The Conjunction A conjunction is a word that connects other words, phrases and clauses reflecting some kind of logical relationship between the connected elements (addition, illustration, cause, effect, contrast etc.). Conjunctions connecting two elements of equal weight are coordinating conjunctions, and those which introduce dependent clauses are subordinating conjunctions. Conjunction Type Examples coordinating conjunctions and, or, but, so, or, nor, for, yet subordinating conjunctions because, since, while, after, if, although, whether correlative conjunctions not only...but also, either...or, neither...nor, both...and 1. Coordinating conjunctions Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two similar grammatical constructions; for instance, two words, two phrases or two clauses. e.g. My friend and I will attend the meeting. Austria is famous for the beauty of its landscape and the hospitality of its people. The sun rose and the birds began to sing. In these examples, the coordinate conjunction and is used to join the two words friend and I, the two phrases the beauty of its landscape and the hospitality of its people, and the two clauses the sun rose and the birds began to sing. The most commonly used coordinate conjunctions are and, but and or. In addition, the words nor and yet may be used as coordinate conjunctions. In the following table, each coordinate conjunction is followed by its meaning and an example of its use. Note the use of inverted word order in the clause beginning with nor. Coordinate Conjunctions and: in addition but: however or: alternatively nor: and neither yet: however She tried and succeeded. They tried but did not succeed. Did you go out or stay at home? I did not see it, nor did they. The sun is warm, yet the air is cool. As illustrated above, when a coordinate conjunction joins two verbs which have the same subject, the subject need not be repeated. For instance, in the example she tried and succeeded, the pronoun she acts as the subject for both the verb tried and the verb succeeded. It should also be noted that when a coordinate conjunction joins two verbs which do not have the same subject, the two coordinate clauses may be separated by a comma or semicolon, in order to make the meaning clear. 1
2. Correlative conjunctions Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs, in order to show the relationship between the ideas expressed in different parts of a sentence. For instance, in the following example, the expression either... or is used to indicate that the ideas expressed in the two clauses represent two alternative choices of action. e.g. Either you should study harder, or you should take a different course. The most commonly used correlative conjunctions are both... and, either... or and neither... nor. In the table below, each pair of correlative conjunctions is accompanied by an example of its use. Note that in the construction if... then, the word then can usually be omitted. Correlative Conjunctions both... and He is both intelligent and good-natured. either... or I will either go for a walk or read a book. neither... nor He is neither rich nor famous. hardly... when He had hardly begun to work, when he was interrupted. if... then If that is true, then what happened is not surprising. no sooner... than No sooner had I reached the corner, than the bus came. not only... but also She is not only clever, but also hard-working. rather... than I would rather go swimming than go to the library. scarcely... when Scarcely had we left home, when it started to rain. what with... and What with all her aunts, uncles and cousins, she has many relatives. whether... or Have you decided whether you will come or not? 3. Subordinate conjunctions Subordinate clauses may begin with relative pronouns such as that, what, whatever, which, who and whom, as well as with words such as how, when, where, wherever and why. In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are underlined. e.g. The house, which stood on a hill, could be seen for miles. I wonder how he did that. In addition, subordinate clauses may also begin with words which are commonly referred to as subordinate conjunctions. In the following examples, the subordinate conjunctions are printed in bold type. e.g. Because it was cold, I wore my winter coat. Let us wait until the rain stops. The subordinate conjunctions below are accompanied by their meanings and examples of use. Subordinate Conjunctions As 1. because: As he is my friend, I will help him. 2
2. when: We watched as the plane took off. After 1. later in time: After the train left, we went home. Although or though 1. in spite of the fact that: Although it was after midnight, we did not feel tired. Before 1. earlier than: I arrived before the stores were open. Because 1. for the reason that: We had to wait, because we arrived early. For 1. for, because: He is happy, for he enjoys his work. If 1. on condition that: If she is here, we will see her. Lest 1. for fear that: I watched closely, lest he make a mistake. Note the use of the Subjunctive Mood in the clause with lest. Providing or provided 1. on condition that: All will be well, providing you are careful. Since 1. from a past time: I have been here since the sun rose. 2. as, because: Since you are here, you can help me. So or so that 1. consequently: It was raining, so we did not go out. 2. in order that: I am saving money so I can buy a bicycle. Note: When used with the meaning in order that, so is usually followed by that in formal English. e.g. I am saving money so that I can buy a bicycle. Supposing 1. if: Supposing that happens, what will you do? Than 1. used in comparisons: He is taller than you are. Unless 1. except when, if not: Unless he helps us, we cannot succeed. Until or till 1. up to the time when: I will wait until I hear from you. 3
Whereas 1. because: Whereas this is a public building, it is open to everyone. 2. on the other hand: He is short, whereas you are tall. Whether 1. if: I do not know whether she was invited. While 1. at the time when: While it was snowing, we played cards. 2. on the other hand: He is rich, while his friend is poor. 3. although: While I am not an expert, I will do my best. In addition, the following phrases are often used at the beginning of subordinate clauses. As if 1. in a similar way: She talks as if she knows everything. As long as 1. if: As long as we cooperate, we can finish the work easily. 2. while: He has lived there as long as I have known him. As soon as 1. immediately when: Write to me as soon as you can. As though 1. in a similar way: It looks as though there will be a storm. Even if 1. in spite of a possibility: I am going out even if it rains. In case 1. because of a possibility: Take a sweater in case it gets cold. Or else 1. otherwise: Please be careful, or else you may have an accident. So as to 1. in order to: I hurried so as to be on time. 4
Remember: When using conjunctions, sometimes the concord and sometimes the tense may change. Memorize the following rules: Concord changes: Two singular subjects joined by and take a plural verb. The cat and the dog are chasing the mouse. With two sentences joined by correlative conjunction such as ether or / neither nor / not only but also, look at the noun closer to the verb. Neither Janet not the boys are responsible. Neither the boys or Janet is responsible. With two sentences joined by like / with / together with / including / as well as, look at the first noun. All the children including John, are busy. John together with the children is busy. Tense changes: since The verb closer to since, takes Past Indefinite Tense and the other verb takes Present Perfect Tense. Since I met him, my English has improved. OR The Present Perfect Tense is used before since and the Past Indefinite Tense is used after since. Two years have passed since my father died. after / when / before Put the action that happened first, further into the past, by using has/had. After they had called the police, they waited an hour. After they have called the police, they wait an hour. while The verb closer to while takes the continuous tense and the other verb takes either continuous or indefinite tense. While I was eating, he was watching / watched T.V. 5
Exercises 1. Paying attention to the meanings of the sentences, and to the presence of inverted word order, fill in the blanks with the correct coordinate conjunctions chosen from the pairs given in brackets. For example: I would like to come, I do not have time. (but, nor) I would like to come, but I do not have time. He has not written, has he called me. (but, nor) He has not written, nor has he called me. 1.1 I opened the door looked out. (and, yet) 1.2 She was not in the back yard, was she upstairs. (or, nor) 1.3 The sun had set, it was still light outside. (or, yet) 1.4 Do you know his address telephone number? (but, or) 1.5 He has not arrived yet, have they. (and, nor) 1.6 I read the book, did not understand it. (but, or) 1.7 We searched diligently, found nothing. (or, yet) 1.8 I invited him his friends. (and, but) 2. Paying attention to the expressions used in the following sentences, fill in the blanks with the words and, but also, nor, or, than, then and when, as appropriate. For example: We should either walk quickly take the bus. We should either walk quickly or take the bus. I had scarcely sat down the telephone rang. I had scarcely sat down when the telephone rang. 2.1 I have both respect admiration for them. 2.2 Hardly had I finished reading over the problem, the answer leapt to my mind. 2.3 It will rain either today tomorrow. 2.4 He could not decide whether to tell the truth keep silent. 2.5 It was not only a beautiful day, the first day of Spring. 2.6 If you follow the instructions, you should have no difficulty. 2.7 He is neither proud condescending. 2.8 What with one thing another, it was very late by the time we left the house. 2.9 No sooner had I opened my eyes, I remembered where I was. 2.10 Scarcely had I heard the news, my friend arrived. 2.11 I do not know whether he has seen the movie before not. 2.12 I would rather wait here risk missing the bus. 2.13 She could find the book neither at the Library, at the bookstore. 2.14 No sooner had I opened the window, a butterfly flew into the room. 2.15 The crowd was both large enthusiastic. 6
3. Paying attention to the meanings of the sentences, fill in the blanks with the correct subordinate conjunctions or similar expressions chosen from the pairs given in brackets. For example: I went for a walk the sun was shining. (because, otherwise) I went for a walk because the sun was shining. Do you know the stores are open today? (as if, whether) Do you know whether the stores are open today? 3.1 We recognized her at once, we had not seen her for years. (although, in case) 3.2 He kept reading he fell asleep. (for, until) 3.3 The moon will rise the sun sets. (as soon as, than) 3.4 It looks the train will be late. (while, as though) 3.5 she got her degree, she became a teacher. (After, Than) 3.6 We will not go skiing the weather is good. (as if, unless) 3.7 he left, he made sure he had his keys with him. (Before, For) 3.8 I told the truth, you would not believe me. (Even if, So that) 3.9 They have known her she was a child. (until, since) 3.10 I must leave now, I have a great deal of work to do. (as, than) 3.11 What shall we do it rains? (or else, supposing) 3.12 you read this book, you would be sure to enjoy it. (If, Until) 3.13 The door was open, we could hear everything. (in case, so) 3.14 I studied more he did. (than, whereas) 3.15 We packed a lunch, we knew we would soon be hungry. (lest, for) 3.16 I will join you, the weather is fine. (providing, than) 3.17 he is very busy, he is seldom at home. (Or else, Because) 3.18 We must hurry, we will be late. (so that, or else) 7