, I.E.S. The Pyramids of Egypt. New York: Viking Penguin, 1993. First published in 1947. A detailed introduction to the pyramids. Includes drawings, photographs, a list of major pyramids, index, and thorough bibliography. Hawass, Zahi A. The Pyramids of Ancient Egypt. The Carnegie Museum of Natural History, 1990. Egypt s curator of the Giza Plateau introduces readers to his nation s treasures. His most recent findings, which are substantial, will be published in a new book in March 2006, called Mountains of the Pharaohs. Rosalie, David A. The Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt: A Modern Investigation of Pharaoh's Workforce. Boston: Routledge & K. Paul, 1986. A skillful recreation of the worker s town of Kahun, excavated in 1887. Smith, Craig B. How the Great Pyramid Was Built. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books, 2004. The author, a public works engineer, tackles the logistics and technical problems of constructing the Great Pyramid without wheel or pulley. Time-Life Books (ed.) What Life was Like on the Banks of the Nile. Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1996. Rather than the traditional survey of Egyptian history, chapters use primary sources to look at the lives of individual Egyptians; superbly illustrated.

70 Internet Sites The British Museum Education Department, Egypt: http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/education/mummy/families.html#reading Features include Journey Into the Mummy (x-rays), Animal Mummies Tour, The Mummy s Tomb Online Game, Temple Food Challenge, How to Wrap A Mummy, Explore a Coffin and much more. BBC, History, The Egyptians: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/ Features include Voices from Egypt, Khufu s Pyramid Complex, Pyramid Challenge Game, Hieroglyph Postcards, Gods Gallery, Timeline, and articles ranging from medicine to women s roles in Ancient Egypt. Canadian Museum of Civilization, Mysteries of Egypt: http://www.civilization.ca/civil/egypt/egcivile.html Features include Geography, Architecture, Government, Writing, Religion, Daily Life, Sciences, and useful Timeline and Glossary. Dig, The Archaeology Magazine for Kids: http://www.digonsite.com/index.html Features include Factoids, Glossary, and Ask Dr. Dig (the opportunity to ask questions about Egypt of a working archaeologist.) Egyptology Resources of Newton Institute in the University of Cambridge, Museums with Egyptian Collections: http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/egypt/museum.html This site features links to the websites of dozens of museums with Egyptian collections. Hieroglyphs.net: http://hieroglyphs.net/0301/cgi/pager.pl?p=01 Features include Name (where you can turn your name into hieroglyphics), an English- Hieroglyphs/Hieroglyphs-English dictionary, Hierowriter (a web-based tool for writing in hieroglyphs), and Compose (a segment on ancient Egyptian grammar). The Ashmolean Museum s Griffith Institute Tutankhamun: Anatomy of an Excavation at: http://www.ashmolean.museum/gri/4tut.html Features include a database of finds, photographs, Howard Carter s excavation diaries, and additional primary sources related to the discovery of Tutankhamun s Tomb (with the intent to publish all maps, drawings, and material related to the excavation.) Museum of Fine Arts Boston Home page at: http://www.mfa.org/index.asp Features include a tour of twenty-five highlights of the collection, links to an interactive Explore Ancient Egypt at http://www.mfa.org/egypt/explore_ancient_egypt/index.html and also the Giza Archives Project, an interactive site with the Great Pyramid and Sphinx, along with much more at http://www.gizapyramids.org/code/emuseum.asp. Neferchici s Tomb at: http://www.neferchichi.com/index.html Features include lesson plans, hieroglyphic writing, free downloads, clip art, fonts.

71 Nova Online (PBS) at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ Features superb websites as companions to programs including Pyramids: The Inside Story http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/pyramid/ and Treasures of the Sunken City http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sunken/ (about Cleopatra s Alexandria.) Check both the Archive s Anthropology and History segments for these and other sites about Egypt. The American Museum of Natural History s Ology Website has a nice activities section at: http://ology.amnh.org/archaeology/stufftodo/index.html Features include making a coin, trash excavation, journal-making, piecing together fragments, and more. The Plateau, Official Website of Dr. Zahi Hawass at: http://guardians.net/hawass/ Dr. Hawass, the Superintendent of the Giza Plateau, posts the most current information about digs and discoveries in Egypt at his website. Walk Like an Egyptian at: http://www.valdosta.edu/~kdgibson/intro.html Kelly Gibson of West Gordon Elementary School has a series of lessons and activities on ancient Egypt designed for the fifth grade.

72 Third-Fifth Grade FCAT Vocabulary in Ancient Egyptian Context Language Arts and Testing Terms After adv. following something in space or time. The Romans ruled Egypt after the last pharaoh, Cleopatra. Approximately adv. almost. Hieroglyphics were invented approximately 5,000 years ago. Before adv. ahead of something in space or time. The pharaoh Akhenaten ruled Egypt before Ramses. Chronological adj. Events in order of happening. Egyptologists are still unsure of the chronological order of all the pharaohs. Compare v. To find similarities. When you compare the teeth of rich and poor in ancient Egypt you find that they are all worn down because everyone had bits of sand and rock in their bread. Consonant n. a letter that isn t a vowel (a, e, i, o, or u.) The hieroglyph of an owl represents the consonant m. Contrast v. To find differences. When you contrast an alligator with a crocodile, you realize that the alligators have very different-looking jaws. Different adj. unalike, not the same. Different animals could survive in and along the Nile River from those in the Sahara desert. Fact n. something real or true. It is a fact that the ancient Egyptians built the pyramids with simple tools. Fiction n. something which is not real but may be imagined. Peter Pan s crocodile who has swallowed a clock and chases Captain Hook in the film is pure fiction. Graph n. a way of organizing information visually. Ancient Egyptians created graphs of the ideal human body and used them in their artwork. Myth n. a story used to explain why things are as they are, often using gods and heroes. In ancient Egypt, the myth about how the moon-god Khensu lost light every time he lost a game to Thoth was used to explain why the moon is not as bright as the sun. Personification n. giving human characteristics to non-human things. The Sphinx was the personification of the pharaoh s power. Purpose n. reason. The purpose behind making mummies was to make certain their spirits would live forever. Represent v. to stand for something. The red crown of the pharaoh represented Lower Egypt. Speculate v. to imagine. Because the CT-scan could not answer every question, people will continue to speculate about how King Tutankhamen died. Summarize v. to make a long story short. It is difficult to summarize three thousand years of history in one paragraph. Support v. to prove. Champollion supported his translation of Egyptian hieroglyphs with charts and examples from ancient inscriptions. Vowel n. The letters a, e, i, o, u (and sometimes y.) Although ancient Egyptians used vowels, they did not often write them, except at the beginning of a word.

Math and Science Terms Amphibian n. a cold-blooded animal that breathes through gills when young, but lungs as an adult. The frog was such a common amphibian in ancient Egypt that it was the hieroglyph for 100,000 is a tadpole. Decay v. to rot. Prehistoric Egyptians discovered that bodies buried in hot sand did not decay. Decompose v. to rot. Ancient Egyptians used natural salts and saps so that a mummy would not decompose. Dimensions n. length, width, or height of an person or thing. Dimensions of the Sphinx include 50 foot long paws and a total body length of 150 feet. Drought n. a time with little water. The ancient Egyptians stored food in granaries so they would have something to eat in years of drought when the Nile did not flood and their crops failed. Environment n. the place in which plants or animals live. The environment of Lower Egypt, is very wet which is why its symbol is the water-loving papyrus plant. Fish n. a cold-blooded animal that breathes with gills in the water. Even the poorest Egyptians ate fish. Friction v. to rub. Ancient Egyptians used water to reduce the friction between huge limestone rocks and the ground so they could move them in place. Grid n. a checkerboard-looking graph. Ancient Egyptian scribes transferred written hieroglyphs to a wall using a grid. Height n. measure of tallness. The height of the Great Pyramid is 481 feet. Length n. measure of a line from beginning to end. The length of a side of the Great Pyramid is 755 feet. Mammal n. a warm-blooded animal which usually has hair and gives milk to its young. One of the most popular mammals in Egypt was the cat, a common pet which was also worshipped as the goddess Bastet. Perpendicular adj. straight up, at a 90-degree angle. Ancient Egyptian builders dropped a string with a weight and waited until it stopped moving to find the perpendicular line for their right angles. Predator n. an animal that hunts other animals to eat them. Many Egyptian gods were show as predators including Horus the Hawk, Sakhmet the Lioness, and Sobek the Crocodile. Prey n. an animal that is hunted by other animals for food. Because ancient Egyptians valued cattle they watched over them so they would not become prey to wild animals. Pyramid n. a form made of triangles on a polygonal base. The Great Pyramid is composed of three triangular sides on a square base. Reptile n. cold-blooded animal with lungs that is normally covered with scales. The cobra was a feared reptile of ancient Egypt because it was poisonous, but it still became the symbol worn by the pharaoh. Texture n. the way the outside of something feels. Ancient Egyptian sculptors rubbed their statues until the texture of the stone was very smooth. Triangle n. a form with three sides. Each side of the Great Pyramid forms a triangle. Width n. measurement of the distance from side to side. The width of the Sphinx s head if 14 feet. 73

Social Studies Terms Adapt v. to change in response to a change in environment. At the end of the Ice Age both humans and animals were forced to adapt to the replacement of the grasslands of North Africa with the Sahara Desert. Agriculture n. raising crops and livestock. The Nile River enabled Egyptian agriculture to support their population and develop a civilization. Architecture n. a style of making buildings. Ancient Egyptian architecture was the first to include massive stone structures such as the Temple of Luxor or the Pyramids. Barter v. to trade one thing for another. Because Egyptians had no money they bartered for goods, such as exchanging wheat for cattle. B.C. adv. Before Christ, the standard method of writing dates. The Rosetta Stone was carved around 196 B.C., over 2,200 year ago. Canal n. a man-made ditch used to carry water fields which needed it or an man-made river boats could travel on. The Egyptians dug irrigation canals to carry the Nile s water to far away fields. Century n. 100 years. The New Kingdom lasted from around 1540-1070 B.C., over five centuries. Civilization n. a group of people with well-developed language, arts, religion, law, economy, and government. The civilization of ancient Egypt lasted for over three thousand years. Commerce n. exchanging goods and services. Ancient Egyptians conducted commerce to get wood from people who lived in what is now Lebanon. Communication n. exchange of ideas and news. Communication was much slower in ancient Egypt than today because messages had to be carried overland or by boat instead of electronically. Community n. a group of people who live in the same area or share something in common. Most ancient Egyptians lived in small, farming communities and traveled only if ordered by the pharaoh. Consequences n. results. To try to lessen the consequences of drought or bad harvest, the ancient Egyptians held back some grain from each crop in the granary. Continent n. a great land mass: Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, or South America. The Nile River is located on the continent of Africa. Customs n. the beliefs and behaviors of a group of people. One of the customs of ancient Egypt was to shave children s heads except for one lock of hair. Decade n. ten years. King Tutankamun ruled for less than a decade before his death. Desert n. a dry area, often hot. Ancient Egyptians called the desert Deshret, the Red Lands. Economy n. the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services created by human labor. The economy of ancient Egypt was dependent upon the Nile River. Empire n. many nations or people controlled by one ruler or nation. The Egyptian Empire extended from Nubia to Syria at its height. Export v. to sell or trade a product from one nation to another. The Egyptians would export papyrus to other countries. Fertile adj. able to grow crops or produce young animals. The mud left every year by the Nile s floods made the ancient Egyptian s fields fertile. 74

Goods n. things that may be bought, sold, or bartered. Cattle, wheat, barley, and flax were important trade goods in ancient Egypt. Government n. the system for ruling a group of people. The most important figure in Egyptian government was the pharaoh. Import n. goods purchased from another country to be brought into a country. Egypt would import spices and perfumes from Arabia. Inhabitants n. people who live in a place. The inhabitants of the Nile Delta lived in a maze of waterways and wetlands. Invent n. to come up with new ideas. The ancient Egyptians invented a system of writing called hieroglyphs. Migration n. movement from one place to another. Hunger caused the migration of ancient Hebrews to Egypt. Monarch n. a king or queen. The monarch of ancient Egypt was called pharaoh after the palace in which he lived. Nation n. a country or area under one government. The nation of modern Egypt is much smaller than the ancient Egyptian empire at the time of its greatest power. Opportunity n. a chance. Having the skill to write gave a scribe the opportunity for a life which was much more secure than the life of a typical Egyptian farmer. Pastoral adj. related to the countryside. Most ancient Egyptians led pastoral lives, tending cattle or raising crops. Primary Source n. proof of an event, idea, or life. Primary sources include artifacts such as amulets, architecture such as the pyramids, and written documents such as the Rosetta Stone. Prohibit v. to forbid. Most ancient Egyptians were prohibited from entering temples. Property n. something which is owned. Ancient Egyptian women could own, buy, or sell property including land, livestock, and slaves. Responsibility n. a duty. Egyptians had the responsibility of paying their taxes to the pharaoh, in goods or by service. Rural adj. having to do with the country. The rural areas of ancient Egypt produced great quantities of wheat, barley, flax, and other crops. Secondary Source n. a description of an event, idea, or person by someone who was not an eyewitness. The encyclopedia entry describing the discovery of the Rosetta Stone by the French is a secondary source. Slavery n. when one human owns another, denies them freedom, and requires them to work. When ancient Egyptians conquered a group of people they often sold them into slavery. Tax n. money, goods, or services paid by a people to their government. Ancient Egyptians sometimes paid taxes to the pharaoh by working on the Pyramids. Timeline n. A group of dates in chronological order drawn on a line. The timeline of ancient Egyptian history in this guide starts in 5000 B.C. and ends in 1960. Trade n. buying, selling, or bartering goods and services. Next to timber, trade in luxury perfumes was ancient Egyptians biggest import. Transportation n. moving something from one place to another. Boats were the main form of transportation of people and goods in ancient Egypt. Urban adj. having to do with the city. Thebes was one of the most important urban centers throughout most of the history of ancient Egypt. 75

76 Sixth-Eighth Grade FCAT Vocabulary in Ancient Egyptian Context Testing and Language Arts Terms Analyze v. To study closely. To understand about ancient Egyptian religious beliefs, you have to analyze their writings, art, and artifacts. Chronological adj. Events in order of happening. Egyptologists are still unsure of the chronological order of all the pharaohs. Clarify v. To make something clear. The Rosetta Stone helped to clarify the meaning of hieroglyphics. Compare v. To find similarities. When you compare the teeth of ancient Egyptians you find that they are worn down in both rich and poor people because they all had bits of sand and rock in their bread. Contrast v. To find differences. When you contrast an alligator with a crocodile, you realize that the alligators have very different-looking jaws. Culture n. Art, architecture, literature, science, music, religion, and social achievements of a group of people. Ancient Egyptian culture is best known for mummies and pyramids. Evaluate v. To judge. Ancient Egyptians would evaluate a site to see if it was solid and had easy access to the Nile before they began building a pyramid. Interpret v. To explain. Before Egyptologists could interpret hieroglyphics, they had to figure out what they meant. Speculate v. To imagine. Because the CT-scan could not answer every question, people will continue to speculate about how King Tutankhamen died. Summarize v. To make a long story short. It is difficult to summarize three thousand years of history in one paragraph. Symbolism n. An object that stands for an idea. The symbolism of the scarab beetle is the idea eternal life. Timeline n. A group of dates in chronological order drawn on a line. The timeline of ancient Egyptian history in this guide starts in 5000 B.C. and ends in 1960. Science Terms Bacteria n. single cell organisms. Mummification was invented to prevent bacteria from causing the flesh on a body to rot. Biodiversity n. the types of life in a particular environment. The biodiversity along the Nile River is different from that in the Sahara Desert. Carbon n. an element found in all plants and animals. Carbon-14 dating measures how much carbon is left in a fossil compared with how much it had when it was alive to figure out how old it is. Decay v. to rot. Prehistoric Egyptians discovered that bodies buried in hot sand did not decay. Decompose v. to rot. Ancient Egyptians used natural salts and saps so that a mummy would not decompose. Dehydrate v. to dry out. A body packed with natron took forty days to dehydrate. Deteriorate v. to become worse. Excavated artifacts must be protected or they will deteriorate.

77 Ecosystem n. a combination of living plants and animals and the place where they live. The vulture and lotus plant are part of the ecosystem of Upper Egypt. Erosion n. the process of wearing away. A recent study of the Sphinx is trying to figure out whether pollution and vehicle traffic is causing faster erosion of the monument. Hypothesis n. an educated guess. One hypothesis about pyramid constructions is that Egyptians applied their knowledge from creating water lifts to irrigate their fields to creating pivots for loading great stone blocks onto boats. Igneous Rock n. rock formed when molten rock (magma) cools. The ancient Egyptians used hard igneous rock such as dolerite basalt, granite and flint as tools. Metamorphic Rock n. rock formed when sedimentary rock is changed by pressure and heat. The metamorphic rock, marble, was one of several types of stone carved by Egyptians of the pre-dynastic era into containers. Rock Cycle n. the cycle by which igneous rocks are worn down into sedimentary rocks which are transformed by pressure into igneous rocks which melt into magma, the source of new igneous rocks. Ancient Egyptians took full advantage of the characteristics of all types of rocks formed during the rock cycle to make tools, buildings, and artifacts. Scientific Method n. the process of identifying a scientific question, formulating a hypothesis, conducting an experiment and making observations, and then drawing a conclusion based on the outcome of the experiment. Experimental archaeologists use the scientific method as they try out using sledges and human labor to figure out how the pyramids were built. Sedimentary Rock n. rock formed when igneous rock erodes and is crushed. Much of ancient Egyptian architecture is made of limestone or sandstone, both sedimentary rocks. Topography n. the physical characteristics and elevations of land. The topography of Upper Egypt was very different from Lower Egypt, causing people to live close together in the river valley and form communities more quickly. Social Studies Terms Adapt v. to change in response to a change in environment. At the end of the Ice Age both humans and animals were forced to adapt to the replacement of the grasslands of North Africa with the Sahara Desert. Adversary n. enemy. For centuries Egypt considered Nubia to be its adversary. Agrarian adj. having to do with farming or agriculture. Most Egyptians lived agrarian lives, raising wheat, barley, flax, fruit and vegetables. Arduous adj. difficult. Pulling a sledge with a 2 ½ ton piece of limestone up a ramp was arduous work. Assimilate v. to become part of another culture. The Hyksos invaders were assimilated into Egyptian culture. Benevolent adj. kindly. Isis was considered to be a benevolent deity, unlike Seth. Centralized adj. concentrated in one person or one area. Ancient Egypt s government was centralized in the pharaoh, his vizier, and nomarchs. Commerce n. exchanging goods and services. Ancient Egyptians conducted commerce to get wood from people who lived in what is now Lebanon. Commodity n. objects that are traded. Cattle were such a valuable commodity in ancient Egypt that they were not used in the fields or to pull heavy loads.

Compensation n. what is given for goods or services. The compensation workers received for laboring on the pyramids was food and clothing. Consequences n. results. To try to lessen the consequences of drought or bad harvest, the ancient Egyptians held back some grain from each crop in the granary. Cultivate v. to grow. Ancient Egyptian farmers could cultivate crops along the Nile because the annual floods deposited fertile soil in which plants could grow. Currency n. money. Ancient Egyptians had no currency, so taxes were collected in goods or services. Despotism n. government by absolute ruler. Government under the pharaoh was despotism; pharaoh made all final decisions and could not be challenged. Domestic adj. of the home. Domestic life in ancient Egypt revolved around the family. Economy n. the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services created by human labor. The economy of ancient Egypt was dependent upon the Nile River. Exploit v. to take advantage of. The ancient Egyptians exploited the limestone deposits on the Giza plateau to construct the pyramids. Extract v. to take. Ancient Egyptians learned to extract copper from ore to create pure copper tools, containers, and other artifacts. Fortitude n. strength. It took fortitude to haul heavy stones on a sledge. Inhabitants n. people who live in a place. The inhabitants of the Nile Delta lived in a maze of waterways and wetlands. Innovation n. coming up with new ideas. The creation of papyrus writing material from a river plant was an Egyptian innovation. Jurisdiction n. an area of authority. The nome was the jurisdiction for the local governors who were called nomarchs. Migration n. movement from one place to another. Hunger caused the migration of ancient Hebrews to Egypt. Obstacle n. something that gets in the way. Ships in the Nile had to watch for many obstacles including sandbars. Opportunity n. a chance. Having the skill to write gave a scribe the opportunity for a life which was much more secure than the life of a typical Egyptian farmer. Pivotal adj. the most important. The pivotal event in Egyptian mythology is the resurrection of Osiris. Preservation n. protecting from destruction. Preservation of ancient cloth and papyrus scrolls presents a great challenge to museums. Primary Source n. proof of an event, idea, or life. Primary sources include artifacts such as amulets, architecture such as the pyramids, and written documents such as the Rosetta Stone. Productive adj. able to make a lot. The fertile mud deposited during the Nile s annual flood made ancient Egyptian fields productive. Prosperity n. riches. The prosperity of Egypt depended on the success of the harvest, especially of wheat. Ration n. a measured amount. Workers on the pyramids received a ration of food. Regional adj. for one area. Sometimes there were not enough regional workers to bring in the harvest, so the pharaoh would bring in workers from other areas. 78

Sanctuary n. a holy place. Only the pharaoh and high priest were allowed in the sanctuary of most Egyptian temples. Secondary Source n. a description of an event, idea, or person by someone who was not an eyewitness. The encyclopedia entry describing the discovery of the Rosetta Stone by the French is a secondary source. Sovereign n. a ruler. The pharaoh was the sovereign of ancient Egypt. Urban adj. having to do with the city. Thebes was one of the most important urban centers throughout most of the history of ancient Egypt. 79