Chapter 2 ANCIENT EGYPT

Transcription

1 Chapter 2 ANCIENT EGYPT It is only in the last 200 years that the achievements of the ancient Egyptians have been rediscovered and appreciated. Today, people travel from all over the world to see the magnificent statues, monuments and pyramids that the ancient Egyptians built to honour their gods and leaders. These treasures help us to understand life in the land of the pharaohs thousands of years ago. INQUIRY What can we learn about societies and civilisations of the past? What have been the legacies of past societies and civilisations? A student: 4.1 describes and explains the nature of history, the main features of past societies and periods and their legacy 4.5 identifies the meaning, purpose and context of historical sources 4.8 locates, selects and organises relevant information from a number of sources, including ICT, to conduct basic historical research 4.10 selects and uses appropriate oral, written and other forms, including ICT, to communicate effectively about the past. A camel driver rests on the edge of Egypt s desert with the pyramids in the distance BC 3000 BC 2000 BC 1000 BC Birth of Christ The rise of Egypt The fall of Egypt The Great ANCIENT EGYPT Pyramid Timeline showing the period during which Egypt grew and prospered 26 RETROactive 1 The Roman conquest

2 AD 1000 AD 2000 Present time afterlife: the time of life after death, part of the ancient Egyptians spiritual beliefs Akhet: the flood season that occurred from July to October each year ankh: a symbol of eternal life canopic jars: pottery jars used to store the intestines, liver, lungs and stomach of a preserved body cartouche: an oval shape surrounding an inscription in hieroglyphs identifying the name of the pharaoh cataract: a large waterfall or series of waterfalls civilisation: a town-based society with complex forms of art, science, religion and government crook and flail: curved stick (hieroglyph for king ) and whip (symbol of Osiris) carried by the pharaoh as a symbol of his royal power deity: a god or goddess delta: area where a river splits into separate streams or rivers before flowing into the sea dynasty: a family of rulers; the period of time a family remained in power embalming: the process of preserving a dead body by using spices and salts frescoes: paintings on a plaster wall or ceiling god: a supreme being worshipped by people heritage: all things inherited from previous generations and which we value, including events, traditions, influences and experiences hieroglyphics: ancient Egyptian written language composed of hieroglyphs (picture-like symbols) irrigation: a way of bringing water to dry land kingdom: a period of time in Egypt s history when pharaohs and their descendants controlled all of Egypt mummification: the process of preserving bodies by drying them, packing them with minerals and wrapping them in linen cloths natron: a mineral used to preserve bodies nilometer: a series of steps used to measure the height of the Nile flood nomarch: the person responsible for day-to-day government in each of Egypt s main regions nomes: the regions that ancient Egypt was divided into to make government easier papyrus: a plant growing along the Nile River, made into flattened strips on which to write Peret: the season for sowing crops that occurred from November to February each year pharaoh: word meaning great house, used to describe the ruler of Egypt in ancient times scribe: person employed to make written records Shemu: the Egyptian name for the harvest season that occurred from March to June each year sickle: a tool with a curved blade, used for cutting grass silt: eroded soil carried by a river sphinx: a statue with a human head and a lion s body temple: a religious place, often a large building, where people go to worship their god or gods vizier: the person who took responsibility for the pharaoh s government and who was the chief judge in ancient Egypt 27 CHAPTER 2: ANCIENT EGYPT

3 2.1 THE ORIGINS OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN SOCIETY N Source Map showing the main geographical features of ancient Egypt and the locations of key cities and monuments Delta LOWER EGYPT Border forts Giza Heliopolis Memphis (old capital of Egypt) Crocodilopolis Stone for the pyramids quarried here UPPER EGYPT To Punt Nile River The Black Lands The Great Pyramid and the Sphinx Coptos Thebes (capital of Egypt) The Red Lands Gold is mined in these hills. Hatshepsut s temple km First cataract Aswan granite for buildings and statues is quarried here. South of the cataract lie the Lands of Nubia. Second cataract (rapids) The Temple of Karnak Gold mined here The Valley of the Kings

4 Until about 7000 years ago, the peoples of the world looked after their food and survival needs by moving from place to place at different times throughout the year. This way of life began to change about 7000 years ago when many peoples began to live in permanent settlements in the valleys of some of the world s major river systems. So far, archaeologists have discovered the remains of people s lives from these times in sites along the Yellow River in China, the Nile River in Egypt, the Indus River in India and the Tigris Euphrates rivers in the Middle East. The ancient Egyptian society that developed around the Nile River was one of the great civilisations of the ancient world. Egypt is located in the north-eastern corner of Africa in the area known as the Middle East. To its north are the Mediterranean Sea and the countries of southern Europe. To the west is Libya, to the east is the Red Sea and Israel. In the south, Egypt forms part of the huge Sahara Desert. People from Africa, Palestine and Syria began to settle along the Nile River in Egypt about 5000 years ago. Over time, they developed a civilisation and ways of living that remained important for 3000 years. You will learn in this chapter how they developed new techniques for farming and watering the land and a form of picture writing which was used to record their way of life and their spiritual beliefs. In ancient times, the northern part of Egypt was known as Lower Egypt while the more mountainous area to the south was known as Upper Egypt. The ancient Egyptians called the Source MEDITERRANEAN Map of the area surrounding modern-day Egypt SEA Lake Nasser 29 CHAPTER 2: ANCIENT EGYPT hot, dry, desert areas of their country Red Lands. The fertile strips of land on each side of the Nile River were called the Black Lands. The Nile River is the most important part of the Egyptian landscape. It is one of the longest rivers in the world and flows 6500 kilometres from its source in the mountains of Ethiopia to its delta and the Mediterranean Sea. Check your understanding 1. Which countries are located near Egypt? 2. What natural features are found in and around Egypt? 3. List three facts about the Nile River. Use your understanding 1. Work in pairs to list as many reasons as you can to explain why people chose to form their permanent settlements in the areas around major rivers. 2. Why do you think Egypt s Black Lands were a better place to live than the Red Lands? Using sources 1. Use source to find the answers to the following questions. (a) Which two cities were capitals of ancient Egypt? (b) Where was a granite quarry located? (c) Where else was stone quarried in ancient Egypt? (d) Was Hatshepsut s temple in Lower or Upper Egypt? (e) What three pieces of information would help describe the location of the Great Pyramid and the Sphinx? (f) Red Sea Why do you think ancient Egypt s cities and monuments were located outside the area of the Nile delta? 2. Use sources and to answer these questions. (a) Which area of ancient Egypt would you have liked to live in? Give reasons for your answer. (b) How would people of ancient Egypt have come into contact with people from other areas of the world? (c) In which directions do you think the ancient Egyptians would have been most likely to travel to make contacts with other peoples? (d) Which features of Egypt s climate and environment would help limit its contact with peoples from outside its borders?

5 2.2 THE GIFT OF THE NILE The Nile River made it possible for people to settle and develop a society in Egypt s hot, dry climate. Herodotus (c.484 c.425 BC), a famous writer of the ancient world, described the Nile as a gift to the Egyptians. This description shows how important the Nile was to their survival. It provided food, water, rich soils to grow crops, a habitat for diverse bird, plant and animal life and a place to enjoy many leisure activities. THE FLOODING OF THE NILE RIVER In ancient times, the Nile River flooded every year. This flood resulted from the torrential rains that came in late spring to the mountains of Ethiopia in east Africa and then into the river known as the Blue Nile. The Blue Nile flowed north to where it merged with the White Nile and then onwards towards Egypt. By summer, the surging floodwaters reached Egypt s first cataract, the geographical boundary that marked the beginning of the Nile River valley and the area known as Upper Egypt. The Nile valley flooded and the river rose as much as ten metres. People who lived in the valley took refuge in their mud huts on the tortoise backs mounds of earth that had built up from centuries of these floods. As well as protecting people from floods, they trapped the floodwaters for many kilometres. When the floodwaters went down, they left behind thick layers of mud that created fertile farming lands for planting grain. These were the Black Lands. Officials organised farmers and other workers into work parties to dig shallow ditches to use as irrigation channels. They also built dykes and repaired sluices so that water could be directed to crops grown further inland. A dyke is a wall or mound of earth built to hold back the waters of the river and a sluice is a channel in which the flow of water is controlled by a gate or some other device. The rise and fall of the Nile River created three distinct seasons and became the basis of the farmer s calendar. The period from the appearance of the star Sirius in mid-july until 30 RETROactive 1 October was the Akhet or flood season; then came Peret, the seed time, which lasted from November to February; and then there was Shemu, the harvest time from March to June. The official Egyptian calendar was a 12-month calendar, with each month consisting of three ten-day weeks. The five days left over at the end of the year were devoted to religious festivals. Each year the two calendars became more and more out of step with one another because the official calendar did not allow for a leap year. The extent of the annual flood was very important. The flood needed to be about eight metres to produce the thick black mud which created fertile, crop-growing areas. A flood any greater than this would destroy a great deal of property, while a flood any less than this meant that the soils would be too poor to produce the necessary crops. The people would not be able to produce enough food to eat. Source Desert Akhet: July to October Peret: November to February Shemu: March to June A modern artist s impression of the cycle of the Nile floods

6 Each year in late May or early June, officials would begin checking the level of the river using the nilometers which were located at the cataracts (see source on page 28). Source was moving in the direction of the current, whereas anyone sailing up the Nile had to rely on the wind (which blew from the north) or take on the difficult task of sailing against the current. The Nile carried many different forms of river transport for a range of purposes. Wealthy Egyptians could cruise the Nile at a leisurely pace in their wooden ships. Pyramid and temple builders would send huge flat barges to transport stone from quarries to building sites. These barges were pulled along slowly by work teams located on the river banks. Cargo boats carried grain and other supplies. Ordinary people fished from small rowing boats near the shoreline. The entry to the series of steps that formed a nilometer As source shows, the Nile was so important that the ancient Egyptians thought of it as a god. Source Hymn to the Nile, written during the Middle Kingdom, c BC Hail to you beloved Nile who comes from the earth to keep Egypt alive. You make the barley grow And bring the wheat to life so the temples can be full of offerings. When the Nile is very low then everyone is poor. The food offerings to the gods are few in number. A million people perish. Greed is everywhere. Even the rich man looks worried. Everyone carries a weapon. When you are flowing, offerings are made to you, dear god. Oxen are sacrificed for you, Birds are fattened for you, Lions are hunted for you, Fire is provided for you. Hail to you, beloved Nile, You make Egypt green, You make men and cattle live. SAILING ON THE NILE The Nile was the main transport route in ancient Egypt. Sailing down the Nile towards Giza was much easier than a journey up the Nile to Aswan. This was because anyone sailing down the Nile 31 CHAPTER 2: ANCIENT EGYPT Check your understanding 1. List three reasons why the Nile could be described as a gift to the ancient Egyptians. 2. What could be the advantages and the disadvantages of the annual flood of the Nile? 3. Hieroglyphs are picture-like symbols used in Egyptian writing. Using the information in this section, explain why the hieroglyph for north is a boat without sails and the hieroglyph for south is a boat with sails. Using sources 1. The Egyptians based their calendar on the cycle of the Nile s floods. Use source to work out: (a) which months could be used for work other than farming (b) which months made up the season for sowing seed and ploughing (c) which months made up harvest time. 2. Look carefully at source What can you see to indicate that the level of the Nile had previously been higher than the level shown in the photograph? 3. Working in pairs, use source to answer the following questions. (a) What did the Nile do for the people? (b) What happened when the Nile s flood was too low? (c) What gifts were offered to the Nile River? (d) What words and actions indicate that the Egyptians thought of the Nile as a god? Literacy skills Write a paragraph of about 12 lines to answer the following question, using the information from your answers in Using sources question 3 and the text: In what ways was the Nile the life source of the ancient Egyptians?

7 THE PHARAOH LORD OF THE TWO LANDS A modern artist s impression of a pharaoh with the symbols of his power a false beard, a bull s tail, a crook and flail. The ankh was another symbol of the pharaoh s power. Legend has it that Menes, a king of Upper Egypt, united Lower and Upper Egypt about 5000 years ago and established a new capital city at Memphis. In reality, the unification of the two lands may have taken place through the efforts of different kings over a 200-year period. The ruler of the two lands wore a new double crown that combined the red crown of Lower Egypt with the white crown of Upper Egypt. Source (a) The nemes a soft headcloth usually made of linen (b) The white crown the symbol of power over Upper Egypt (c) The red crown the symbol of power over Lower Egypt Source PHARAOH S POWER and the pharaohs crowns (d) The khepresh the blue war crown worn when the Egyptian pharaoh went to war as the head of the army, used from the eighteenth dynasty onwards (e) The double crown of power over the two lands People used the word pharaoh, meaning great house because it was considered disrespectful to address their leader by his own name. The pharaoh was so powerful that he alone decided what was the law and his people believed he could make laws for the entire universe. The pharaoh was the main landowner in Egypt and he demanded heavy taxes in the form of goods from those wealthy Egyptians whom he allowed to own land. At different times, people viewed the pharaoh as a god, as their protector and as their leader in battle. People believed he was descended from Re, the sun god, and that he was inhabited by the spirit of the god Horus. As a result, the pharaoh had many duties to fulfil. His people expected him to make sure that: the Nile flooded as required there was enough food for people to eat the gods looked kindly on the people Egypt s army could defend it against any enemies truth, or ma at, was at the heart of Egyptian life. RIGHTS, FREEDOMS AND LAWS The word ma at meant justice, truth, order and balance. These ideas were at the heart of ancient Egyptian society. People believed that the gods brought order and justice to their world and that the pharaoh had to uphold these or their society would not survive. The pharaoh was both the supreme law-maker and the person responsible for making sure that Egypt s laws were guided by ma at and expressed the will and goodness of the gods. People believed that those who did not live according to ma at would suffer ill fortune in this life as well as in the afterlife. In theory, every free person could expect to be treated equally under the law regardless of wealth or status. Men and women had virtually the same legal status and the law gave both men and women an individual legal identity. Both sexes had the right to purchase and sell land; make contracts; participate in court cases; and divorce their partners. By contrast, women in ancient Greece did not have an individual legal identity and could only try to gain legal rights by acting through a male relative. 32 RETROactive 1

8 CIVICS AND CITIZENSHIP FOCUS In reality, the customs of Egyptian society prevented real equality for women. Men had the chance to gain more status and income through their greater involvement in the world beyond the home. The records that remain of ancient Egyptian society reveal a world which viewed men and their interests as more important than those of women. Slaves had rights that did not exist in any other ancient society. They were people who, due to debt, war or the pharaoh s orders, lost their freedom for a limited period of time and could pay to regain it. Ma at required that they be well treated and their children were born free. The pharaoh s wives Pharaohs married in their childhood and usually had many wives, often chosen from among their sisters, half-sisters or other female relatives. This had several advantages: it encouraged the loyalty and support of other family members it kept property and wealth (passed down from mother to daughter) within the family it kept the blood line pure it imitated the marital habits of the gods. Pharaohs also married princesses from the royal families of Egypt s neighbours and the daughters of wealthy and powerful Egyptian families. The purpose of the pharaoh s marriages was to increase support for his position and to increase his property and possessions. It was rare for a pharaoh to marry for love. EGYPTIAN DYNASTIES The pharaohs ruled Egypt from 3100 BC to 332 BC. The position of pharaoh usually passed from father to son, and family dynasties ruled Egypt for many years. A new dynasty started when a new leader defeated the power of the old leader. It was rare for a woman to rule Egypt. This only occurred if she was a close relative of the previous pharaoh and the heir was too young to rule in his own right. Hatshepsut was one of the few female pharaohs (see section 2.5). Historians often divide Egypt s history on the basis of the 30 dynasties that ruled there. Another way of dividing ancient Egypt s history is in terms of three kingdoms the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom. When used like this, kingdom refers to periods when particular dynasties had strong control. Check your understanding 1. List three indications of the pharaoh s power. 2. With which gods did the people believe the pharaoh had a special relationship? 3. Which of the pharaoh s duties would he have been expected to use his god-like powers to perform? 4. How did the idea of ma at encourage a pharaoh to act in the best interests of his people? 5. How were the pharaoh s marriage customs similar to or different from those of royal families today? Using sources 1. What symbols of the pharaoh s royal power are shown in source 2.3.1? 2. Use source to draw the double crown. Label it to explain how the pharaoh s crowns came to represent his control of the two lands of Egypt. 3. Use source to answer the following questions. (a) Name the three kingdoms of ancient Egypt. (b) Match each of the following events to the time period in which it took place: irrigation works undertaken; pyramids built; potter s wheel invented; temples and many huge statues created; Hyksos people invaded. (c) Identify which of these events is closest to and which is furthest from our own time. Source Wars occur to determine who should rule Egypt. No pharaoh is strong enough to rule the land : Hyksos people invade the Pella area. Fighting occurs over who should rule Egypt BC AD Upper and Lower Egypt united. King Menes is the first pharaoh of united Egypt. OLD KINGDOM Greatest period of achievement in Egypt. The pyramids are built and the potter s wheel is invented. MIDDLE KINGDOM Egypt ruled by Pharaoh Mentuhotep of Thebes who is strong enough to rule all of Egypt. Great irrigation works and advances in sculpture. NEW KINGDOM Hyksos driven out of Egypt by new Pharaoh Ahmose of Thebes. Egypt is at its strongest. Beautiful temples and colossal statues built. Egypt invaded by Persia and other foreign powers. Time of great confusion. Timeline of Egyptian history 33 CHAPTER 2: ANCIENT EGYPT

9 2.4 EVERYDAY LIFE IN ANCIENT EGYPT Our lives in early twenty-first century Australia are distant in time, geography and experience from those of people who lived in Egypt between 2000 and 7000 years ago. While archaeologists and anthropologists have investigated many different types of artefact to try to learn about the experiences of life in ancient Egypt, we know we can never fully re-create this time or people s experiences of life within it. The remains of buildings, documents, monuments and artwork have helped investigators to learn a lot about the lives of the wealthy and powerful. It is harder to find out about the lives of ordinary people because the remains of their lives are fewer and more fragile. Unlike the wealthy and powerful, ordinary people did not intend their houses and earthly possessions to last beyond their own lifetime. Thus we have only an incomplete understanding of life in ancient Egypt. Source Priests Looked after religious ceremonies, care of temples, sacrifices and burial of the dead Scribes Could read and write hieroglyphics Recorded pharaoh s orders, decisions of officials, tax owed and paid Prepared inscriptions in tombs and wrote letters Pyramid diagram showing the main divisions in ancient Egyptian society PHARAOH NOBLES Army Commanded by pharaoh (later his eldest son) Run by senior officials Kept law and order, guarded towns, built royal tombs Public service senior officials Ran the courts, royal storehouses Some, called nomarchs, responsible for tax collection and law and order Under control of vizier STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY While the pharaoh was the supreme ruler of Egypt, he could not rule without the support and efforts of other key people. The pharaoh appointed a vizier to act as chief judge and to take overall charge of all the government s work throughout Egypt. He also appointed nomarchs (governors) to take on this responsibility in each of Egypt s main regions or nomes. He appointed officials to maintain law and order, record his decisions and collect taxes. Priests and priestesses oversaw religious practices throughout Egypt. The pharaoh or his son took on personal control of the army. After the pharaoh, the senior government officials and the priests, the next most important people in Egypt were those who worked as merchants or craftspeople. Then came the farmers, fishermen and other labourers. Servants and those with slave status were at the bottom of the social pyramid (see source 2.4.1). FARMING WORK Most men and many women worked in farming. They produced crops of wheat and barley for making bread and beer, or flax for making linen. MERCHANTS AND CRAFTSPEOPLE Slaves Prisoners of war, traded by slave merchants, exchanged in payment of a debt Soldiers Officials in pharaoh's household Able to regain freedom through payment PEASANTS AND SERVANTS Public service junior officials Helped senior officials manage affairs Some formed the medjay (or police unit) which helped the army keep law and order, guard tombs and protect Egypt against bandit attack Farmers also planted beans, cucumbers and leeks and cultivated grape vines from which to make wine. Other important fruit crops were dates, figs and pomegranates. Farmers worked on the pharaoh s land and could also rent or buy land for themselves. The year s farming work began when the floodwaters receded and workers began to direct excess water into irrigation channels. Farmers used a hoe or light plough to prepare the soil on the fields, being careful not to disturb the sand that lay beneath the rich silt left by the flood. 34 RETROactive 1

10 Then they spread the seed across the tops of the fields and sent in herds of sheep to press it into the ground. At harvest time, they used sickles to cut the grain and oxen to crush and separate it from the husk. Farmers then used wooden scoops to throw the grain into the air so that it could be separated from the chaff (the grain s outer covering) before being loaded into bags for storage. Tax officials came around once a year to collect half of what was grown. In addition to sheep and oxen, Egyptian farmers also kept cattle, geese and goats. The number and type of animals a farmer owned was an indication of how wealthy he or she was. Cattle were the most valuable livestock. The fertile farming land resulting from Egypt s annual flood season meant that the Egyptians could grow enough food for themselves and still have enough remaining to trade with others. This also meant that some people could be spared to do work in areas other than farming. WORK IN TOWNS A large town provided employment opportunities for a wide range of skilled workers mainly men. These included brewers, builders, coppersmiths, doctors, goldsmiths, jewellers, metalworkers, paper makers, potters, sandal makers, stonemasons, weavers, wig makers and woodworkers. There were also artists, fishermen, incense roasters, priests and scribes. Some of these people worked in the pharaoh s palace workshops or offices or on one of his huge building sites. Others worked outdoors, in local workshops or in their own homes. Women s work in the towns was mainly as stallholders in the marketplace. One of the most important jobs a boy could get was as a scribe a person trained in the writing skills that were essential for the detailed records that the government kept. HOUSING Egyptians mainly built their towns and villages on high ground within or looking down on the farming land of the Nile valley. They used sundried bricks made of mud mixed with straw as the main building material, and when houses began to fall apart, people would knock them down and rebuild over the remains making the land higher still. Houses had a number of features to help people cope with the hot Egyptian climate. They had flat roofs with vents to let in cool refreshing breezes from the north. In a two-storey house, the kitchen was often on the top floor so that people could take advantage of the cool air coming through the vents and gain some relief from the heat of cooking as well as the climate. Roofs often had a terrace on them so people could sleep and eat outdoors when there was a cool summer breeze. Window openings in the house itself were small and set high into the walls to minimise the impact of heat and glare. For this reason, rooms could appear quite dark. Source Photograph showing an Egyptian wall painting from Thebes c BC, recording some of the different forms of work people did. (Egyptian Expedition of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1930 ( ). Photograph 1978 The Metropolitan Museum of Art) 35 CHAPTER 2: ANCIENT EGYPT

11 The houses of the wealthy Luxury and comfort were important features of the lives of wealthy people. They lived in large (often two-storey) houses with thick exterior walls covered in white limestone plaster to reflect the heat. The white-plastered interior walls, ceilings and columns served as bases for decorative frescoes and enamelled wall paintings. Outside there would be beautiful gardens and pools surrounded by a high wall to provide privacy. The picture below shows you some of the typical features of a wealthy person s home. Source Cattle yards Kitchen Storeroom/ granary Central living area Bathroom/ toilet Bedrooms High protective wall Entrance hall Entry gate Bedroom Master bedroom An artist s impression of the home of a wealthy Egyptian family Ordinary people s houses What we know about ordinary people s homes mainly comes from clay models of them that archaeologists have found in tombs. Ordinary people s houses, unlike the homes of the wealthy, tended to be very similar in style, layout and amenities. There was a living/eating area that could become a sleeping area at night, another separate sleeping area, storage areas for grain and beer and often an outside staircase that led up to a terrace on the flat roof. 36 RETROactive 1 FAMILY LIFE Family life was important to the ancient Egyptians. Parents arranged their children s marriages. There was no formal marriage ceremony. When the parents had agreed on terms, the couple would live together and start a house. Girls married from about twelve years of age and boys from about fourteen. The pharaoh had many wives, although only one wife had the status of Great Royal Wife, from whose sons the next pharaoh would be chosen. Rameses II, who ruled from 1279 BC to 1212 BC, had eight wives and possibly as many as 162 Gardens Servants quarters Stables Well Family temple Verandah with roof for shade Women s area children! Most men had one wife and it was common for a couple to have eight or more children. The law viewed men and women as equals and each partner had control over his or her own property. Divorce was expensive but possible, especially if a man had abused his wife. In most families, children were important to the family s economic survival. At about eight years of age, they began to learn a trade or became involved in farm work. The skills children learned helped to support the family s way of life and enabled them to provide for their parents in old age (that is, in their thirties). Only a small minority of children had the chance to learn to read and write by attending a scribe s school. WOMEN S EXPERIENCES OF ANCIENT EGYPT It is important to investigate women s experiences within different societies in history because often societies have given them secondclass status in comparison to men. Egyptian parents, unlike parents in ancient Sparta or ancient China, did not view the birth of a girl as a disappointment. People had great respect for the goddesses of Egyptian religion and saw women as having many of their qualities.

12 Women in ancient Egyptian society were in name, although not always in treatment, the equal of men. They had greater independence than women in other ancient societies because they had legal rights to their own property, to sign contracts and to work. A woman was therefore not dependent on her husband for her survival and she had the freedom to take part in life beyond the home. Some aspects of women s treatment in ancient Egypt show that society did not see men and women as equals. Wealthy women s lives often centred on the home and child-rearing. Women who worked outside the home often worked in female jobs, such as in textiles or as priestesses. Usually the female partner provided one-third of the goods listed in a marriage agreement and the male partner provided two-thirds. If a couple divorced, the husband still had to support his former wife showing that society saw her as dependent on him. If a couple had joint ownership of a property, the husband could barter (exchange) it for something else without having his wife s permission to do so. The pharaoh s son succeeded him as pharaoh. If there were no sons, the new pharaoh was the husband of one of the Great Royal Wife s daughters. Cleopatra and Hatshepsut were two of the few female pharaohs. Use word-processing or desktop-publishing software if possible to present your writing. Display the finished work on the class noticeboard. 3. Write a paragraph of lines to record your answer to someone who claimed that A child s life in ancient Egyptian society was far better than the life of a child in twenty-first century Australia. 4. Using information from this section, from section 2.3 and from further research, complete the following: (a) Draw and complete a table like the one below (you may wish to do this on computer). Your task is to compare women s position in ancient Egyptian society with women s position in Australia today. Women s position in relation to: Status Choice of partner Age at marriage Number of children Ancient Egypt Twenty-firstcentury Australia Divorce Organise and apply your information 1. On a sheet of A4 or A3 paper, draw a pyramid like the one shown in source On your drawing, include the labels for each level (but not the text boxes). In place of the text boxes, draw or paste in pictures of people from each level of Egyptian society. Give each of the characters a speech bubble. Use the speech bubble to describe the typical features of this person s life. Begin with something like, I am Sahu, one of the pharaoh s nomarchs. My job requires me to take on a great deal of responsibility. I Check the Houses for Sale section of your local newspaper. Using a similar writing style, write a detailed advertisement or article about the home shown in source Your advertisement or article should: identify the main features of this home indicate the special design features that would help the owners to cope with problems of hot weather mention the differences between this home and the homes typical of those of ordinary people. Work Rights Advantages Disadvantages (b) What answer would you give to someone who asked you to explain how the position of Australian women today compared with the position of the women of ancient Egypt? Researching To find out more about women s lives in ancient Egypt, go to and click on the Women in Ancient Egypt weblink. Worksheets 2.1 Design and make some Egyptian jewellery 2.2 Paint a face 37 CHAPTER 2: ANCIENT EGYPT

13 2.5 RULING IN HER OWN RIGHT HIS MAJESTY HATSHEPSUT The wife of the pharaoh was treated as a deity, just as her husband was. She was seen as queen of Egypt and given the title Great Royal Wife. However, it was unusual for a woman to become pharaoh in her own right. Hatshepsut, who ruled from about 1501 to 1483 BC, was one of the few female pharaohs. Hatshepsut was the daughter of Queen Ahmose, the Great Royal Wife of the pharaoh Thutmose I. Queen Ahmose had no sons and so Hatshepsut married her half-brother, the son of one of the pharaoh s other wives. Hatshepsut s husband became the pharaoh Thutmose II. Hatshepsut and Thutmose II did not have any male children and he decided that, upon his death, his son by another woman would succeed him as pharaoh. When Thutmose II died, Hatshepsut s role was meant to be that of regent until her six-year-old stepson, Thutmose III, was old enough to rule in his own right. However, Hatshepsut was very ambitious and, after serving as regent for a few years, she took on the role and title of pharaoh for herself. Source Hatshepsut s temple at Deir-el-Bahri 38 RETROactive 1 Hatshepsut had no right to the position of pharaoh and had to work hard to gain acceptance. She obviously convinced important officials and priests that her rule would benefit Egypt and that she could act like a pharaoh. To encourage approval of her actions, she dressed in the style of a male pharaoh and wore the pharaoh s ceremonial beard and cobra goddess on her crown. Hatshepsut used artwork to create the impression that she was the daughter of the god Amun Re and that her position as pharaoh was approved by the gods. For example, one stone carving showed Amun Re trying to attract her mother, who then became pregnant with his child. Another (see source 2.5.2) shows Hatshepsut kneeling before Amun Re. Hatshepsut expected people to call her his majesty, but records from her period of rule indicate that many got confused by this and found it easier to speak of her majesty. Hatshepsut was a very capable ruler. Prior to her coming to the throne, the Egyptian people had been involved in fighting for many years. She worked to achieve peace and prosperity for Egypt and historians believe she was skilful in her management of Egypt s finances. Hatshepsut also encouraged building programs throughout Egypt, especially on restoration of temples damaged by earlier invasions by Egypt s enemies, the Hyksos. During her reign, she also organised extensions to the temple of the god Amun Re at Karnak. One of Hatshepsut s most important achievements was the way she encouraged trade with other areas of Africa (see spread 2.8). There are many paintings of these famous trading expeditions

14 FOCUS ON PERSONALITIES on the walls of Hatshepsut s temple which is located at the foot of the cliffs at Deir-el-Bahri, near the Valley of the Kings (see source 2.5.1). She chose the subject matter for the decoration of these walls, so historians believe that they show what she thought was important in her reign. Other images on the temple walls show Hatshepsut as the child of the god Amun Re, as a pharaoh/sphinx trampling her enemies and as the organiser of great building works all over Egypt. Hatshepsut had ruled Egypt for about 20 years when her stepson, Thutmose III, managed to overthrow her. For a long time, historians have written that he violently took power from Hatshepsut and some say that he organised her death at the same time, although there is no firm evidence of this. The story goes that Thutmose then ordered men to travel all over Egypt to remove Hatshepsut s name from all the places where it had been honoured and replace it with the names of Thutmose I (Hatshepsut s father) or Thutmose II. For example, at Deir-el-Bahri an inscription obviously referring to a female had the name Thutmose II inserted into it. A statue of Hatshepsut at the shrine of the goddess Hathor was replaced by a statue of Thutmose II. In other places, Hatshepsut s cartouche had its inscription changed to create references to Thutmose I, II or III. In recent times, some historians have claimed that this version is untrue and misleading. For example, Joyce Tyldesley in her book Hatchepsut: the female pharaoh (Penguin, UK, 1996) says that Hatshepsut probably died of natural causes. She explains the destruction of the symbols of Hatshepsut s rule by pointing out that this didn t happen until 20 years after Hatshepsut s death, and the reason was probably because powerful people did not approve of the precedent that Hatshepsut created in her role as a female pharaoh. Thutmose III increased the size of Egypt s armies in readiness for a period of more military action. His rule is remembered for the contrast it provided to the relatively peaceful reign of Hatshepsut. Archaeologists have discovered two tombs for the use of Hatshepsut in the Valley of the Kings area. One contained the mummy of her father, Thutmose I. The other was empty. The mummy of Hatshepsut has never been found. Source This sculpture shows Hatshepsut, dressed as a male, kneeling before Amun Re. Check your understanding 1. (a) List three things Hatshepsut did to make herself more acceptable as a pharaoh. (b) Why did she need to go to all this trouble? 2. What other activities during her reign did Hatshepsut want to be remembered for? How do we know this? 3. Why would it be difficult for historians to obtain accurate information on the reign of Hatshepsut? 4. What could rulers in our own time do to make sure that people of future generations gain a good impression of their rule or a bad impression of someone else s? 5. What do historians views on Hatshepsut indicate about bias and different perspectives in history? Using sources 1. What impression of Hatshepsut s importance would people gain from seeing the temple (source 2.5.1) which was built to honour her? 2. In your own words, describe the scene in the sculpture in source CHAPTER 2: ANCIENT EGYPT

15 2.6 RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND THE GODS THE GODS The ancient Egyptians saw signs of gods in everything around them from the Nile River that provided for their livelihood to the animal and bird life that flourished nearby. They believed their lives were created by the gods, at work at a potter s wheel. They believed that their world had been created out of nothingness and would return to nothingness if they did not follow the religious teachings of their culture and keep the gods pleased. Source Statue of Sakhmet, goddess of war end of each day, Nut, the goddess of the heavens, swallowed the sun and then gave birth to it again the next morning. Another explanation for night was that it was caused by Nut descending from the sky to visit her husband, Geb, the god of the Earth. In the New Kingdom, Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti made Aten, the sun disc god, Egypt s only god and abolished all others. This decision outraged the priests of the time. After the deaths of Akhenaten and his successor, Smenkhare, Tutankhamen re-established the traditional gods. He also moved back to the traditional capital, Thebes, which Akhenaten had abandoned. Apart from a very few artefacts, Akhenaten s and Nefertiti s names seem to have been erased from a great many monuments. This was probably done after their deaths as a punishment for their actions. The Egyptians believed that there were hundreds of gods and goddesses who controlled every aspect of their daily lives, as well as the world of the afterlife. They believed that the gods could take animal form, human form or a combination that was part-animal and part-human. Egyptian paintings often show the gods with a human body and the head of a particular animal. Every city, nome and even village had its own god with a special temple built to honour it. Each household had gods that people called on for special protection, and there were gods and goddesses whom people believed could help them in special situations in life. For example, people believed that the goddess Taweret could protect women from evil forces during childbirth. Sakhmet was the goddess of war; Hathor was the goddess of love and beauty. The god of Thebes, the sun god Amun Re, became Egypt s main god. Wall paintings show Amun Re in human form wearing the pharaoh s crown. Sometimes Amun Re was shown as a ram. People built a great temple in his honour at Karnak. Stories about the gods helped to explain some of the mysteries of the universe. People explained sunrise as the god Re starting on a boat journey towards the west. Another story was that at the 40 RETROactive 1 ANIMAL WORSHIP Ancient Egyptians believed that the gods appeared in real life in the form of animals. By worshipping falcons they showed their respect for the god Horus; by worshipping baboons and ibises they showed their respect for the god Thoth. A person could be condemned to death for deliberately killing a sacred animal. People believed that cats represented the gods Bastet and Pakhet. A cat s owners might mummify it when it died and would express their sadness by shaving their eyebrows. Archaeologists have found hundreds of thousands of mummified cats in burial sites near ancient Egyptian cities. Animals could also be used as a symbol for the pharaoh. The animal most often used in this way was the lion. The sphinx, found in paintings or stone carvings, had the body of a lion and the head of a pharaoh. The best known of Egypt s sphinxes is the one that guards the famous pyramids at Giza. A mummified cat Source 2.6.2

16 Source Anubis Horus Amun Re Isis Sobek Shown as Jackal Falcon with double crown Pharaoh with double plumed crown; falcon Role Mummification Protector of the pharaoh and the city of Memphis Sun god; patron of Thebes Woman wearing a crown or sun disc and cow horns Protector of the dead; wife of Osiris; goddess of children Crocodile God of water Shown as Scarab (beetle) Lioness or woman with lioness s head Role Khepri Source To make the sun rise; to bring fertility Sakhmet Goddess of war An artist s impression of some of the main Egyptian gods An extract from the writings of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, c BC What happens when a house catches fire is most extraordinary: nobody takes the least trouble to put it out, for it is only the cats that matter; everyone stands in a row, a little distance from his neighbour, trying to protect the cats, who nevertheless slip through the line, or jump over it, and hurl themselves into the flames. This causes the Egyptians deep distress. All the inmates of a house where a cat has died a natural death shave their eyebrows CHAPTER 2: ANCIENT EGYPT Check your understanding 1. Why was it important to the ancient Egyptians to please their gods? 2. Which gods did people consider to be their special gods in: (a) Thebes (b) Heliopolis? 3. What was the most important part of an Egyptian s religious life? 4. Which pharaoh and queen had their names erased from many monuments? Why? Using sources 1. Write a list of animals that were sacred to the ancient Egyptians. What information can be found in sources 2.6.1, and and the text indicating that lions and cats were particularly important in ancient Egyptian culture? 2. Using source as a guide, decide which god you would turn to for help in the following situations: (a) getting the sun to rise in the morning (b) the mummification process (c) planting crops (d) training for a swimming carnival (e) winning a battle. 3. Use source and source (on page 28) to work out which god the city Crocodilopolis was named for. 4. Find out more about the gods by going to and clicking on the Egyptian Deities weblink. Literacy skills Polytheistic describes people who believe in many gods. Use your dictionary to find a similar word starting with m which means believing in only one god.

17 2.7 DEATH, MAGIC AND MUMMIES We know a good deal about the ancient Egyptians religious beliefs through the work that archaeologists and anthropologists have done in investigating the contents of tombs. Tomb decorations, coffins, the preservation of bodies and the many objects buried with the dead show us that death and the belief in an afterlife were very important to the ancient Egyptians. EMBALMING AND MUMMIFICATION The Egyptians believed that a body had to be properly prepared in order to live on in a similar way in the afterlife. Most importantly, the body had to be preserved. The Egyptians used embalming and mummification to preserve their dead. The deceased person s body also had to be recognised by its Ba, the bird that represented the person s spirit. The person s life energy, or Ka, would need food and drink for the next life. The preserved body would also be accompanied by familiar possessions. These depended on the person s status in this world and could include clothes, jewellery and even work tools. MAGIC, JUDGEMENT AND THE JOURNEY TO THE AFTERLIFE The Egyptian Book of the Dead consists of scrolls of papyrus containing more than 200 spells. These spells were like good wishes or prayers to help the deceased person survive the journey to the afterlife. The Egyptians believed this journey was full of dangers such as poisonous snakes, fire-filled lakes and even executioners. Knowing the correct spells was an important safeguard, so they were often recorded on coffins. The most important test of the journey to the afterlife was the weighing of the heart held in the Hall of Two Truths. People believed that the gods put the dead person s heart on a balance and weighed it against the feather representing ma at, the goddess of justice. The heart had to weigh less than the feather to allow the person into the afterlife. If the heart was heavier than ma at s feather, the person would be sent to be eaten by Ammit. Ammit had the head of a crocodile. From the front, Ammit had the body of a lion and from the rear the body of a hippopotamus. Source A modern artist s impression of the mummification process with the instructions an embalmer would need to follow STEP 1 Have your jackal mask ready so you can dress up as the god Anubis. Learn the prayers and magic spells from the Book of the Dead. You will need to chant these over the dead body as you work. STEP 2 Wash the dead body with water or palm wine. STEP 3 Use a long hook to pull out the brains through the left nostril. Throw them away. STEP 4 Cut the left side of the stomach and remove the liver, lungs, intestines and stomach. Don t remove the heart as it contains the personality. STEP 5 Cover the internal organs with natron to absorb all moisture. Rub the dried organs with oils and resin and wrap them in linen bandages. Then push them into canopic jars. Put each organ in the right jar. STEP 6 Cover the body with natron for 40 days to dry. Then rub the dried skin with palm oils and ointments. Pack the stomach cavity with perfumed linen and sew up the wound. 42 RETROactive 1

18 STEP 7 Place a magic charm over the stomach wound and a scarab (beetle-shaped charm) over the heart. Then wrap the body with linen bandages dipped in gum. Wrap every part separately. You will need about 370 square metres of linen. Put amulets and charms such as ankhs ( ) in with the bandages. The dead person s soul will need these during its journey to the Kingdom of Osiris. STEP 8 Place a mask made from linen and glue over the person s head and shoulders. If you have time, paint this or cover it in gold leaf. Also place a panel across the top part of the body, decorated with protective symbols and drawings. STEP 9 Place the wrapped mummy in a body-shaped coffin that has been decorated with jewels, paintings and inscriptions of spells. Paint the coffin so it looks a bit like the person when he or she was alive. Be flattering! STEP 10 Tell the relatives the mummy and the canopic jars are ready for burial. Your chief priest will need to accompany the funeral procession to the tomb so he can conduct the ceremony to open the mummy s mouth. The person s soul needs to talk in the afterlife. Remember, the professional mourners will be noisy! Check your understanding 1. What can you learn from source about Egyptian skills in embalming and mummification? 2. Explain the Egyptian beliefs that are behind each part of the process as shown in source Why was the weighing of the heart an important test? Use your understanding Imagine you are an Egyptian embalmer. Design a poster advertising your skills and the different types of preservation you offer. Your poster should include detailed information on what you promise to achieve, the processes involved and the importance of having the work done by a professional. You may choose to use desktoppublishing or other software to present your advertisement with text and images. More information can be found by going to and clicking on the Mummification weblink. Communicating Using information in the source and the text, create a shadow play that enacts the process of mummification. You will need to form five groups with each group responsible for the following tasks. Group 1: Set up a large screen or sheet with a light source behind it, making sure there is enough room for students to act out parts behind the screen. Make appropriate props to represent the materials or equipment that would have been used in the mummification process. Group 2: Practise and perform the roles of Anubis (chief embalmer), an assistant embalmer and the deceased person. Group 3: Practise and perform the role of narrator, telling the story of the mummification process. Two or three students can share this role. Group 4: Promote the play to students and teachers outside of the class. For example, create and display posters, and any other activities that would be appropriate. Group 5: On large sheets of paper or old fabric sheets, paint scenes suitable for an Egyptian tomb to help create a backdrop for your play. Worksheets 2.3 Design and create your own cartouche inscription 43 CHAPTER 2: ANCIENT EGYPT

19 2.8 CONTACT WITH OTHER PEOPLES Ancient Egyptians contact with peoples beyond their country s borders came through migration, trade, war and invasion. Even in cases associated with bloodshed and cruelty, contact with other cultures allowed opportunities for new learning and the exchange of ideas and goods. MIGRATION Migrants from Sumer to Egypt brought ideas for writing and also for using wheels on vehicles. The most important ideas the two cultures shared were those about digging canals and creating dykes. In Egypt, this meant that farmers could redirect the Nile s floodwaters to land beyond the area that experienced the immediate effects of the flood. TRADE A good deal of Egypt s contact with other nations came through trading expeditions that the pharaoh sent to Sinai and places along the Red Sea and as far away as Punt (modern-day Somalia) and the area we now know as Ethiopia. The Egyptians traded extra wheat, barley and flax and also rope and papyrus. In return, they brought in a Source TRADING GOODS Imports wide range of goods including honey and cedar oil for use in embalming; trees to provide the incense used in religious ceremonies; copper, silver, ivory and semi-precious stones; ostrich eggs and feathers; and timber, weaponry and slaves. The Egyptians and their trading partners exchanged goods using the process of barter discussing the value of goods and exchanging them once an agreement had been made. They did not use money until about 330 BC. One of the most important achievements of the female pharaoh Hatshepsut (c BC) was to encourage trade with other areas of Africa. About one-third of the way through her reign, she began sending trading expeditions to Punt on the east coast of Africa. They sailed the length of the Red Sea and celebrated their arrival in Punt with a feast shared with the local chief and his wife. The trading that followed gave the Egyptians the opportunity to swap rings and beads for fragrances like myrrh, for ivory, gold, rare timbers such as ebony and various forms of eye cosmetics (see source 2.8.2). The traders also brought back apes, greyhounds, monkeys, leopard skins and slaves. Exports Source Cedar oil Timber Copper Semiprecious stones Gold Ebony Ivory Slaves Exotic animals Horses Fruit Honey Pots Copper Linen Tools Beads Beer Weapons Oil from Lebanon from Nubia from other parts of tropical Africa from countries around the Mediterranean Diagram showing ancient Egypt s trading partners, the goods imported from each area and Egypt s main exports Many women today use a dark substance called kohl to outline their eyes and eyebrows, a practice started by the ancient Egyptians. 44 RETROactive 1

20 Opportunities for trade and travel outside Egypt s borders were only available to a minority. Poor Egyptians could not afford the carts, horses or camels needed for long distance travel. They travelled by donkey or on foot along the rough roads leading to the local market and rarely travelled any further away from their homes than this. For them, contact with the outside world came through contact with merchants selling goods at village markets; through the influence of migrants; and as a result of invasion. WAR AND INVASION Egypt s wealth and its good supply of natural resources made it a welcome trading partner but also a target for countries wanting to control Egypt s riches. Egypt s desert areas and sea borders gave it some natural protection from invasion until about 1650 BC, when a people known as the Hyksos invaded. Up until this time, Egypt s armies had succeeded in protecting its borders from attack and, apart from a period of warring before the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, Egypt s people had lived in peace. The Hyksos had more advanced weapons than the Egyptians. While the Egyptians fought with axes, bows and arrows, daggers, slings and spears, the Hyksos wore armour, rode on horses and in chariots and fought with curved swords. This contact with the Hyksos and eventual victory over them taught the Egyptians to make different weapons and to use different fighting tactics. Egypt s armies invaded Nubia, Syria and Palestine to gain control of some of the natural resources that Egypt did not possess. During the New Kingdom period (c BC), after the Hyksos had been pushed out, Egypt was at the height of its power and used its armies to protect its borders. By the end of the New Kingdom period, Egypt was losing its power and wealth and its pharaohs were losing their authority. Grand building programs weakened the Egyptian economy. Egypt s soldiers and priests were often more interested in enriching themselves than in doing the work required of them. Egypt lost access to many of its old trade routes and therefore could no longer use these as a source of wealth. Tomb builders went on strike, tomb robbing became common, and the old organisation of Egyptian society began to break down. Egypt became the victim of invasions from Persians, Greeks, Romans and Arabs. All of them imposed their culture on what had once been the 45 CHAPTER 2: ANCIENT EGYPT great civilisation of ancient Egypt and all of them gained ideas from the ancient Egyptians that they used in their own societies. Check your understanding 1. How did the ancient Egyptians have contact with peoples from other countries, and what was the value of this? 2. How did Hatshepsut manage to extend Egypt s trade contacts? 3. How did contact with the Hyksos affect the ancient Egyptians? 4. Create a mind map to show the factors leading to the weakening of Egypt s power. 5. Which peoples invaded Egypt as it became weaker, and how did this affect Egyptian culture? Using sources Using source 2.8.1, what products did Egypt import from each of the following areas? (a) Lebanon (b) Nubia (c) other areas in tropical Africa (d) the Mediterranean Communicating Imagine you are the pharaoh Hatshepsut. You are making arrangements for an official who works for you, Nehsy, to take the trading expedition to Punt. Using the information in the text and any other information you can find, write a letter to Nehsy giving him instructions for the trip. You could decorate the borders of the letter with a suitable design. Take turns to read out the letters to the class, then display them in the classroom. The following are some suggestions for the details that could be included in your letter: the route that you think Nehsy should take (perhaps draw a sketch showing the Red Sea, with Punt on Africa s east coast) how many people he must take to assist him and how many boats will be needed the items to be loaded on the boats for trading with the people of Punt the items you want Nehsy to bring back from Punt (you could describe these in the form of a shopping list of animals, objects and so on, and their quantities) a message of goodwill to the king of Punt the way you expect Nehsy and his assistants to behave on the trip.