PRINCIPLES OF Environmental Science & Engineering P. VENUGOPALA RAO
PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING P. VENUGOPALA RAO Director Sridevi Women s Engineering College Hyderabad New Delhi - 110092 2012
PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING P. Venugopala Rao 2006 by PHI Learing Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN-978-81-203-2893-8 The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Sixth Printing...... September, 2012 Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Mudrak, 30-A, Patparganj, Delhi-110091.
CONTENTS Preface xi Part One Ecosystems and Population Welfare 1. BIOSPHERE 3 15 1.1 Constituents 3 Atmosphere 4 Lithosphere 6 Hydrosphere 7 1.2 Biogeochemical Cycles 8 Carbon Cycle 8 Nitrogen Cycle 8 Oxygen Cycle 10 Phosphorous Cycle 10 Sulphur Cycle 10 1.3 Human Activities 10 1.4 Sustainable Development 12 Summary 13 Keywords 13 Solved Questions 13 Review Questions 15 Objective Type Questions 15 2. NATURAL RESOURCES 16 39 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 Land Resources 18 Soil Formation 18 Soil Erosion 19 Land Degradation 19 Prevention and Control 19 Waste Land Reclamation 20 2.3 Mineral Resources 20 iii
iv Contents 2.4 Food Resources 22 Livestock and Fisheries 23 2.5 Forest Resources 23 Demerits of Deforestation 25 2.6 Water Resources 25 Hydrological Cycle 25 River Valley Projects 27 Floods and Droughts 28 Watershed Management Practices 29 2.7 Energy Resources 30 Fossil Fuels 31 Hydel Power Plants 32 Biogas 33 Nuclear Energy 33 Ocean Energy 34 Solar Energy 35 Fuel Cells 35 Energy Conservation and Sustainability 35 Summary 36 Keywords 37 Solved Questions 37 Review Questions 38 Objective Type Questions 39 3. ECOSYSTEMS 40 74 3.1 Introduction 40 Characteristics of an Ecosystem 41 3.2 Structure of an Ecosystem 42 Biotic Components 42 Abiotic Components 44 3.3 Functions of an Ecosystem 46 Energy 46 Primary Production 46 Secondary Production 47 Food Chain 48 Food Web 50 Energy Flow 52 Ecological Pyramids 54 Biogeochemical Cycles 55 3.4 Ecological Succession 56 Kinds of Succession 56
Contents v 3.5 Types of Ecosystems 59 Aquatic Ecosystems 59 Terrestrial Ecosystem 68 Mountains and Caves 71 Summary 72 Keywords 72 Solved Questions 72 Review Questions 74 Objective Type Questions 74 4. BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION 75 108 4.1 Introduction 75 4.2 Composition of Biodiversity 76 Genetic Diversity (Diversity within Species) 76 Species Diversity 79 Ecosystem Diversity 79 4.3 Factors Affecting Diversity 80 4.4 Value of Biodiversity 81 4.5 Biodiversity at Global Level 82 Biodiversity at National Level (India as a Megadiversity Nation) 83 4.6 Threats to Biodiversity 84 Natural Causes of Extinction 85 Anthropogenic Threats to Biodiversity 85 4.7 Endemism and Biodiversity 90 Endemic Species of India 90 Endangered Species of India 91 Endangered Flora of India 92 Endangered Fauna of India 92 4.8 Biogeographical Zones of India 93 4.9 Hot Spots of Biodiversity 96 4.10 Conservation of Biodiversity 97 In situ Conservation Strategies 98 Ex situ Conservation Strategies 100 Problems in Conservation 102 Legal Coverage 102 Indian Scenario 103 Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) 103 Recommendations 104 Success Stories 104 Summary 105 Keywords 105 Solved Questions 105 Review Questions 107 Objective Type Questions 108
vi Contents 5. COMMUNITY HEALTH 109 121 5.1 Population Studies 109 Population Welfare 112 Women and Child Welfare 113 5.2 Disease Transmission 113 Occupational Health 115 5.3 Environment and Health 115 5.4 Environmental Sanitation Measures 117 5.5 HIV and AIDS 117 Summary 118 Keywords 118 Solved Questions 119 Review Questions 121 Objective Type Questions 121 Part Two Pollution Control and Environmental Management 6. POLLUTION AND CONTROL 125 177 6.1 Air Pollution 125 Sources and Characteristics 126 Characteristics of Pollutants 128 Harmful Effects of Air Pollution 131 Air Quality Standards 131 Pollution Sampling and Analysis 132 Meteorology 134 Removal of Particulate Matter 134 Control of Gaseous Impurities 140 Indoor Air Pollution 142 Vehicular Pollution 142 6.2 Water Pollution 143 Water Supplies 143 Domestic Sewage 145 Waste Water from Industries 146 Activities Concerned with Water Pollution 151 Water Pollution 151 Harmful Effects 152 Waste Water Treatment 153 Water Purification 162 6.3 Solid Wastes Disposal 168 Municipal Wastes 168 Hazardous Waste 170
Contents vii 6.4 Soil Pollution 170 Soil Remediation 171 6.5 Marine Pollution 171 6.6 Thermal Pollution 172 6.7 Noise Pollution 172 Summary 174 Keywords 174 Solved Questions 175 Review Questions 176 Objective Type Questions 177 7. ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 178 194 7.1 Urbanization 178 Problems Associated with Urbanization 179 Carrying Capacity of a Region 179 Remedies 180 7.2 Industrialization 181 Remedies 182 7.3 Agricultural Revolution 182 7.4 Inversion 183 Photochemical Smog 184 7.5 Acid Rain 184 Adverse Impacts 184 7.6 Greenhouse Effect 185 7.7 Ozone Layer Depletion 186 Causes of Depletion 187 Harmful Effects 187 Remedies 188 7.8 Global Warming 188 Harmful Effects 188 7.9 Hazardous Wastes 189 Nuclear Wastes 189 7.10 Disaster Management 191 Preventive Measures 191 Summary 192 Keywords 192 Solved Questions 192 Review Questions 193 Objective Type Questions 194
viii Contents 8. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 195 215 8.1 Environmental Impact Assessment 195 Methodology 196 8.2 Waste as a Resource 200 8.3 Environmental Laws 201 Requirements of a Contract 201 Environmental Legislations 201 Powers and Functions of Pollution Control Boards 207 Case Studies 207 8.4 Environmental Management Plan 208 Environmental Audit 208 8.5 Policies for Quality Improvement 209 Problems 209 Policy 210 Summary 212 Keywords 212 Solved Questions 212 Review Questions 215 Objective Type Questions 215 9. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 216 226 9.1 Ethics 216 Laws of Nature 217 Progress 217 9.2 Environmental Stress 218 9.3 Sustainability 219 9.4 Self-purification and Regeneration 221 9.5 Action Plan 222 9.6 Computerization and Information Technology 223 Summary 224 Keywords 224 Solved Questions 224 Review Questions 225 Objective Type Questions 226 Part Three Environmental Science 10. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 229 240 10.1 Introduction 229
Contents ix 10.2 Chemical Cycles in Nature 233 Carbon Cycle 234 Nitrogen Cycle 234 Phosphate Cycle 234 Sulphur Cycle 235 10.3 Chemical Reactions 235 10.4 Toxic Chemicals 237 10.5 Applications in the Treatment Processes 238 11. ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY 241 247 11.1 Microorganisms 241 11.2 Environmental Significance 244 11.3 Biological Decomposition 244 11.4 Bio-remediation 245 11.5 Bio-energy from Wastes 246 11.6 Other Methods 246 12. MONITORING AND ANALYSIS OF POLLUTANTS 248 254 12.1 Sampling 248 12.2 General Methods of Analysis 249 Colour Comparison Method 249 12.3 Analysis of Water and Waste Water 250 Colour 250 Turbidity 250 Total Solids 250 Acidity 251 Alkalinity 251 ph 251 Chlorides 251 Total Hardness 251 Chlorine 252 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 252 Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 252 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 252 Iron 253 Sulphates 253 Bacteriological Examination 253 12.4 Air Quality Analysis 253 Suspended Particulate Matter 254 APPENDIX A.1 Interlinking of Indian Rivers 255 Himalayan Component 255 Peninsular River Development 256
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