On side: Classification of Humans

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The modern human, known as the species homo sapien, is characterized by a large and well-developed brain compared to early species of humans.this increased mental capacity has allowed people to excel beyond the abilities of other species through the use of tools, technologies, and arts. Humans are a truly amazing species, but they have not always been this way. Like all other animals, humans have foregone a long path of evolution to achieve their current intelligence. This is assertion is supported by the many species of presapien humans including the ones outlined in the following sections. The most notable of these species are the homo habilis, the homo erectus, and the homo heidelbergensis On side: Classification of Humans 2

Humans didn t always look the way they do today. Millions of years ago, humans weren t even on the planet! Humans have gone through a process called evolution. We before started out as primates that are very similar to the chimpanzees you see today. What differentiated us from our primate relatives a million years ago was the ability to walk. The first man who proposed this idea was Charles Darwin in his book The Descent of Man. In this book, Darwin proposed that mankind is descended from apes. In the 1800s, everyone thought he was crazy. After a lot of research and discoveries, anthropologists learned Darwin was right! Humans are the descendants of our primate cousins. 3

Tools are a very important to our lives today. If tools did not exist, our lives would be much harder than they are now. As our ancestors evolved, so did their tools. The first tools that were ever used were sticks and rocks. The Australopithecus, the first humans, made use of sticks and rocks on the ground as weapons for hunting. They were the first to make use of tools. The next humans to make advancements with tools were the Homo Habilis. They were the first man to make tools! The tools they made were used for protection against dangerous animals like cave lions, and for scavenging for food. Man started using their simple tools for hunting around this time. Much later came a type of man who made fire and utilized it as a major tool. The Homo Erectus used fire to cook. They also made advanced tools like the hand axe to hunt bigger animals for meat.next came the Neanderthals, these humans made the most important weapon. They made the blade. With the blade, the Neanderthals were able to kill their prey and enemies easily. The Cro-Magnon s were the last humans before modern humans to add advancements to tools. These humans learned how to hunt fish, and kill stronger animals with the bow and arrow, a very strong tool. Also, these humans made better blades so hunting could become easier. Modern humans are currently adding to the variety of tools used by humans. We learned how to farm land for food! Also, our weapons have come a longer way. Tools are very important to mankind, and right now they continue to change with the world. 4

The australopithecus is an ancient genus of Hominidae that is believed to have existed in Eastern Africa roughly four million years ago. The genus lasted for nearly two million year before becoming extinct. Australopithecus are characterized by a brain size 35% of a modern human brain. Most species of australopithecus were diminutive and gracile, usually standing between 1.2 to 1.4 meters in height, or about 75% the height of a modern human. It is notable that most species of australopithecus have a considerable degree of dimorphism across genders. In other words, male australopithecus can be up to 50% larger than their female counterparts. The first australopithecine to be discovered and documented was a fossil of a three year old Australopithecus africanus which was discovered in a lime quarry by workers at Taung, South Africa. An Australopithecus Afarensis skull. 5

The australopithecus anamensis is a species of the genus Australopithecus that is thought to have lived in Kenya and Ethiopia approximately four million years ago. The first evidence of the anamensis species was found by a team of researchers from Harvard University in 1965. Further evidence was not found for 22 years when a Canadian Researcher spotted a bone protruding from the side of a hill in Eastern Kenya. The most recent find of an anamensis took place in 2006 at a dig site called Middle Awash in Ethiopia. The first anamensis artifact ever found- a fragment of arm bone now located at the University of Zurich, Switzerland. 6

The africanus species is perhaps the most human-like of the australopithecus genus. Living 3.03 to 2.04 million years ago in southern Africa, africanus are characterized by a slender, gracile body and large cranium that permits a large brain size. Australopithecus africanus have been found at only four sites in Africa: Taung in 1924, Sterkfontein in 1935, Makapansgat in 1948, and Gladysvale in 1992. A replica of the Tuang remains skull. This species is so human-like that the first remains found in Taung were originally mistaken for human remains. The bones were not identified as non-human until two days after they were found, when a visiting American student pointed out the unusual bone structure of the skull. 7

The australopithecus bahrelghazali is a very unique species because it was the first of the australopithecus genus to be discovered outside of eastern/southern Africa. The first bahrelghazali fossils were found in modern day Chad, just southwest of Egypt. This movement suggests that around 3 to 3.5 million years ago, hominin species started to migrate further north. This migration would eventually lead to australopithecus descendants occupying large portions of Europe and Asia. Australopithecus Jaw fragment found in modern day Chad. Fun Fact The genus name Australopithecus means southern ape. The species name is derived from the location that the fossils were found - Bahr el Ghazal in Chad. 8

From the genus Australopithecus, this species is thought to may have been a transitional species between Australopithecus Africanus species form the Homo genus, either Homo Habilis or even the more recent Homo Erectus. A. Sediba first appeared approximately 1.97 and 1.98 million years ago. When compared to other species of the Australopithecus genus, this species is usually regarded as more developed, having a larger adult cranial capacity. Though still small when compared to the later Homo species, it is on the larger side when compared to the other Australopithecus species. It also has a rather well developed hand. This has led to the theory that this species did in fact have the ability to make and use limited stone tools. 9

This species is theorized to be a direct ancestor to the Homo genus, including Homo Sapiens. First discovered 1996 in Ethiopia, this species is believed to have first appeared in the earth 2.5 to 2.6 million years ago. Ancient Olduwan technology of similar age was found near the fossils of this species, giving rise to the theory that A. Garhi had the ability to produce and use very simple stone tools. Despite this fact, A. Garhi had the same average cranial capacity as other species in the Austalopithecus genus.this species is also thought to have been mainly carnivorous, having large canines meant for the eating and tearing of meat. This may have led to their extinction, however, as their environment in Africa eventually developed into an area lush with vegetation but with less than enough meat to support the species. 10

A species from the genus Homo, its name means handy man. It was the oldest discovered member of the Homo genus until May 2012, having been thought to have lived from 2.3 to 1.4 million years ago. Homo Habilis had access to basic stone tools such as stone flakes. Such tools gave them an advantage over the competition of their time period, allowing them to survive in their difficult and dangerous world. This species did not serve as the apex predator that later species and eventually Homo Sapins would become. Instead it served as a main part of the diet of large predators such as the Dinofelis, a large predatory cat. 11

Homo erectus is a member of the genus Homo and is also thought to be an ancestor of current Homo sapiens, as evidenced by multiple structural similarities. Homo erectus has skull and skeletal features similar to a cross between homo sapien and a gorilla or monkey, with the skull having less cranial space than modern man. Homo Erectus was first discovered on the island of Java, Indonesia by Eugène Dubois. This species is thought to have been able to both produce and use stone tools and fire, first appearing on the earth around 1.8 million years ago and went extinct 300 thousand years ago. Homo Erectus is believed to have co-existed with Homo Neanderthalensis for its last 300 thousand years of existence. 12

Last found living on earth from 1.2 million to 800 thousand years ago, this species is presumed to be an evolutionary link between the other ancient species of Homo Ergaster and Homo Heidelbergensis. It was thought to be 5 and a half to 6 feet tall and weighed around 200 pounds. Some believe this species had asymbolic language and possessed reasoning skills. Due to recovered teeth it is currently thought that this species had similar developmental stages to those of modern day Homo Sapiens. One other theory regarding this species is that it is in fact a subspecies of Homo heidelbergensis and that it in fact lived from 600 thousand to 200 thousand years ago. Last found living on earth from 1.2 million to 800 thousand years ago, this species is presumed to be an evolutionary link between the other ancient species of Homo Ergaster and Homo Heidelbergensis. It was thought to be 5 and a half to 6 feet tall and weighed around 200 pounds. Some believe this species had asymbolic language and possessed reasoning skills. Due to recovered teeth it is currently thought that this species had similar developmental stages to those of modern day Homo Sapiens. One other theory regarding this species is that it is in fact a subspecies of Homo heidelbergensis and that it in fact lived from 600 thousand to 200 thousand years ago. 13

Also called Homo Rhodesiensis, this species lived in Europe, Africa, and western Asia. It is believed to be an ancestor of both Homo Neanderthalensis and Homo Sapiens, playing an influential role in human evolution. It may have first appeared 1.3 million to 600 thousand years ago and finally went extinct 200 thousand years ago. It is thought that this species had a primitive form of language and may have been the first species in the Homo genus to bury their dead. There is also limited evidence that this species had limited hunting technology: stone tools have been found from their time period. This leads to the theory that Neanderthals inherited their stone spear making technology rather than developing it themselves. 14

You know, anthropologists don t sit around all day thinking about how humans came to be the way they are today. They actually found a lot of evidence that helped prove their case. One example of remains that were found are the Omo remains. These remains are a wide collection of hominid bones that have been found in Ethiopia between 1967 and 1974. The bones date back 195,000 years, making Ethiopia the place thought to be where Homo sapiens came from. During this time in 1972, scientists were digging in Ethiopia. All of a sudden they found fossil remains of an ancient human. After analyzing the remains, they learned they had found an Australopithecus female who was 3.2 million years old! As a tribute to the Beatle s song Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds which was playing at the time of the discovery, they named her Lucy. Homo sapiens Idaltu was the next important human to be found. His finding in 1997 in Ethiopia supported the hypotheses that modern humans came from Africa. 15

Anthropology- the study of humankind Capacity- the maximum amount that something can contain Charles Darwin- an English scientist who believed humans have evolved over time. Cranium- the skull that protects the brain Diminutive- extremely or unusually small Dimorphism- occurring in or representing two distinct forms Evolution- the process of by which organisms have been thought to have changed overtime to adapt to the environment around them \ Gracile- of slender build Hominidae-a family that includes humans and their fossil ancestors Primates- a mammal of an order that includes the lemurs, bush babies, tarsiers, marmosets, monkeys, apes, and humans. They are distinguished by having hands, hand-like feet, and forward-facing eyes, and, with the exception of humans, are typically agile tree-dwellers. Slender- thin The Descent of Man- a book published about human evolution Tools- an object that is used to carry out a distinct function 16

Image Credits Page 1: http://www.parikiaki.com/wp-content/uploads/human-species.jpg Page 2: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-utc6egpf- Qg/UPFiuzdS9xI/AAAAAAAAF8c/QQ5YCjk1rbQ/s1600/evolution_new.jpg Page 3: http://www.google.com/imgres?q=evolution+of+tools&um=1&client=safari&rls=en&hl=en&biw=1381 &bih=784&tbm=isch&imgrefurl=http://chestofbooks.com/home-improvement/woodworking/handcraft- in-wood-and-metal/the-evolution-of-the- Hammer.html&tbnid=VRii4LI_3MWYAM&docid=5ZAilim62Vs25M&ved=0CF4QhRYoAA&ei=n8yU UYONJYqpyAHVl4HwDQ&dur=2544 Page 4: http://www.britannica.com/ebchecked/media/61165 Page 5: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/australopithecus_afarensis Page 6: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/australopithecus_anamensis Page 7: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/australopithecus_africanus Page 8: http://australianmuseum.net.au/australopithecus-bahrelghazali/ Page 10: http://myweb.rollins.edu/jsiry/lucy_art-render.jpg http://content62.eol.org/content/2012/03/16/00/95512_580_360.jpg Page 11: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/homo_habilis-knm_er_1813.jpg Page 12: http://cogweb.ucla.edu/ep/images/australopithecus-erectus.jpg Page 13: http://estaticos02.cache.el-mundo.net/elmundo/imagenes/2006/09/18/1158569199_0.jpg Page 15: http://estaticos02.cache.el-mundo.net/elmundo/imagenes/2006/09/18/1158569199_0.jpg 17

Shivangi Pandey is currently a student at the Mass Academy of Math and Science. She enjoys dancing, reading, and hanging out with friends. Shivangi grew up in Nashua, New Hampshire and currently lives in Lunenburg, Massachusetts. She plans on studying engineering and economics in college. Andrew McAfee is a student currently enrolled in the Massachusetts Academy of Math and Science at Worcester Polytechnic Institute. In his free time, he enjoys playing video games, having fun with friends, and writing education books for middle school students about human evolution. Joseph Mielinski is also currently enrolled at the Massachusetts Academy of Math and Science and participates in Track, Soccer, and spontaneously eating large amounts of junk food. 18