THE REFORMATION AND COUNTER-REFORMATION

THE REFORMATION AND COUNTER-REFORMATION

Background At the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Catholic church had become extremely powerful, but very internally corrupt. From early in the twelfth century onward there are calls for reform. Between 1215 and 1545 nine church-councils are held with church reforms as their primary intent. The councils all fail to reach significant accord. The clergy is unable to live according to church doctrine, and the abuse of church ceremonies and practices continues.

Background In the first half of the sixteenth century western Europe experiences a wide range of social, artistic, and political changes as the result of a conflict within the Catholic church. This conflict is called the Protestant Reformation, and the Catholic response to it is called the Counter-Reformation.

People of the Reformation The Reformation movement begins in 1517 when a German Augustinian friar named Martin Luther posts a list of grievances, called the Ninety-Five Theses, against the Roman Catholic Church.

People of the Reformation As the spirit of reform spreads other leaders appear: Ulrich Zwingli in Switzerland, Frenchborn John Calvin who settles in Geneva, and John Knox who carries Calvin's teachings to Scotland.

Background In the Roman church, a series of powerful popes including Leo X and Paul III will respond to reform demands in various ways. Ultimately, the Reformation creates a northsouth split in Europe. In general the northern countries become Protestant while the south remains Catholic.

Reformation and Art Protestant reformers reject the use of visual arts in the church. Stained glass windows are broken, images of the saints are destroyed, and pipe organs are removed from churches. The Catholic churches responds to this with an exuberant style of art and architecture called the baroque. The baroque is in ideological opposition to Protestant severity.

Martin Luther (1483-1546) while studying law at the University of Erfurt in Germany experiences a spiritual conversion. He joins a monastic order, the Augustinians, and is eventually assigned as a lecturer at the University of Wittenberg. Martin Luther

Martin Luther While working as a parish priest, Luther becomes disgusted by the Catholic Church's practice of selling indulgences. The purchase of an indulgence assures the buyer a remission of sins and thus a shorter period in purgatory. The selling of indulgences is a papal privilege which has been worked to the breaking point. In 1517 a jubilee indulgence is being preached near Wittenberg to generate funds for the building of Saint Peter's in Rome.

Martin Luther Luther uses this opportunity to draw up a list of church activities for which he demands resolution and change. This list, the Ninety-Five Theses is centered around a call to eliminate the sale of indulgences. The Church demands that he retract a number of his protests. Luther refuses

Martin Luther Luther is summoned to an imperial Diet in Augsburg in 1518. Retribution for his crime should have fallen rapidly, but the election of a new emperor, Charles V slows the justice system. Luther uses his time to plan a complete reform program for the church. His reforms include: 1. national, rather than Roman, control of church finances 2. permission for the clergy to marry 3. a series of sacramental reforms which reduce the sacraments to Baptism, a reformed Mass, and the Holy Eucharist.

Martin Luther Due to the invention of the printing press, Luther's reforms are quickly spread through Europe bringing much support. However, Luther is condemned as a heretic by Pope Leo X in the Edict of Worms. He is is forced to escape and live for a year in hiding, but his reforms have taken root. The split in the Roman Church is now irreconcilable.

No Going Back Though the Catholic Holy Roman Empire does not end until 1806, the German states are separated from the influence of Rome during the age of the Reformation. The German princes of the north protect Luther from the pope and the Holy Roman emperor, while gaining political power by assuming many of the privileges once reserved for the church. The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 temporarily reconciles the Protestant north and the Catholic south in the German states, and the conflict moves west into the monarchies of Spain and France.

Social Empowerment Once the Reformation is under way the common people perceive it as a means of social empowerment. The peasant class senses the potential for secular, though not necessarily spiritual, freedoms. The Peasants War, which begins in 1524, is a response to Luther's urgings of democratic reform and a reaction to an unbalanced social system. Luther, initially sympathetic to the peasants, is eventually appalled by the war and angrily addresses the warring faction in a form of a pamphlet.

Drawbacks to the Reformation The social revolt has unfortunate consequences for Luther's reformation. The humanist view that human beings might be brought to higher spirituality through education and innate ability, is a source of contention for the Reformers. Instead the Reformers depend on the concept of man's original sin and his incontestable need for redemption and the Grace of God.

Radical Reformers Luther's Protestantism has by and large beneficially cleaned up the church, but as time goes on the uglier side of the Reformation begins to arise. Reformers more extreme than Luther begin to make further demands for change. Among these is a scholar Ulrich Zwingli in Switzerland. Beyond rejecting the usual discrepancies between biblical teachings and church practice, Zwingli wants all ritual abolished. No imagery is acceptable, not the crucifix, the chalice of the holy wine, clerical vestments, or organ music.

Counter-Reformation The response of the Roman Church to the reformers' demands is the Counter-Reformation. The Jesuits, founded by Ignatius of Loyola, aggressively lead a campaign to support Catholic doctrine. The members of the order acting behind the scenes in the Catholic monarchies, exercise a strong influence in political spheres. Counter-reformation forces will uphold papal authority and will ensure that, canonization and veneration of saints remains a cornerstone of celebratory ritual. In addition the visual grandeur of the church is to be encouraged and generously financed.

Slowing Down In the second half of the 16th century the theological conflict becomes a political power struggle. By the time Martin Luther dies in 1546 and John Calvin in 1564 the Reformation message is complete. The Protestant movement has split into a number of churches, and no more great Protestant reformers are to appear. Ignatius of Loyola dies in 1556 and the Council of Trent ends in 1563, thus also bringing the Counter- Reformation to a theological halt.

Visual Arts Until the invention of the printing press, spiritual teachings rely on mural painting, mosaic, and stained glass which are common in Catholic churches. Protestant reform rejects visual imagery and insists upon the primacy of the word. Mass production of printed material means that religious and philosophical literature is widely available to individuals. Despite the fact that the literature of reform is widespread, the peasants remains largely illiterate. For this reason the spoken words of the preacher become central to the church liturgy.

The Aftermath Before and during the years of the Reformation, exploration and westward colonization broaden horizons and help relieve pressures among the warring factions in Europe. In spite of religious controversies the Reformation is a period of economic revolution, as mercantilism and commercial capitalism gains strength. Science and mathematics come to influence nearly every aspect of life.

The Aftermath In politics the Dutch and English retain constitutional, representative governments, and hold fast to their civil liberties. France and Spain in spite of internal problems are guided by the strong hands of rulers such as Philip II (1527-1598) and Henry IV(1553-1610).

The Aftermath 20th century Europe bears the imprint of Reformation. Italy, France, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, the south of Germany, Austria, and Hungary, Poland, and parts of the Balkans in eastern Europe, have continued to be predominantly Catholic. The rest, Scandinavia, England Scotland, Switzerland, the north and east of Germany, and parts of eastern Europe have largely remained Protestant.