Mevlana Intenational Journal of Education (MIJE)

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2 Mevlana Intenational Journal of Education (MIJE) Volume 3, Issure 4 December 2013 MIJE is indexed in Turkish Educational Index, ASOS index, Index Copernicus, EBSCO Pub, Educational Research Abstracts (ERA), Aniji, DOAJ, Directory of Research Journals Indexing (DRJI) and ERIC (Published articles in MIJE are indexed by ERIC which is accepted by ERIC reviewers. Articles which are indexed by ERIC indicated in the table of contents in relevant issue)

3 OWNER ADAM, Bahattin (Rector of Mevlana University) EDITOR IN CHIEF ÇELİK, Vehbi (Dean of Education Faculty) EDITOR KORKMAZ, Özgen ASSOCIATE EDITORS NEL, Norma LETSEKA, Moeketsi SAMUEL, Mihael Anthony ASSISTANT EDITOR Durmuş, Alpaslam KAYA, Sinan SECRETARIAT OF THE JOURNAL TOZKOPARAN, Süleyman, Burak ABADIANO, Helen R. (Central Connecticut State University, USA) AGAYEV, Ejder (Qafqaz University, Azerbaijan) AKBAŞ, Oktay (Kırıkkale University, Turkey) AKKOYUNLU, Buket (Hacettepe University, Turkey) AKMAN, Berrin Hacettepe University, Turkey AKPINAR, Burhan (Fırat University, Turkey) AKPINAR, Yavuz (Boğaziçi University, Turkey) AKTÜMEN, Muharrem (Ahi Evran University, Turkey) AKYOL, Hayati (Gazi University, Turkey) ALACACI, Cengiz (Florida International University, USA) AL-MABUK, Rathi (University of NorthernIowa, USA) Anastasiadou, Sofia D. (University of West Macedonia, Greece) ARICIOĞLU, Ahu (Pamukkale University, Turkey) BAEZZAT, Fereshteh (University of Mazandaran, Iran) BALOĞLU, Nuri (Ahi Evran University) BAYRAM, Servet (Marmara University, Turkey) BECK, Mitchell (Central Connecticut State University, USA) BİLGİN, İbrahim (Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey) BİRGİN, Osman (Uşak University, Turkey) BOOYSE, Johan (University of South Africa, South Africa) BOZDOĞAN, Aykut Emre (Giresun University, Turkey) BOZOĞLAN, Bahadır (Mevlana University, Turkey) BÜYÜKÖZTÜRK, Şener (Gazi University, Turkey) ÇAKIR, Abdulkadir (Mevlana University, Turkey) ÇAKIR, Recep (Amasya University, Turkey) ÇANKAYA, İbrahim (Uşak University, Turkey) ÇELİK, Vehbi (Mevlana University, Turkey) CHUANG, Hsueh-hua (National Sun Yat-sen University, Tayvan) ÇOŞKUN, Eyyup (Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey) DANIŞMAN, Yusuf (Mevlana University, Turkey) DEMİREAY, Uğur (Anadolu University, Turkey) DEMİREL, Şener (Fırat University, Turkey) DEMİRLİ, Cihat (İstanbul Ticaret University, Turkey) EDITORIAL BOARD DEREVENSKY, Jeffrey L. (McGill University, Canada) DIBOLL, Mike (University of Sussex, UK) DOĞRU, S. Sunay Yıldırım(Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey) ECIRLI, Ahmet (Universiteti Bedër, Albania ERBAY, Filiz (Mevlana University, Turkey) ERGÜN, Mustafa (Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey) FALLAHI, Vida (Shiraz University, Iran ) GAO, Ping (University of Northern Iowa, USA) GÖMLEKSİZ, Mehmet Nuri (Fırat University, Turkey) GÜNDÜZ, Mustafa (Yıldız Teknik University, Turkey) GÜNEL, Murat (TED, Turkey) GÜROL, Mehmet (Yıldız Technical University, Turkey) GURSEL, Musa (Mevlana University, Turkey) GÜZELLER, Cem Oktay (Akdeniz University, Turkey) HALAT, Erdoğan (Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey) HALAI, Nelofer(Aga Khan University, Pakistan) HAMMOND, John (University of Canberra, Australia) HARPUTLU, Leyla (Ahi Evran University, Turkey ) HERRING, Mary C. (University of Northern Iowa, USA) HOSSEINCHARI, Massound (Shiraz University, Iran ) HUANG, Chi-Jen (National Chiayi University, Taiwan) HUTSON, Bryant (The University of North Carolina a, USA) İŞÇİOĞLU, Ersin (Eastern Mediterranean University, TRNC) IŞIK, Erkan (Mevlana University, Turkey) İŞMAN, Aytekin (Sakarya University, Turkey) KARA, Ahmet (Adıyaman University, Turkey) KARADAĞ, Ruhan (Adıyaman University, Turkey) KARADENİZ, Şirin (Bahçeşehir University, Turkey) KARAMI, Morteza(University of Mazandaran, Iran) KARAKUŞ, Mehmet (Zirve University, Turkey) KARAMI, Morteza (University of Mazandaran, Iran) KARATAŞ, Serçin (Gazi University, Turkey) KARIM, Rezaul (Leading University, Bangladesh)

4 KAUR, Kirandeep (Punjabi university, India) KAYA, Osman Nafiz (Fırat University, Turkey) KESER, Hafize (Ankara University, Turkey) KOCABAŞ, İbrahim (Fırat University, Turkey) KOÇAK, Recep (Gazi Osman Paşa University, Turkey) KUMARAN, Duraikkannu (University of Madras, India) LAVICZA, Zsolt (Cambridge University, UK) LEBLANC, Raymond (University of Ottawa, Canada) LEMMER, Eleanor (University of South Africa, South Africa) LOUW, Gabriel (North-West University, South Africa) MCKEOWN, John A. G. (Mevlana University, Turkey) MEMMEDOV, Behmen (Qafqaz University, Azerbaijan) MICHAIL, Kalogiannakis (University of Crete, Greece) MITTAL, Shree Ram (University of Delhi, India) MOONSAMY, Sharon (University of the Witwatersrand, S.Africa) MSILA, Vuyisile (University of South Africa, South Africa) NAM, Jeonghee (Pusan National University, Korea) NEL, Norma (University of South Africa, South Africa) ODABAŞI, H. Ferhan (Anadolu University, Turkey) OKUYUCU, Cihan (Yıldız Technical University University, Turkey) ÖMEROĞLU, Esra (Gazi University, Turkey) OMRAN, Ebrahim Salehi (University of Mazandaran, Iran) ORAL, Behçet (Dicle University, Turkey) ÖZDEMİR, M. Soner (Kırıkkale University, Turkey) ÖZDEMİR, Selçuk (Gazi University, Turkey) ÖZER, Bayram (Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey) PANDAY, Shefali (University of Mumbai, India) PAPE, Stephen J.(University of Florida, USA) PEKER, Murat (Afyon Kocatepe, Turkey) GIJON PUERTA, José (Universidad de Granada, Spain) PHASHA, Tlakale Nareadi (University of South Africa, South Africa) PING-KWAN, Fok (The Chinese University of Hong Kong) POTGIETER, Calvyn (University of South Africa, South Africa) QUADIR, Tarik (Mevlana University, Turkey) RANA, Rizwan Akram (University of the Punjab, Pakistan) SADEGHI, Abbas (University of Guilan Iran) SAMUEL, Michael (University of Kwazulu-Nata, South Africa) ŞAHİN, İsmail (Selçuk University, Turkey) ŞAHİN, Sami (Gazi University, Turkey) SAMANI, Siamak (Islamic Azad University, Iran) SARI, Mustafa (Mevlana University, Turkey) SEMERCİ, Çetin (Fırat University, Turkey) ŞENAY, Hasan (Mevlana University, Turkey) SHAHIM, Sima (Shiraz University, Iran ) SHARRA, Steve(Michigan State University, USA) SHELLEY, Mack (Iowa State University, USA) SÜNBÜL, Ali Murat(Selçuk University, Turkey) TABAKU, Elida (Universiteti Bedër, Albania) TAŞPINAR, Mehmet (Gazi University, Turkey) THOMPSON, Ann D. (Iowa State University, USA) TÖREMEN, Fatih (Zirve University, Turkey) Trotman, Wayne (Izmir Katip Çelebi University) TÜYSÜZ, Cengiz (Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey) UZUNBOYLU, Hüseyin (Near East University, TRNC) UZOGLU, Mustafa (Giresun University, Turkey) URE, Omer (Mevlana University, Turkey) YALÇIN, Paşa (Erzincan University, Turkey) YALIN, H. İbrahim (Gazi University, Turkey) YAMAN, Süleyman (Zonguldak Karaelmas University, Turkey) YILMAZ, Ercan (Selçuk University, Turkey) YÖRÜK, Sinan (Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey) REVIEWER OF THE ISSUE Abdulkadir Cakir (Mevlana University) Ayse Ozturk Samur (Adnan Menderes University) Ayşem Seda Onen (Hacettepe University) Bayram Tay (Ahi Evran University) Buket Akkoyunlu (Hacettepe University) Cavuş Şahin (18 Mart University) Dogan Bulut (Meliksah Universitesi) Dursun Yagiz (Selcuk University) Engin Aslanargun (Duzce University) Erkan Isik (Mevlana University) Ertugrul USTA (Mevlana University) H. Ibrahin Cankaya 8Usak 1 Eylul University) Hakul Unsal (Gazi University) Haldun Vural (Mevlana University) Hasan Cakir (Gazi University) Hilmi Demirkaya (Akdeniz University) Huseyin Uzunboylu(Near East University) Keziban Tepeli (Selcuk University) Kursat Yilmaz (Dumlupinar University Man-Ki Moon (Chung-Ang University) Mehmet Ali Celikel (Pamukkale University): Mudriye Yildiz Bicakci (Ankara University) Mustafa Turkyilmaz (Ahi Evran University) Mutlu Tahsin Ustundag (Gazi University) Nitazi Ozer (Inonu University) Nuriye Kocak (Necmettin Erbakan University) Oktay Akbas (Kirikkale University) Omer Ure (Mevlana University) Ozgen Korkmaz (Mevlana University) Ozlem Afacan (Ahi Evran University) Recep Cakir(Amasya University) Remzi Can (Ahi Evran University) Remziye Ceylan (Yildiz Teknik University) Rustu Yesil (Ahi Evran University) Sadi Seferoglu (Hacettepe University) Saduman Kapusuzoglu (Abant İzzet Baysal University) Soner M. Ozdemir (Kirikkale University) Suleyman Yaman (Bulent Ecevit Univesity) Tufan Adiguzel (Bahçeşehir University) Turhan Cetin (Gazi University) Turkan Karakus (Ataturk University)

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS School Learning Responsibility Scale s Validity and Reliability Study (For Primary School Students) RustuYesil Use of Literature to Enhance Motivation in ELT Classes Haldun Vural A comparative study of social network usage and adoption among Turkish prospective teachers Aylin Tutgun Unal, Osman Koroglu Metaphorical Perceptions of Teacher Candidates towards the School Concept: Lotus Flower Model Canan Kocak Development of an internet-based exam system for mobile environments and evaluation of its usability Aslihan Tufekci, Hasan Ekinci, Utku Kose The Effect of 2011 Van Earthquake on 8th Grade Students' Value Rankings Bülent Akbaba, Bahadır Kilcan, Osman Cepni Evaluation of the Standards for Recruiting and Training Elementary School Principals Used in Some European Union Countries by Teachers and School Principals in Turkey Ali Balcı, Hasan Basri Memduhoglu, Abdurrahman Ilgan, Mustafa Erdem, Murat Tasdan The Utilization of Social Media Tools for Informal Learning Activities: A Survey Study Ilker Yakin, Ilke Evin Gencel The teacher student relationship as a predictor of preschoolers social anxiety Neslihan Durmusoglu Saltali Assessing the oral English proficiency of the Faculty of Fountain international School: Inputs to in-service training Yusuf Ozdemir

6 The Effects of Teachers Educational Technology Skills on Their Classroom Management Skills Ilhan Varank, Savas Ilhan The effect of the classroom activities on classroom management in the teachinglearning process: The case of Uşak City Durdagi Akan, Murat Basar Application of the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER Techniques on the 7th Grade Course Unit "Human and Environment": An Exemplary Case Study Sinem Toraman, Sertel Altun School Policies and Practices at Upper Secondary Schools in Turkey According to PISA 2009 Data Mustafa Ozmusul, Gulsun Atanur Baskan Stress Coping Approaches in Terms of Sociotropic and Autonomous Personalities: A cross-sectional study among Turkish university students Bahadir Bozoglan Validity and Reliability Study of the Internet Addiction Test Hafize Keser, Necmi Esgi, Tugba Kocadag, Sanser Bulu Assessing Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategy Use for Students from the Faculty of Education at the University of King Abdulaziz Ahmad Mousa Al Dawaideh, Ibrahim Abdu Al-Saadi Evaluation of Alternative Preschool Education Programs Regarding Their Perspectives on Teaching Science and Nature Hasret Nuhoglu Exploring the Turkish Teachers Professional Development Experiences and Their Needs for Professional Development Soner Mehmet Ozdemir The Impact of Mnemonic Devices on Attainment and Recall in Basic Knowledge Acquisition in Nursing Education Onur Koksal, Ali Murat Sunbul, Yunus Emre Ozturk, Musa Ozata

7 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp. 1-14, 1 December, 2013 Available online at School Learning Responsibility Scale s Validity and Reliability Study (For Primary School Students) RüştüYeşil * Ahi Evran University, Educational Faculty, Department of Educational Sciences, Kırşehir, Turkey Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Learning responsibility, course, school learning, scale, validity, reliability. Learning responsibility is one of the responsibility types which are frequently emphasized particularly in recent years. However, determining to what extent schools and educators are able to make the students acquire learning responsibility is an important problem that should be paid attention. This study was aimed to develop a measurement tool which can be used to determine school learning responsibility levels of primary school students based on their self-perceptions. Study group of this study consisted of a total 579 primary school students. In development process of the scale, firstly, literature review was made and was interviewed with primary school teachers. Within the framework of validity analyses of the scale; (1) Exploratory factor analysis, (2) Confirmatory factor analysis, (3) Item-test correlations, (4) Item discrimination powers were done. The reliability analyses were done as calculated (1) internal consistency (2) determination and (3) unbiasedness coefficients. After exploratory factor analysis; a scale structure consisting of 24 items collected under 2 factors were observed. KMO value of the scale was 0.937; Bartlett s test values were x2=4638,648; sd=276; p< Factor loads of the items were between and Amount of explained variance was %. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that among model fit values χ2/d (3.17), RMSEA (0.61), GFI (0.90), AGFI (0.88) showed an acceptable match while S- RMR (0.047), NNFI (0.97) CFI (0.97) and IFI (0.97) showed perfect match. Item-test correlations of the items in the scale were between and 0.680; while t-test values related to discrimination powers were between and Each relationship and difference was significant at p<0.01 level. Internal consistency of the scale was Cronbach s alpha Unbiasedness coefficients were between Cronbach s alpha and Coefficient of determination was by Pearson s test. It can be stated that School Learning Responsibility Scale (SLRS) is a valid and reliable scale which can be used to determine students levels of fulfilling learning responsibilities. Findings obtained from SLRS for students levels of fulfilling their learning responsibilities can be effectively used to determine potential precautions to be taken to make educational process more efficient and to encourage students to be individuals with learning responsibility. On the other hand, we hope that school administrators and teachers make realistic assessments about the cases of academic failure of students. * Correspondence: Ahi Evran University, Educational Faculty,Department of Educational Sciences, Kırşehir/Turkey; [email protected]

8 School Learning Responsibility Scale s Validity and Reliability R. Yeşil Introduction Learning responsibility is one of the responsibility types which are frequently emphasized particularly in recent years (Barr &Tagg, 1995; Shavelson, 2007; Stockdale & Brockett, 2010; Yıldırım, 2008). Clouder (2009) reported that responsibility can only be acquired through education, and it was educatory at the same time. For Dewey, responsibility is one of the principle components that form character and has the power to shape behaviors (Cited by: Gosselin, 2003). Hughes (2001) pointed out to the importance of students undertaking learning responsibility by saying: It seems that responsibility is a key concept in development of life-long learning policies. Encouraging students to take responsibility seems to be the key problem (p.601). On the other hand, one of the principle objectives of education is to help the students to make them active learners. This requires the students to have learning responsibility. In other words, it can be stated that learning responsibility forms the basis of learning other responsibilities (Senemoğlu, 2011; Yıldırım, 2009). However, determining to what extent schools and educators are able to make the students acquire learning responsibility is an important problem that should be paid attention. It can be stated that firstly there are two principle needs to overcome this problem. The first one is to determine characteristics and behaviors that should be observed in individuals who fulfill learning responsibilities. The second need involves valid and reliable measurement tools which can measure whether these characteristics are acquired. The literature contains a large body of research on the first dimension (Yontar&Yurtal, 2009; Yıldırım, 2008; Young, 2005; Töremen, 2011). The behaviors specified by scientists and educators can be listed under two groups, which are learning duties of the student during the course and learning duties of the student outside the course (Yıldırım, 2008; Carnell, 2005; Ellinger, 2004; Davis & Murrell, 1994; Hughes, 2001; Yıldırım, 2009). As for the second need, a review of the literature found no measurement tool to measure learning responsibility levels of students. As a matter of fact, due to this need, scientists and administrators make a call for developing measurement tools. Shavelson (2007) reported that all official reports discussed whether assessments can be made by directly measuring the learning responsibilities of students. On the other hand, White (1998) reported that traditional measurement and evaluation tools and methods fell behind determining responsibility fulfillment levels of students. According to White, responsibilities of students were only limited to writing or marking what were explained in books on exam paper. In line with these calls, the present study was carried out to develop a measurement tool which can be used to determine learning responsibility levels of students based on their selfperceptions. We aimed to develop a valid and reliable measurement tool which can be used to determine levels of education institutions to make the students acquire learning responsibilities and learning responsibility levels of students which will lay the basis for making them life-long learners. It was believed that having such a scale will contribute to supply of reliable information on eliminating deficiency and drawbacks in the field and to the development of education programs. On the other hand, it will also contribute to elimination of an important deficiency by responding to abovementioned calls. -2-

9 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 1-14, 1 December, 2013 Method Sample Participants of the scale development group.study group of this study consisted of a total 579 students enrolled in 5. and 8. grades of randomly selected 8 primary schools in Kırşehir city center. 5. and 8. grade students were selected since these student can be considered as the products of primary education I. and II. levels. A scale which can be used for the students in both levels was aimed to be developed. Distribution of the students in the study group was summarized in Table 1. Table 1: Distribution of study group according to class level and gender Male Female Total 5. grade grade Total Development Process of School Learning Responsibility Scale Process steps for the development of School Learning Responsibility Scale (SLRS) can be listed as follows: 1. Preparation of item pool:firstly, literature review was conducted during development process of the scale (Yontar&Yurtal, 2009; Clouder, 2009; Gosselin, 2003; Töremen, 2011; Ellinger, 2004; Shavelson, 2007; Young, 2005; White, 1998; Macready, 2009). In this framework, we tried to make a list of characteristics of in-class and out-class attitudes and behaviors of the students who have and do not have learning responsibility. Secondly, we asked 50 randomly selected teachers in primary education to write criteria which they can use to evaluate their students in terms of having learning responsibility. An item pool consisting of 37 items was prepared to determine students levels of fulfilling their learning responsibilities. Five-degree options were listed to determine how often the students showed the indicated behaviors. These options were organized and scored as (0) Never, (1) Rarely, (2) Sometimes, (3) Often and (4) Always. 2. Analysis/correction of items in the pool: Draft items were analyzed by five experts including two linguistics experts, two educational curriculums and teaching experts and one psychological counseling and guidance expert and 30 students, 15 of who were studying at 5th grade and 15 of who were studying at 8th grade. The items were analyzed in terms of scope, wording, spelling and punctuation. Necessary corrections were made in line with critics and 5 questions were excluded from item pool. 3. Organization of draft scale: Draft scale was organized to have a 32-item structure after the excluded items. The scale was named as School Learning Responsibility Scale (SLRS) as it involves learning responsibilities of students. 4. Administration of draft scale to study group: SLRS was administered to the study group during one lesson hour under the supervision of course teachers. 5. Validity analysis of the scale: (1) Exploratory factor analysis, (2) confirmatory factor analysis (3) item-total correlation analysis (4) item discrimination analysis were performed for the validity analysis of SLRS. -3-

10 School Learning Responsibility Scale s Validity and Reliability R. Yeşil Within the scope of factor analysis using SPSS 15.0, KMO and Barlett s test, and Varimax vertical rotation technique were used. Data collected from a different group consisting of a total of 264 people having similar characteristics were transferred to Lisrel 8.80 program and confirmatory factor analysis was made to test factor structure of SLRS. In addition to exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, item-total correlations were calculated using Pearson s r test and discrimination powers of the items in the scale were calculated using independent sample t-test. p<0.01 level was considered as sufficient for significance. 6. Reliability analyses of the scale: Internal consistency test, stability test and unbiasedness tests were performed to determine reliability of the scale. Cronbach s alpha reliability coefficient was used to determine internal consistency level. On the other hand, stability level of the scale was calculated by determining the correlation between the results of two applications conducted with five-week interval using Pearson s r test. Unbiased measurement was tested by calculating Cronbach s alpha reliability coefficients for sub-groups based on class level and gender variables of the study group. Findings and Results Validity of School Learning Responsibility Scale Validity is one of the principle properties of measurement tools. Factor analysis, item total correlations and analysis of item discrimination powers are among the tests which are recommended to be used in testing validity qualities of measurement tools (Büyüköztürk, 2008; Balcı, 2009; Eroğlu, 2009; Karagüven, 2009; Tatar, Yıldız, Akpınar&Ergin, 2009). Findings obtained by validity analyses for SLRS are presented below: Firstly, Kaiser-Meyer-Oklin (KMO) and Bartlett s test analyses were performed to test structural validity of SLRS. It was found that KMO= 0,948. Bartlett s test value was found to be x2=6507,984; sd=496; p=0,000. The fact that KMO value was above 0,90 was interpreted that data set was perfectly fit for conducting factor analysis. In addition, according to Barlett s test values which is known to be the unit matrix of the correlation it tests, it was understood that zero hypothesis was rejected at 0,05 significance level (Büyüköztürk, 2008; Eroğlu, 2009; Tatar et al., 2009). Exploratory factor analysis.for exploratory factor analysis, firstly principle component analysis was conducted to determine whether the scale was onedimensional. Principle component analysis is a common technique used as factorization technique (Büyüköztürk, 2008; Balcı, 2009). Varimax vertical rotation technique was applied and factor loads were analyzed to understand whether the scale was separated into unrelated factors. While evaluating factor analysis results, we paid attention to the following: factor loads of items over 0.30; minimum load difference between the loads of items in different factors; minimum 40% explained variance criteria and starting points for horizontal image of vertical falls in scree plot (Büyüköztürk, 2008; Eroğlu, 2009). It was found that the scale can have a two-factor structure. In this framework, Varimax vertical rotation technique was used to determine which factors the items belonged to (Büyüköztürk, 2008; Eroğlu, 2009). Factor weight should be 0.30 and higher in 350 and higher observations to obtain significant factors. On the other hand, 0.45 and higher factors are considered to be quite good (Büyüköztürk, 2008; Eroğlu, 2009). In addition, there should be minimum differences between the factor load of an item and load value in another factor (Büyüköztürk, 2008). In this context, a total of 9 items with factor -4-

11 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 1-14, 1 December, 2013 loads below 0.45 whose loads were similar in different factors were excluded from the scale. Finally we obtained a 2-factor structure consisting of 24 items which explained % of total variance with a factor load of higher than The obtained structure is presented in Table 2. Table 2: Number of factors according to eigenvalue statistics and percentage of explained variance Components Eigenvalue % of Variance Cumulative % F1: Learning Responsibility During the Course (LRDC) 5,548 23,117 23,117 F2: Learning Responsibility Outside the Course (LROC) 5,104 21,268 44,385 Based on the findings presented in Table 2, it was decided that a total of 24 items in the scale were collected under 2 factors and that amount of explained variance was adequate for this factor and items to form a scale structure. This result is indicated in line chart drawn according to eigenvalue (Graph 1). Scree Plot 10 8 Eigenvalue Component Number Figure 1: Eigenvalue graph of items (scree plot) It is observed from Figure 1 that there are fast falls in the first two factors; however this fast fall takes a horizontal course starting from the third factor. This means that the first two factor made significant contributions to explained variance; however the contributions of other factors were similar (Büyüköztürk, 2008; Eroğlu, 2009). After these analyses, contents of the items collected under factors were analyzed and factors were named. The factors were called as F1: Learning Responsibility During the Course (LRDC) and F2: Learning Responsibility Outside the Course (LROC). It was found that KMO value of 24-item SLRS within its final version was 0.937; Bartlett s test values were x 2 = ; sd=276; p< It was observed that factor values of 24 items in the scale were between and On the other hand, it was found that items and factors which were included in the scale explained % of variance. Distribution of 24 items according to factors, factor loads of items, eigenvalues of factors and amount of explaining variance are presented in Table

12 School Learning Responsibility Scale s Validity and Reliability R. Yeşil Table 3:Factor Analysis Results of School Learning Responsibility Scale according to Factors Loads Nu. Items Factor Loads LRDC LROC 1 I ask permission from my teacher to speak and ask questions. 0,702 2 I completely note the homework assigned by my teacher 0,696 3 I raise my finger to ask for permission to speak 0,672 4 I perform the behavior I should do in intragroup sportive activities 0,653 5 I immediately write down the wordings that my teacher wants us to note 0,636 6 I do my homework on time. 0,620 7 I show willingness to participate in group homework 0,588 8 I eagerly take part in activities during the course 0,579 9 I try to perform the works or movements in physical education, visual arts and music courses as shown by my teacher 0, I carefully listen to what my teacher and friends tell 0, I prepare pencil, book etc and tools before the teacher comes 0, I try to do my homework according to the explanations of my teacher 0, I do not interrupt my teacher or my friends when they speak 0, I note information I find important on my notebook or book with explanations 0, I form schema ad tables to make information more clear while I study 0, I summarize the knowledge I learn 0, I use table, figure and graphs while summarizing 0, I mark the points I find important in a text I read in a book 0, I ask the subjects and words I noted down and I do not know to my teacher 0, I study the subjects and words which I don t know and noted during the course after the lesson 0, I read the subjects which will be taught the next day 0, I follow and read the news and information announced in classroom and school bulletin board 0, I use tools such as dictionary, map, atlas etc while I study at home 0, I use the library and other written sources for research assignments 0,459 Eigen value 5,548 5,104 Variance explained 23,117 21,268 As indicated in Table 3, LRDC factor of LRS contains 13 items and factor loads vary between and Eigenvalue of this factor is and the contribution it makes to general variance is %. On the other hand, LROC factor contains 11 items. Factor loads of items vary between and Eigenvalue of the factor is and its contribution to general variance is %. Considering that factor loads of the items were greater than 0.45 and amount of explained total variance was % it can be interpreted that SLRS consisting of 2 factor and a total of 24 items has structural validity (Büyüköztürk, 2008; Eroğlu, 2009; Karagüven, 2009; Tatar et al., 2009). -6-

13 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 1-14, 1 December, 2013 Confirmatory factor analysis.confirmatory factor analysis is a structural equality model dealing with implicit variables and observed measurements. It is based on the principle of handling and testing the correlations between observed and non-observed variables (items and factors) as hypothesis. Each implicit variable (factor) is explained with respect to their correlations with observed variables (items) (Yılmaz &Çelik, 2009; Tatar et al., 2009; Raykov&Marcoulides, 2006: 4; Kline, 2005). Scale form which was obtained with confirmatory factor analysis was administered to new study group consisting of a total of 264 people apart from the study group of the present study. Confirmatory factor analysis was performed on the obtained data. In structural equality model, generally more than one fit value is recommended to be reported (Kline, 2005). The values observed in the scale model by confirmatory factor analysis were between the intervals of χ 2 /d<3; 0<RMSEA<0.05; 0 S-RMR 0.05; 0.97 NNFI 1; 0.97 CFI 1; 0.95 GFI 1; 0.95 AGFI 1 and 0.95 IFI 1., which show a perfect fit. The intervals χ 2 /d<5; 0.06 RMSEA<0.08; 0.06 S-RMR 0.08; 0.90 NNFI 0.96; 0.90 CFI 0.96; 0.90 GFI 0.96; 0.90 AGFI 0.96 and 0.90 IFI 0.96 show that there was an acceptable fit (Kline, 2005; Şimşek, 2007; Tatar et al., 2009). In addition, correction indices were analyzed during confirmatory factor analysis and it was decided that it would be appropriate to associate error variances of m11 and m12 in the first factor and to associate m22 and m23 items in the second factor. Regarding the values appearing by confirmatory factor analysis, t values diagram (to the right) and standardized analysis diagram (to the left) are presented in Figure 2. Figure 2:Confirmatory factor analysis t values and correlation Coefficients of school learning responsibility scale -7-

14 School Learning Responsibility Scale s Validity and Reliability R. Yeşil As indicated in Figure 2, confirmatory factor analysis was constructed on an equation based on the fact that 2 implicit variables can correctly predict 24 observed variables. 2 implicit variables are the factors F1 (LRDC) and F2 (LROC) which were determined in exploratory factor analysis. Among model fit criteria for the structure in confirmatory factor analysis it was understood that x 2 /sd (3.17), RMSEA (0.61), GFI (0.90), AGFI (0.88) showed an acceptable; S-RMR (0.047), NNFI (0.97) CFI (0.97) and IFI (0.97) values showed a perfect fit (Yılmaz &Çelik, 2009; Kline, 2005; Çokluk, Şekercioğlu & Büyüköztürk, 2010, ; Şimşek, 2007). Based on this finding it can be stated that the fiy of scale model structure determined by exploratory factor analysis for SLRS was confirmed by confirmatory factor analysis. Item-total correlations. Another necessary operation to determine validity of measurement scale is the calculation of item-test correlations. Item-test correlation coefficients are used as a criteria showing each item s level of serving to the general aim of the scale (Balcı, 2009; Büyüköztürk, 2008). In this section, correlations between the scores obtained from each item in the factors and the scores obtained from the factors were calculated according to item total correlation and corrected item correlation method and each item s level of serving to the general aim of the scale was tested. Item-factor correlation values and corrected correlation values corrected with Pearson s test for each item are presented in Table 4. Table 4: Item-Factor Scores and Corrected Item-Factor Scores Correlation Analysis Items Total Correlation Items Corrected Correlation LRDC LROC LRDC LROC Item r Item r Item r Item r 1 0, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,489 N=453; *=p<0,001 As indicated in Table 4, item test correlation coefficients varied between and for LRDC factor and between and for LROC factor. In addition, correlation coefficients of each item and factor in the scale varied between and for LRDC factor and and for LROC factor. Each item showed a significant and positive relationship with the general of the factor it belongs to and with item-factor (p<0.001). It can be stated that each item significantly contributes to the aim of the factor it belongs to and to the general of the scale. Item discrimination.presence of the property of discriminating the individuals which have and do not have the measured quality is considered as one of the important proves which is used to determine validity of scale (Büyüköztürk, 2008). For this reason, discrimination powers of 24 items in the scale were calculated. Firstly raw scores obtained from each item were listed from the greater to the smaller. Later, subjects consisting of 156 people constituting lower 27% and upper 27% groups were -8-

15 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 1-14, 1 December, 2013 determined. Independent groups t-test values were calculated over the total scores of the subjects in the lower and upper group. Findings are presented in Table 5. Table 5: Independent Sampling t-test Analysis Results to Determine Discrimination Powers of the Items in School Learning Responsibility Scale LRDC LROC Item t Item t 1 10,811* 14 18,044* 2 16,718* 15 17,106* 3 11,860* 16 19,236* 4 10,934* 17 18,304* 5 11,820* 18 16,239* 6 11,284* 19 15,247* 7 13,305* 20 13,303* 8 12,919* 21 18,272* 9 10,562* 22 17,235* 10 13,392* 23 16,646* 11 12,382* 24 13,074* 12 12,592* 13 13,379* General t 310 : 43,234; p< 0,001 df: ; *:p<0,001 It is understood from Table 5 that independent sampling t test values for 24 items in the scale varied between and For example, t-test value for the general of the scale was determined as Each determined difference was at a significant level (p<0.001). It can be stated that both general of the scale and each item of SLRS discriminated the students with high and low learning responsibility. Findings on the Reliability of School Learning Reasonability Scale Reliability is the most important quality a measurement tool should have. Calculations of internal consistency and coefficients of determination of measurement tools and performance within the framework of reliability analyses are among the most recommended tests (Balcı, 2009; Kayış, 2009). In parallel to this, findings obtained from internal consistency and stability tests conducted on data obtained by SLRS are presented below: Internal consistency level.slrs consisted of a total of 24 items and 2 factors. Reliability analysis of the scale according to factors and for the general of the scale was determined by Cronbach s alpha reliability coefficient. The results are presented in Table 6. Table 6: Results of Reliability Analysis for the General and Factors of School Learning Responsibility Scale Factors Number of Item Cronbach Alpha LRDC 13 0,881 LROC 11 0,876 SLRS 24 0,920 As indicated in Table 6, Cronbach s alpha coefficient calculated for reliability coefficients was found to as for LRDC factor which involved 13 items and as for the general of the scale which consisted of 24 items. The fact that Cronbach s alpha values were between 0.60 and 0.80 suggests that it was very reliable and the fact that it was higher than 0.80 suggests that it has a high level of reliability (Kayış, 2009; Karagüven, 2009). Based on these results it can be stated that SLRS has a high level of reliability both for the general of the scale and for sub-factors. -9-

16 School Learning Responsibility Scale s Validity and Reliability R. Yeşil Stability level.stability level of the scale was determined by test- retest method. As it is known, a reliable measurement tool has to perform stable measurements (Balcı, 2009). Final version of the scale consisting of 23 items was administered to 113 students for a second time after five weeks. Correlation between the scores obtained by each of two applications was individually analyzed for each item, factor and for the general of the scale. The findings are presented in Table 7. Table 7: Test-Retest Results of School Learning Responsibility Scale LRDC LROC Item r Item r 1 0,446* 14 0,775* 2 0,449* 15 0,859* 3 0,536* 16 0,811* 4 0,520* 17 0,822* 5 0,561* 18 0,794* 6 0,664* 19 0,787* 7 0,821* 20 0,757* 8 0,612* 21 0,864* 9 0,684* 22 0,849* 10 0,517* 23 0,744* 11 0,649* 24 0,795* 12 0,676* 13 0,670* LRDC 0,589* LROC 0,842* LRS General : r 94 : 0,712*; p<0,001 It is understood from Table 7 that correlation coefficients obtained by test-retest method and Pearson s r test varied between 0,446 and 0,864. Coefficients of determination were found as 0,589 for LRDC factor and as 0,845 for LROC factor and as 0,712 for the general of the scale. Each relationship was significant and positive (p<0,001). Based on these values which are determined as coefficients of determination for each item, factor and for the general of the scale, it can be suggested that SLRS can make stabile measurements (Kayış, 2009). Unbiasedness level.scales which are prepared to be used in education and psychology should make unbiased measurements in sub-groups of the general group they are applied (Özbay&Uyar, 2009; Kan, 2007). The quality of making unbiased measurement of the measurement tool can be determined by the calculation of reliability coefficients of measurements performed on sub-groups such as age, gender, socioeconomic level, and ethnical origin (Özbay&Uyar, 2009). In this framework, LRS s quality of making unbiased measurements and unbiasedness of the measurements independent from the grade level (5. and 8. grade) and gender variables of the students in the study group was determined by calculating Cronbach s alpha reliability coefficients. The findings are presented in Table 8. Table 8: School Learning Responsibility Scale s Level of Making Unbiased Measurements according to Grade Level and Gender Factors Class Grade Gender 5. Grade 8. Grade Female Male LRDC 0,862 0,860 0,845 0,895 LRÖC 0,889 0,835 0,847 0,892 SLRS General 0,921 0,897 0,893 0,933 As indicated in Table 8, Cronbach s alpha reliability coefficients of SLRS s levels of making unbiased measurements independent from grade levels of the study group varied between and On the other hand, Cronbach s alpha reliability coefficient for the levels of making unbiased measurements independent from gender variables varied between and -10-

17 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 1-14, 1 December, The fact that values of Cronbach s alpha coefficients were higher than 0.70 suggest that it is highly reliable (Kayış, 2009). Based on this finding, it can be stated that both factors and general of SLRS could make unbiased measurements in different sub-groups of the study group and therefore it is a reliable scale. Conclusions and Recommendations In this study, we developed a scale to determine students levels of fulfilling their responsibilities in schools based on their self-perceptions. The results of the study can be listed as follows: 1. The scale is a five-degree Likert type scale consisting of a total of 24 items which can be collected under 2 factors. As it is known, learning requires formation of permanent changes even partially. For this reason, the options (0) Never, (1) Rarely, (2) Sometimes, (3) Often and (4) Always were provided for the items in the scale to determine learnedness level of the related behavior. Students levels of fulfilling their learning responsibilities were scored within this framework. On the other hand, since number of items in two factors of the scale was different, while calculating the scores they will receive, it was thought that it would be appropriate to use arithmetic average values to avoid confusion or to simplify scoring. Accordingly, for the analysis and interpretation of data collected with SLRS, arithmetic intervals of each item and factor should be calculated with the following formula and each interval should be at the interval of 0.80: Number of Interval Range of Mean = Number of Option = 4 5 = 0,80 In this framework, we can recommend the use the values in Table 9 to interpret arithmetic average intervals for each item and factor; score intervals from the general of the scale and these intervals: Table 9: Score Intervals to be taken from School Learning Responsibility Scale and Arithmetic Average Intervals and Criteria for the Interpretation of these Interval Values Scale Score Spaces Mean Spaces Meaning Evaluation 0,00 19,2 0,00 0,80 Never Very bad 19,3 38,4 0,81 1,60 Rarely Bad 38,5 57,6 1,61 2,40 Sometimes Middle 57,7 76,8 2,41 3,20 Often Good 76,9 94,0 3,21 4,00 Always Very good 2. Validity study of the scale was analyzed by calculating (1) exploratory factor analysis, (2) confirmatory factor analysis, (3) item-test correlation and (4) item discrimination powers. Exploratory factor analysis showed that; Factor loads of items were between and interval, Eigen values of factors were for LRDC and for LROC. Amount of explaining variance was % for LRDC factor; % for LROC factor and for the general of SLRS. Since item factor load higher than 0.30 (preferably 0.45) and amount of explained variance higher than 40% is adequate (Büyüköztürk, 2008; Eroğlu, 2009; Balcı, 2009; Çokluk, -11-

18 School Learning Responsibility Scale s Validity and Reliability R. Yeşil Şekercioğlu & Büyüköztürk, 2010; Karagüven, 2009) SLRS has structural validity. On the other hand, confirmatory factor analysis showed that, among model fit values: x 2 /sd ratio was acceptable (3.17); RMSEA (0.61), GFI (0.90) and AGFI (0.88) values were acceptable; S-RMR (0.047), NNFI (0.97), CFI (0.97) and IFI (0.97) values showed a perfect fit. These values indicate that scale model structure determined by exploratory factor analysis for LRS was confirmed by confirmatory factor analysis (Yılmaz &Çelik, 2009; Kline, 2005; Çokluk, Şekercioğlu & Büyüköztürk, 2010; Tatar et al., 2009). On the other hand, analysis of calculated item total correlations and discrimination quality showed that item and factors and general of SLRS had validity (Balcı, 2009; Büyüköztürk, 2008). 3. Based on reliability analyses of SLRS the following findings were obtained; Cronbach s alpha value as internal consistency coefficients according to factors was found as for LRDC factor; for LROC factor and for the general of the scale. Pearson s r value calculated as coefficients of determination were found as for LRDC factor; for LROC factor and for the general of the scale and that each relationship was positive and significant at p<0.01 level. Cronbach s alpha reliability coefficients calculated on sub-groups as unbiasedness coefficients varied between and These values indicate that SLRS can make reliable, consistent, stabile and objective measurements for the items, factors and the general of the scale (Balcı, 2009; Büyüköztürk, 2008; Karagüven, 2009). In conclusion, it can be stated that SLRS is a valid and reliable scale which can be used to determine students levels of fulfilling learning responsibilities. Although the study group consisted of primary education students, SLRS can be recommended to use on secondary education and higher education students. However, in studies for secondary education and higher education students, validity and reliability analyses should be repeated by taking into account the developmental characteristics of the students and differences in their responsibilities. Findings obtained from SLRS for students levels of fulfilling their learning responsibilities can be effectively used to determine potential precautions to be taken to make educational process more efficient and to encourage students to be individuals with learning responsibility. When the students undertake the responsibility of their learning in in-class and out-class experiences, significant contributions can be made to the realization of individual development and life-long learning approach. In line with the information obtained by the scale, it is believed that it will allow for the analysis of the causes of academic failure of students and their self-recognition in terms of self-regulation properties. On the other hand, we hope that school administrators and teachers make realistic assessments about the cases of academic failure of students and encourage them to make appropriate measures. -12-

19 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 1-14, 1 December, 2013 Acknowledgement This research is supported by Kırşehir Ahi Evran University Rectorship Scientific Research Project (SRP) Unit. References Balcı, A. (2009). Sosyal bilimlerde araştırma: Yöntem, teknik ve ilkeler. [The research in social sciences: Methods, techniques and principles]. Pegem Akademi Publishing, Ankara/Turkey. Barr, B.R. & Tagg, J. (1995). From teaching to learning: A new paradigm for undergraduate education, Change, 27(6), Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2008).Sosyal bilimler için very analizi el kitabı.[data analysis handbook for social sciences].pegem Akademi Publishing, Ankara/Turkey. Carnell, E. (2005). Understanding and enriching young people's learning: issues, complexities and challenges,improving Schools,8(3), Clouder, L. (2009). Being responsible : students perspectives on trust, risk and work-based learning, Teaching in Higher Education, 14(3), Çokluk, Ö., Şekercioğlu, G. & Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2010). Sosyal bilimler için çok değişkenli istatistik: SPSS ve lisrel uygulamaları. [Mutivariablestatistique for social sciences: SPSS and lisrel applications].pegemakademi Publishing, Ankara/Turkey. Davis, T.M. & Murrell, P.H. (1994).Turning teaching into learning: The role of student responsibility in the collegiate experience. ERIC Identifier: ED RetrievedFebruary fromhttp:// Ellinger, A.D. (2004). The concept of self-directed learning and its implications for human resource development,advances in Developing Human Resources, 6(2), DOI: / Eroğlu, A. (2009). Faktör analizi. In: Ş. Kalaycı (Ed), SPSS Uygulamalı çok değişkenli istatistik teknikleri [Statistics techniques with multivariable in SPSS applications] (pp: ). Asil Publishers: Ankara/Turkey, Gosselin, C. (2003). On the learning of responsibility: A conversation between Carol Gilligan and John Dewey, In Kal Alston (Editor). Philosophy of Education, RetrievedJanuary fromhttp://ojs.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/pes/article/view/1751 /468. Hughes, C. (2001). Developing conceptual literacy in lifelong learning research: A case of responsibility?,british Educational Research Journal, 27(5), Kan, A., (2007). Test Yansızlığı: H.Ü. Yabancı Dil Muafiyet Sınavının Cinsiyete ve Bölümlere Göre DMF Analizi. [Test Fairness: DIF Analysis Accros Gender and Department of H.U Foreign Language Proficiency Examination],EgitimArastirmalari- Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 29, Karagüven, H.M.Ü. (2009). Reliability and validity study of Turkish form of the psychological distress scale. EgitimArastirmalari - Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 36, Kayış, A. (2009). Güvenirlik analizi.in Ş. Kalaycı (Ed), SPSS uygulamalı çok değişkenli istatistik teknikleri [Statistics techniques with multivariable in SPSS applications] (s ).Asil Publishers, Ankara/Turkey, Kline, R.B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling, 2nd ed, New York: Guilford Press. Macready, T. (2009).Learning social responsibility in schools: a restorative practice, Educational Psychology in Practice, 25(3),

20 School Learning Responsibility Scale s Validity and Reliability R. Yeşil Özbay, M. &Uyar, Y. (2009). The development of reading attitude scale for secondary level students: Study on the validity oand reliability, E-Journal of New World Sciences Academy, 4(2), Raykov, T. &Marcoulides, G.A. (2006).A first course instructional equation modeling. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Assocation Inc. Publishers. Senemoğlu, N. (2011). College of education students approaches to learning and study skills. Egitim ve Bilim - Education and Science, 36(160), Shavelson, R.J. (2007). Assessing student learning responsibly: From history to an audacious, Change. 39(1), Stockdale, S.L. & Brockett, R.G. (2010).Development of the PROSDLS: A measure of selfdirection in learning based on the personal responsibility orientation model, Adult Education Quarterly, 200 (10), DOI: / Şimşek, Ö.F. (2007).Yapısal eşitlik modellemesine giriş, [Introduction to structural equation modeling].ekinoks Publishing, Ankara, Turkey. Tatar, N., Yıldız, E., Akpınar, E. &Ergin, Ö. (2009).A study on developing a self efficiacy scale towards science and technology, EgitimArastirmalari Eurosian Journal of Educational Research, 36, Töremen, F. (2011). The responsibility education of teacher candidates, Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice. 11(1), White, L.F. (1998). Motivating students to become more responsible for learning.college Student Journal, 32(2), Yıldırım, K. (2009). Values education experiences of Turkish class teachers: A phenomonogical approach. Egitim Arastirmalari-Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 35, Yıldırım, Ö. (2008). Pre-service English teachers views of teacher and student responsibilities in the foreign language classroom.egitima rastirmalari Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 33, Yılmaz, V. &Çelik, E. (2009).Lisrel ile yapısal eşitlik modellemesi I. [Structural equation modeling with lisrel]. Ankara: Pegem AkademiYayınları. Yontar, A. &Yurtal, F. (2009). Investigation of sanctions used by teachers for improving responsibility, Education and Science, 34(153), Young, M.R. (2005).The motivational effects of the classroom environment in facilitating self-regulated learning, Journal of Marketing Education, 27,(1), DOI: /

21 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: ELT; motivation; literature; authentic literary materials Introduction Use of Literature to Enhance Motivation in ELT Classes Haldun Vural * ELT Department, Mevlana University, Konya, TURKEY Foreign language teachers need to motivate their students to learn English. Literature can be a good means to achieve motivation in ELT classes. There has recently been a revival of interest in literature as a practical, motivating and an effective resource available for language learning. Therefore, we can assume that literature and authentic literary materials, especially short stories can enhance motivation of ELT students. Keeping this in mind, this study was carried out in an ELT classroom by using two homogeneous groups: an experimental group and a control group. First, for one semester, Experimental Group was provided with unabridged, authentic short stories, whereas Control Group was exposed to abridged and simplified texts and reading passages. The findings showed that the Experimental Group s overall results of final exams and outcomes were better than that of the Control Group. Second, an attitude survey was used to understand the level of motivation of literature and to determine whether literature has a positive effect on reading and writing. The results suggested that use of short stories enhances learning and may be good motivational means in second and/or foreign language teaching settings through developing integrated reading, speaking, writing and listening skills. The results of this study may be beneficial to language practitioners in their classroom teaching. Recently, there has been a remarkable revival of interest in literature as one of the most motivating resources for language learning (Duff & Maley, 2007). In addition, the use of literature in ELT classrooms has attracted a great deal of interest among EFL teachers since the 1980s (Clandfield & Foord, 2006). Because foreign language teachers must find new ways to motivate their students during lessons and because motivation is one of the most important aspects of the learning process, the use of literature in classes might be a good way to increase student motivation. Several studies addressed this issue focusing on motivating EFL students with the use of literature (Brumfit & Carter, 1991; Collie & Slater, 1990; Benton & Fox, 1985). In these studies students were given some samples of exercises and communicative activities that might be used with literary works. Researchers also gave recommendations that short stories are often an ideal way of introducing students to literature for motivation and improvement in their reading and writing skills in EFL classes. Therefore, this study aims to investigate whether the use of literature in ELT classrooms may have positive learning and motivational effects in ELT classes at a Kazakh university, because no such studies focusing on using literature as a means of motivation in ELT are present in a Kazakh context. This study was conducted to prove the motivational effects of using literature * Correspondence: ELT Department, Mevlana University, Konya, TURKEY, [email protected]

22 Use of Literature to Enhance Motivation H. Vural in ELT after the instruction through a semester at a Kazakh university. The study was a part of reading lessons of 34 prep-school students. Students were divided into two groups; the first was experimental group where new methods and the activities related to ELT with the use of literature were applied; and the other was control group where traditional methods with abridged and simplified books and texts and reading passages about subjects outside of literature were applied. Literature Review An abundance of definitions of literature and motivation can be found. Numerous sources have explained literature in various ways. For example, in Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English literature means books, plays, poems and so on that people think are important and good (2003). Literature is writing what is considered to be a work of art in The Oxford Wordpower Dictionary (1998). Literature is defined as writings whose value lies in beauty of form or emotional effect in The Concise Dictionary of Current English (2011). And motivation can be defined as the reasons underlying behavior which is characterized by willingness and choice (Guay, Chanal, Ratelle, Marsh, Larose & Boivin, 2010). It is also defined as the attribute that moves us to do or not to do something (Gredler, Broussard & Garrison, 2004). When it comes to motivation, there are two kinds of motivation: Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is the type of motivation that is animated by personal enjoyment, interest, or pleasure, engaging in an activity because it is enjoyable and satisfying to do. The other is extrinsic motivation, managed by reinforcement contingencies to achieve some instrumental result, such as earning a reward or avoiding a punishment. According to educators intrinsic motivation is more desirable and results in better learning outcomes than extrinsic motivation does (Deci, Koestner & Ryan, 1999). Here it can be claimed that the components of motivation overlap with those of literature since literature offers a bountiful and extremely varied body of written material, which is important because it speaks about fundamental human issues, which is enduring rather than ephemeral. A literary work can transcend both time and culture to speak directly to a reader in another country or a different time. It expands language awareness, encourages interaction and discussions, and educates the whole learner's personality. It is also enjoyable and motivating (Clandfield & Foord, 2006), because there is a secret formula in literature that literature reaches the parts of a person s feelings, dreams, fantasies, and experience that other texts can't reach (Pulverness, 2007). These functions are also among the objectives of teaching a foreign language, and parts of good teaching. Foreign language teachers should use non-defensive approaches in classes, because ELT has linguistic, psychological, cognitive, social and cultural objectives, and literature meets them (Ellis, 2002). Language is a means of teaching communicative competence, language competence, discourse competence and lingo-cultural competence. A fundamental purpose of learning a foreign language is to be able to communicate in a foreign language in oral and written forms, including reading its literature. Literary language may be said superior to spoken language because it is more elaborate (Larsen-Freeman, 1986). To put it simply, it is suggested that there are three main reasons for using literature: linguistic, methodological, and motivational (Duff & Maley, 2007). First in terms of linguistic reasons, Hedge (1985) suggests that literary texts can develop the student's knowledge of language at the levels of vocabulary and structure and at the level of textual organization. The -16-

23 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 15-23, 1 December, 2013 rise of communicative language teaching valued literature as authentic texts in which the opportunity for vocabulary acquisition, the development of reading strategies, and the training of critical thinking, that is, reasoning skills happen to be (Kramsch & Kramsch, 2000). Also literary language is often surprisingly ordinary, as ordinary language is often surprisingly poetic (Carter, 1999; Hall, 2001). Second, when it comes to methodological reasons, meanings in literary texts bring out different understanding, reactions, and interpretations. This means variety in opinions and this variety may inspire discussions and sharing feelings, and all these mean that literature encourages interaction (Duff & Maley, 2007; Clandfield & Foord, 2006). Also second language reading does not differ greatly in principle, from first language reading and can often be studied using the same or adapted techniques and methodologies (Verhoeven, 1999). Finally, literature involves affective, attitudinal, and experiential factors and so may motivate learners to read (McKay, 1986). So literature is motivating because it deals with situations and themes that the writer considered important to address and the motivational effect of the genuineness of literary texts is increased when the topics relate to the learner's personal experience (Duff & Maley, 2007). With the use of literature learners may build new vocabulary as well as they expand their understanding of words they already knew (Ono, Day & Harsch, 2004). Also literature may help students to have the habit of reading, and if students can develop the habit of reading especially for enjoyment and interest, they may increase confidence and fluency, and gain the habit of reading in a foreign language (Brown, 2000). This is important for students further independent motivation in learning a foreign language. Despite the benefits of using literature in classroom, literature s importance was faded as linguistics has become the center of language programs (Widdowson, 1992). Despite the claims of its enthusiasts, it is asserted that the use of literature is not always necessarily pleasurable or meaningful for all readers and that classroom uses of literature put off at least as many students as they encourage (Hall, 2003). As an additional criticism it is also suggested that foreign language literature often fails to make any sense of progression, and rather than advances in skills or abilities it specifies items of knowledge (Brumfit, 1981). Therefore, it was suggested that because of literature s structural complexity, lack of conformity to standard grammatical rules, and remote control perspective, it should be excluded from the foreign language curriculum (Topping, 1968). These linguists also stated that there is no positive contribution of literature to ELT students' practical aim of linguistic proficiency acquisition. Teachers do not prefer literature in their ELT classes because of limited time during classroom period and because some teachers think they are not equipped methodologically to use literary texts (Paran, 1998), mostly due to the difficulty of choosing the texts for classroom (Dawson, 2005). As seen above there have been pros and cons of literature in ELT, and I would like to favor the positive ideas and agree that the linguistic difficulty of literature has been overstated (Povey, 1972). Therefore, advantages often outweigh the disadvantages. Using literature in classroom means a different approach to ELT involving motivation, pleasure and enjoyment for students and teachers. Bamford defines the main target as the time when students are silently at one with the written word while seated at a desk at school, standing on a crowded train, or stretched out on the floor at home over an open book, unaware that the written words are in English (Brown, 2000). Because literature is considered to hold high status in many cultures and countries, students can feel a real sense of achievement at understanding a piece of highly respected literature (Clandfield & Foord, 2006). -17-

24 Use of Literature to Enhance Motivation H. Vural In addition it is also claimed that literature encourages personal involvement in readers, and hence literary texts are useful in language learning process and that engaging imaginatively with literature enables learners to shift the focus of their attention beyond the more mechanical aspects of the foreign language system (Collie & Slater, 1990). Because there exist many cross-curricular and cross-cultural relations in it, literature educates personality of whole learner's. It can be said there are two advantages of literature for teachers; first literature may develop positive attitudes towards reading and learning languages, and second learners' attitudes to values may be improved by literature, because literature may increase learner's understanding and tolerance for cultural differences. It should also be noted that in literary texts different cultural environments and backgrounds are expressed, and this may cause some difficulties in reading and general comprehension. Yet this difficulty can be overcome through exploring foreign cultures rather than avoiding the use of literature in ELT contexts (Duff & Maley, 2007; McKay, 1986). McKay carries this claim one step further and suggests that literature may increase learner's understanding and tolerance for cultural differences (McKay, 1986). Literature can also be a special resource for personal development and growth, since it offers many linguistic opportunities to the language teacher and allow many of the most valuable exercises of language learning to be based on materials capable of stimulating greater interest and involvement (Carter & Long, 1991). Thus it can be claimed that literature allows students to become intercultural travelers (Carroli, Pavoni & Tudini, 2003). It is the invisible culture in language that the students are expected to discover and notice the complicated link between language form and meaning, and share their learning experience with their classmates (Lo Bianco, 2003). Literature can enhance the reading and writing skills as well since it helps the transfer of reading and writing skills and strategies from the mother tongue to English, and so, through teaching specific skills, literature may increase the students' general understanding of language and their ability of reading and writing in English (Hedge, 1985). Literary texts help students to practice and develop their reading and writing skills and strategies. This can be said to contribute to the development of their reading fluency and proficiency, and writing accuracy. As a result there may be an increase in students' reading and writing speed and selfconfidence, and thus the students are able to pay more attention to the overall meaning of what they are reading (Bamford & Day, 2004). Besides through literature, students learn new vocabulary and expand their understanding of words they knew before, which contributes positively to their reading and writing skills consequently (Ono, Day & Harsch, 2004). To investigate the issue further, and because in the context of ELT in Kazakhstan there was no study about the use of literature, and its motivational aspects at college level, I decided to perform the present study in Kazakhstan with university students. Therefore, the general purpose of this study was to see whether the use of literature in ELT at university level could increase motivation of the students and have a positive effect on reading and writing skills. Hence, the paper aims at finding answer to the following research questions: 1. Are there significant relations between the use of literature in ELT and motivation of students at university level? 2. Can the use of literature attribute a positive effect on reading and writing to language learning? -18-

25 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 15-23, 1 December, 2013 Methods Participants The participants of this study consisted of 34 students of prep classes of Two- Languages Department of Suleyman Demirel University, Almaty, Kazakhstan. The participants took part in this study voluntarily and their ages ranged from 15 to 19 with the average of 17. The heterogeneous groups or participants of this research consist of 13 girls and 21 boys which were divided into two groups; experimental group (EG) where new methods and the activities related to ELT with the use of literature were applied and the control group (CG) where traditional methods with abridged and simplified books and texts and reading passages about subjects outside of literature were applied. At the time of data collection, (second semester of educational year) they had studied English as a foreign language and their English level was lower than pre-intermediate, and during the data collection period they had 2 (fifty-minute) hours of reading lessons sessions. Instruments In order to collect data, the instruments used in this study were 1. PET Handbook (Preliminary English Test by Cambridge University) which is a qualification at intermediate and pre-intermediate levels recognized by educational institutions as well as other sectors, and shows that a person can deal with everyday English at these levels. PET helps students to find out their strength and weakness in reading and writing. It provides real situations in which students can use English. Reading skills, such as skimming and scanning are tested. Students are expected to understand different kinds of texts such as public notices and signs, packaging information, communicative messages (e.g. notes, s, postcards); read texts (e.g. from journals, websites, leaflets, newspapers and magazines) of a factual nature and show understanding of the structure of the language, as it is used to express notions of relative time, space, possession, etc.; scan factual material for information in order to perform relevant tasks, disregarding redundant or irrelevant material; read texts of an imaginative or emotional character and appreciate the central sense of the text, the attitude of the writer to the material and the effect the text is intended to have on the reader. 2. Writing section consists of 3 parts; part 1 focuses on grammatical precision. Students are required to complete five sentences, all sharing a common theme or topic. Part 2 requires students to produce a short communicative message of between words. Students are told who they are writing to and why, and must include three content points, which are set out as starting points in the question. Then part 3 asks students to write either an informal letter or a story. Both tasks require an answer of about 100 words. For the letter, candidates are given an extract of a letter from a friend of theirs, which provides the topic they should write about. For the story, candidates are given either a short title or the first sentence. 3. Attitude scale (questionnaire), (Adapted from Hedge, 1985) was suitable because it was necessary to focus on contrasting and combining results from different questions, in the hope of identifying patterns among question results, sources of disagreement among those results, or other interesting relationships that may come to light in the context of multiple questions. Stories summary sheets: At the end of each story, the students are asked to write the summary of the story to show their improvement in writing, but these were used for reflection only, and the results were not taken into consideration, and not included in evaluation. -19-

26 Use of Literature to Enhance Motivation H. Vural Procedure The materials were given to students during their classes. Students in the control group read the texts in their course books, which were some abridged and simplified books, and some storybooks of levels from 1 to 5. None of the books or texts was authentic and original. Conversely students in the experimental group studied the following unabridged short stories belonging to native English-speaking authors; also same literary materials were given to experimental group students as assignment. The aim of this was to motivate them for individual reading of literary texts, and towards independent self-reading. These full-length short stories are: Old Man at the Bridge by Ernest Hemingway; The Pendulum by O. Henry; The Monkey s Paw by W.W. Jacobs; A Cup of Tea by Katherine Mansfield; A Haunted House by Virginia Woolf; Araby by James Joyce; The Winepress by Josef Essberger. A pre-experimental reading and writing paper format of a PET test was given to both groups and at the end of the first lesson an attitude questionnaire was given to students in order to measure students attitudes. During the experimental study short stories were introduced because short stories are often ideal ways of introducing students to the literature in the foreign language classroom. During reading comprehension exercises such as pre-reading questions, true or false questions, who said what questions, and what-comes-next questions were included in reading activities. In short, the characters, the plot, language, and topic issues were dealt with reading activities. After reading, types of activities were differed. For writing, activities such as writing a summary or a recommendation, re-writing the story from a character's point of view or a letter to a character were included; for speaking, activities such as role-plays, dramatization or interviewing with the characters were included. Also projects such as drawing illustrations, preparing a series of pictures for comics, or posters were included. Data Analysis On the basis of stories summary sheets and reading reports the assessment of the students was realized. A program evaluation and attitude scale (questionnaire) were applied to experimental group, and after the comparison of the answers, the change of students' attitude towards reading and English learning was evaluated. Results According to the data obtained and showed in Table 1, the results in performance of EG students was better than CG students. It is shown that experimental application has contributed better to academic success of the students (u=75.50, p<0.05). It can, therefore, be claimed that the experimental application has affected the academic success of the students positively, at a significant level. We observed that four students (No 5th, 7th, 10th, and 16th) improved in a considerable amount, whereas one student (No 14th) seemed not to have improved himself at all. In Table 1 findings about the differences in academic success of the students after the experiment are summarized. Table 1: Results and perceptions of the students in groups Average Total Groups Average Academic Success Exp ,56 366,50 Cont ,44 228,50-20-

27 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 15-23, 1 December, 2013 Total Point Mann-Whitney U 75,50 Wilcoxon W 228,500 Z -2,426 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed),015 Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)],016 In terms of attitudes, our results of attitude scale in Table 2 indicate that the number of students, who enjoy reading literature in English, are interested in reading literature in English as a good way of learning and will read stories in future, increased. This observation indicates that the use of literature in ELT classrooms can improve students' performance abilities and increase their positive attitude towards reading, and towards their motivation in language learning. Table 2: Comparison of attitude to reading and English language learning Before UoL After UoL Difference Yes No Yes No Yes % Learning English through literature is fun I enjoy reading literature in English I am going to read stories also after the study The use of literature is a good way of learning English. Average data The evidences suggest that literature is one of the most motivating resources for language learning. To determine whether the use of literature in ELT classrooms had positive motivational effects in ELT classes, we had two groups; EG where unabridged stories were applied with new ELT methods and the activities, and CG where abridged and simplified reading passages in students course books were applied. Discussion Our results suggest that the use of literature in ELT increases the motivation of students at university level. We have identified that the performance of students studying English through literature, with an improvement result of u=75.50, p<0.05, was better than the students studying English without literature. Also the use of literature in ELT improved students writing performance and positively affected their attitude to both reading and language learning, with a 19.2% increase in average. We observed that literature should be included in ELT classrooms as a complement to curriculum because it provides comprehensible input necessary for the English language acquisition and develops the students abilities, as students may build new vocabulary as well as they expand their understanding of words they already know (Ono, Day & Harsch, 2004). In our study we found that instead of reading short extracts presented in course books, short stories were more suitable complete texts for students to become fluent and competent language users. Our data, 19.2% improvement in average students attitude to reading and language learning, shows that literature helps students to have the habit of reading, especially reading in a -21-

28 Use of Literature to Enhance Motivation H. Vural foreign language (Brown, 2000), which is important for motivation in learning foreign language. It is claimed that different cultural environments and backgrounds in literary texts may cause some difficulties in reading and general comprehension. However, in our study, we have not met this difficulty since we explored foreign cultures rather than to avoid using literature in ELT context (Duff & Maley, 2007; McKay, 1986). Therefore, literature contributed to the students autonomy in learning and therefore, to successful results in students exams. To our surprise one student in EG group showed no improvement with 0 (zero) increase. The reason for this can be explained with his cultural gap with other students and different cultural background from them. In summary, our study reveals that the use of literature in ELT classrooms may motivate students better than abridged and simplified reading passages in students course books. The results show the motivational effects of the use of literature in ELT, so literature can be used as a positive stimulation to motivate students, and a good means to improve reading and writing skills. In our study it is also proved that especially short stories are ideal literary means for classroom usage. Our results imply the importance of the use of literature in ELT, and that literature should be part of teaching-learning process. We had this study in Kazakhstan and got positive results about motivation, and reading-writing in ELT; however, further research should explore the issue in a different country, and with students at different levels. References Bamford, J. and Day R. R. (2004). Extensive Reading Activities for Teaching Language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Benton, M. and Fox G. (1985). Teaching Literature. Nine to Fourteen. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Brown, R. (2000). Extensive Reading in the EFL Class. Extensive Reading, 3 Nov. Brumfit, C. (1981). Reading skills and the study of literature in a foreign language. System 9 (1): Brumfit, C.J. and Carter R.A. (1991). Literature and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Carroli, P., Pavone A. and Tudini, V. (2003). Face Value: teaching Italian verbal and social-cultural interaction. Melbourne, Australia. Carter, R. (1999). Common language: corpus, creativity and cognition. Language and Literature 8 (3): Carter, R. A. and Long, M. N. (1991). Teaching Literature. London: Longman. Clandfield, L. and Duncan F. (2006). Teaching Materials: Using Literature in the EFL/ESL Classroom. Collie, J. and Slater S. (1990). Literature in the Language Classroom: A Resource Book of Ideas and Activities. UK: Cambridge University Press. Dawson, N. (2005). Penguin Readers Teacher's Guide to Using Graded Readers. Essex, UK: Pearson. Deci, E. L. and Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, USA: Plenum Press. Deci, E. L., Koestner, R. and Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125,

29 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 15-23, 1 December, 2013 Duff, A. and Maley, A. (2007). Literature. (Second edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis, G. (2002). Learning English through Children's Literature. Teaching English, 18 Dec. Gredler, M. E., Broussard, S. C. and Garrison, M. E. B. (2004). The relationship between classroom motivation and academic achievement in elementary schoolaged children. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 33(2), Guay, F., Chanal, J., Ratelle, C.F., Marsh, H. W., Larose, S. and Boivin, M. (2010). Intrinsic identified and controlled types of motivation for school subjects in young elementary school children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, Hall, G. (2001). The poetics of everyday language in J. McRae (ed.) Reading beyond Text: Processes and Skills. CAUCE. 24. Sevilla: Universidad de Sevilla. Hall, G. (2003). Poetry, pleasure and second language classrooms. Applied Linguistics 24 (3): Hedge, T. (1985). Using Readers in English Teaching. London, UK: Macmillan. Kramsch, C. and Kramsch, O. (2000). The avatars of literature in language study. Modern Language Journal 84: Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986). Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Literature, Def.1. (2003). Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. UK: Pearson. Literature, Def. (2011) The Concise Dictionary of Current English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Literature, Def. (1998) The Oxford Wordpower Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lo Bianco, J. (2003) Culture; visible, invisible and multiple. Melbourne, Australia. McKay, S. (1986). Literature in the ESL Classroom in Literature and Language Teaching, Christopher J. Brumfit, and Ronald A. Carter (eds.) Oxford: Oxford University Press, Ono, L., Day, R. and Harsch, K. (2004). Tips for Reading Extensively. English Teaching Forum Online, Paran, A. (1998) Helping Learners to Create and Own Literary Meaning in the ELT Classroom. Ideas. Feb.1998: Povey, J. (1972). Literature in TESL Programs: The Language and the Culture in Teaching English as a Second Language, H. Allen and R. Campbel (eds.) New York, USA: Mc. Graw Hill. Pulverness, A. (2007). The Ghost at the Banquet. English Teaching Professional, May Topping, D. M. (1968). Linguistics or Literature: An Approach to Language. TESOL Quarterly 2 (2): Verhoeven, L. (1999). Second language reading in D. Wagner, C. Venezky and B. V. Street (eds.) Literacy: An International Handbook. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Widdowson, H. G. (1992). Practical Stylistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. -23-

30 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at A comparative study of social network usage and adoption among Turkish prospective teachers Aylin Tutgun Ünal * Maltepe University, Education Faculty, Computer Education and Instructional Technology Department, Istanbul, Turkey Osman Köroğlu Fatih University, Vocational School, Public Relations Department, Istanbul, Turkey Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Social network; adoption; prospective teachers; comparative study Introduction Research on educational usage of social networks focused on university students because of their more intense usage of medium. In this context, it is necessary to determine social network usage objectives, adaptation levels and patterns of prospective teachers as future educators. The main purpose of this study is to analyze prospective teachers in terms of intended uses of social network sites and the level of adoption of social networks. Research was conducted with 453 prospective teachers' studying at the faculties of education in Marmara, a state university and Maltepe, a foundation university in Istanbul. In this study universities were also compared by their types and differences were found. For data collection, Intended Use of Social Networking Sites Scale and The Social Network Adoption Scale were used. In addition, authors developed a Personal Information Form to determine prospective teachers' demographic characteristics and patterns of use of social networks. For this study, comparative and relational analysis techniques were used and statistical results have been obtained. The results showed that (a) Prospective teachers' duration of use of social networks varies according to the type of foundation or state university; (b) Prospective teachers studying in both types of university, do not prefer social networks for discovery and recognition of themselves and their peers; (c) Prospective teachers' rates of educational use of social networks is quite high; (d) Prospective teachers' adoption levels of social networks is high. With the rapid development of information and communication technologies, individuals' social communication / interaction patterns have changed. Widespread use of technologies such as the internet and mobile phones make life easier and serve several purposes such as social networking and communication, education, research, and obtaining new information. Research in the field of human computer interaction can be addressed in this context (Strong, 1995; Köroğlu, 2012). In Turkey, the ownership of technologies serving these purposes by individuals is relatively high. According to the ICT Usage Survey conducted by Turkey Statistical Institute, ownership of the computer and internet access of institutions was 88.7% and 85.4% in * Correspondence: Maltepe University, Education Faculty, Computer Education and Instructional Technology Department, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected]

31 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 24-42, 1 December, 2013 January 2007; these rates were increased to 90.6% and 89.2%, respectively in January In 2010, ownership of internet access increased to 90.9%. In the same study, as of 2011, the rate of mobile phone ownership in households reached 90.5% and urban-rural values were found close to each other (92.8% and 85%), which shows the prevalence of mobile phone ownership in the country (Turkey Statistical Institute, 2011). In particular, many studies carried out with young people determined the wide use of these environments (Deniz, 2001, 2007; Tutgun and Deniz, 2010). The Internet has become a preferred media for social interaction, communication and access to information, and increasingly finds a place in the lives of young people (Gemmill & Peterson, 2006; Wang, Moon et al., 2010; Tutgun, Deniz & Moon, 2011). With widespread use of technological tools, social communication media are being developed and their use is increasing rapidly. According to Karal and Kokoç (2010), with the development of Web 2.0 technologies based on social interaction, cooperation, and sharing, Internet platforms started to be used differently today, and social networking sites are one of those platforms. Turkey, with 32 million active users on Facebook ranks 7th worldwide (Socialbakers, 2013). 37% of Facebook users in Turkey consist of young people between the ages of 18-24, including university students (Socialbakers, 2013). Facebook is the social networking site of university students, the most popular and commonly used platform (Kabilan et al., 2010; Lampe et al., 2006). The use of microblogging site Twitter is also common. Reasons to use Twitter include being a part of the network, learning millions of people's ideas, feelings, interests, tweeting as a way of taking a note of what is going on in one s personal life, sharing thoughts, readings, information and being in touch with people (Fitton et al., 2010). Technology literacy, from pedagogical point of view, can be beneficial to practice in this subject (Georgina & Hosford, 2009) However, in terms of novice teachers, supportive institutional policies and mentoring are also important about digital technologies (Starkey, 2010). Even if everything is the same, it may not be possible to provide the desired education outcomes in a standardized way because of individual differences, subjective opinions about the effects of technology and in terms of experience (Kim et al., 2013). In the pedagogical use of ICT, there are some issues open to development such as infrastructure problems, errors in the conceptual approach to technology, users' unsatisfactory usage experiences and high expectations (Martinovic & Zhang, 2012). In the literature, there are various definitions of social networks and networking. Online social networking is a set of activities used by a group of people through social technologies (Hamid et al., 2009). Lenhart and Madden (2007) define social networks as any online location that the user can create his/her profile and establish personal network with other users. According to Preeti (2009), the concept of social networking is the formation of a community over the internet, to facilitate sharing their thoughts and interacting with each other in accordance with a common goal. The intended use of social networks may vary. Social networks provide users with facilities such as: Promoting themselves in online environment and continuing to communicate with other users (Ellison et al., 2007), sharing the content they created (Kim et al., 2010) and discovering new friendships (Wang et al., 2010). The use of social networks for educational purposes is discussed extensively (Gülbahar et al., 2010; Ekici & Kıyıcı, 2012; Keleş & Demirel, 2011; Odabaşı et al., 2012; Özmen et al., 2011; Tiryakioğlu & Erzurum, 2011). -25-

32 A comparative study of social network usage and adoption A Tutgun Ünal & O.Köroğlu Ajjan and Hartshorne (2008) indicate that social networking sites can be used to improve cooperation and solidarity in higher education. Grant (as cited in Mazman, 2009 from Grant, 2008) points out that usage of social networks in educational environments provides a more effective communication between students and teachers, so that instructors know their students much better. Ferdig (2007) indicated that social networking applications are closely related to many pedagogical points in constructivist approach and claimed that these applications support pedagogical approaches like active learning, social learning and communities of practice and learning. In the research of Stanciu, Mihai and Aleca (2012), researchers examined the effect of social networks in the process of higher education in Romania, and the results indicated that social networking sites can be used for educational purposes and a model for learning processes in higher education with the use of Facebook is proposed. On the other hand, according to Schmucki and Meel (2010), Twitter and other social networks can be used in institutional structures such as schools for providing continuous communication and participation in decision-making processes for corporate employees and students, especially in the determination of common corporate policies. In addition, according to Ploderer et al. (2010) with Özmen et al. (2011), teachers can share resources and experiences with their colleagues from the same institution or different institutions by establishing professional learning communities of common interests and purposes. Although, social networking sites are popular and regularly accessed by students, these sites have not yet been considered as a tool for teaching and learning processes (Stanciu et al., 2012). However, Usluel & Mazman (2009), found out that there is lack of attention on studies about the factors behind rapid adoption of social networks and revealing the cause of the active usage. In this regard, in the literature there are not any studies comparing students from state and foundation universities. Students, teachers and school administrators create the vast majority of users of social networks. Therefore, the use of social networking sites for educational purposes and studies is necessary to adapt to the changing information technologies (Özmen et al., 2011). In our study on the students of the Faculty of Education, in other words prospective teachers, the determination of their usage purposes, adoption levels and point of views of social networks are important. When studies on the educational use of social networking sites analyzed, lack of studies conducted with prospective teachers is noteworthy. If prospective teachers, benefit from social networking sites for educational purposes in their professional lives, it may be effective for the guidance of students to useful activities. Before using these environments for educational purposes, teachers' adoption and purpose of usage must be determined. Thus, future studies can be done, and if there is any necessity, measures can be taken. Because of this, A Comparative Study of Social Network Usage and Adoption Among Turkish Prospective Teachers was determined as our research topic. The aim of our study is to analyze prospective teachers in terms of intended uses of social network sites and the level of adoption of social networks. Method In this study, conclusions were reached by the quantitative analysis of the data obtained with Intended Use of Social Networking Sites Scale, Social Networks Adoption Scale and Personal Information Form. Therefore, according to Karasar (1994), this study is the general scanning model within the scanning models. -26-

33 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 24-42, 1 December, 2013 Participants Research participants were 453 students from Maltepe University (Foundation University) and Marmara University (State University) Faculty of Education, in academic year. The participants consists of 290 (64%) female and 163 (36%) male students. The students who participated in the study were from eight different departments (English Language Teaching, Primary School Mathematics Teacher Training, CEIT-Computer Education and Instructional Technologies, Guidance and Psychological Counseling, Teacher Training for the Mentally Handicapped, Teacher Training for the Gifted, Social Studies Teacher Training, Teacher Training in Literature). 205 (45.3%) of the participants were state, 248 (54.7%) of them were foundation university students. Questions 1. What are the demographic characteristics and usage patterns of social networking sites of prospective teachers in state and foundation universities? 2. What are the purposes of usage of social networking sites by prospective teachers in state and foundation universities? 3. What are the adoption levels of social networks of prospective teachers in state and foundation universities? 4. Is there a differentiation in prospective teachers' levels of adoption of social networking sites and sub levels (utility, ease of use, social influence, facilitating factors, and community identity), according to their demographic characteristics (gender, university type, department, etc.) and usage patterns of social networks (the amount of daily use, social networking profiles, etc.)? 5. Is there a relationship between purposes of usage of social networking sites and levels of adoption of prospective teachers in state and foundation universities? Data Gathering Instruments For data collection, Karal and Kokoç's (2010) Intended Use of Social Networking Sites Scale and Usluel and Mazman's (2009) Social Networks Adoption Scale were used. In order to determine demographic characteristics and social network habits of the participants, also a Personal Information Form was developed by the authors. The participants filled the questionnaire within 12 minutes in academic year, according to the principle of voluntariness. Data Analysis The data was analyzed with SPSS 18 (PASW) statistical software with following techniques: frequency measurement, independent sample t-test, analysis of variance, LSD analysis and correlation. Findings First of all, participants' demographic characteristics and usage patterns of social networking sites have been analysed. With the total of 82.3%, computer ownership is high in the participant groups from both universities (State: 82.4%, Foundation: 82.3%). Ownership of internet connection is also high in both university types (State: 83.4%, Foundation: 91.9%). Facebook account ownership rate is high in both university types too (State: 89.8%, Foundation: 87.5%). According to the answers, 80.6% (n = 365) of the participants have only one Facebook -27-

34 A comparative study of social network usage and adoption A Tutgun Ünal & O.Köroğlu account, and 6.4% (n = 29) of the participants have two accounts. Very few of the respondents have 3 accounts (1.3%, n = 6) or 5 accounts (.4%, n = 2). In both university types, participants having Twitter account are above average (State: 51.7%, Foundation: 58.9%). 53.9% of the participants who use Twitter have only one account. Account ownership status in other social networks was also questioned. Accordingly, there are 179 participants (39.5%) who have accounts in other social networking sites, and 269 participants (59.4%) who do not have accounts in other social networking sites. Other popular social networks are Youtube (20.8%), Foursquare (16.9%), Instagram (17.4%), other (%38.2). Mobile phone usage with internet connection is fairly high (State: 71.7%, Foundation: 79.4%). Also, 64.9% of participants have social networking applications in their mobile devices. Prospective teachers are accessing social networks from their mobile phones. The participants daily duration of connection to social networks varies by the type of university. In state university, majority (45.4%) is less than an hour connecting to the sites, and the second biggest group is 1-3 hours (36.1%) connecting to the sites. Whereas, majority of participants from foundation university is connecting 1-3 hours (41.1%), and participants connecting less than an hour rank second (38.7%). This may be caused because of participants from foundation university have more mobile internet connection ownership. On the other hand, the participants were also asked since when they have been using social networks. Accordingly, in both types of university, users of 3-5 years are the majority (31.3%). Users for 1-3 years (27.6%) come in the second place, and users for more than 5 years (26.5%) come in third place. As a result, more than half (57.8%) of the participants are users of social networks for more than 3 years. However, it is particularly noteworthy that 7.5% of the participants use social networks for less than a year. Another aim of the research was to determine usage objective of social networking sites by prospective teachers in state and foundation universities. For this purpose, three sub-goals have been analyzed: Social interaction and communication, identification and recognition, and education. Analysis of the questions about social networking sites' use of social interaction and communication purposes: More than half of the participants from both university types are using social networking sites for the opportunity to create his/her own unique space. The sum of the positive options in both university types are above average (State: %66.8; Foundation: %79.5). The participants in both university types agree about their usage of social networking sites in order to maintain communication with existing friends almost completely. Sum of the choosers of completely agree and agree choices are above average (State:%73.6; Foundation: %84.3). Table 1: Usage in order to examine the lives of friends and people of interest State Foundation TOTAL f (%) f (%) f (%) Strongly disagree 18 (8.8) 28 (11.3) 46 (10.2) Disagree 44 (21.5) 44 (18.1) 89 (19.6) Moderately agree 59 (28.8) 84 (33.9) 143 (31.6) Agree 51 (24.9) 68 (27.4) 119 (26.3) Completely agree 22 (11.2) 21 (8.5) 43 (10.3) -28-

35 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 24-42, 1 December, 2013 Missing value 11 (5.4) 2 (.8) 13 (2.9) TOTAL 205 (100) 248 (100) 453 (100) The participants from both university types moderately agree mostly on the usage in order to examine the lives of friends and people of interest. However, sum of the choosers of moderately agree, completely agree and agree choices are above average (State: %64.9; Foundation: %68.8). On the other hand, in both university types, total ratio of disagreed and completely disagreed participants are at a substantial degree (State: %30.3; Foundation: %29.4). Table 2: Usage for the purpose of recontacting old friends State Foundation TOTAL f (%) f (%) f (%) Strongly disagree 8 (3.9) 15 (6.0) 23 (5.1) Disagree 10 (4.9) 12 (4.8) 22 (4.9) Moderately agree 40 (19.5) 56 (22.6) 96 (21.2) Agree 80 (39.0) 99 (39.9) 179 (39.5) Completely agree 54 (26.3) 64 (25.8) 118 (26.0) Missing value 13 (6.3) 2 (.8) 15 (3.3) TOTAL 205 (100) 248 (100) 453 (100) Usage for the purpose of recontacting old friends by the participants is quite high in both university types. Accordingly, total percentage of choosers of moderately agree, agree and completely agree choices are %84.8 in state university, %88.3 in foundation university. Table 3: Usage to share thoughts with others State Foundation TOTAL f (%) f (%) f (%) Strongly disagree 18 (8.8) 20 (8.1) 38 (8.4) Disagree 29 (14.1) 36 (14.5) 65 (14.3) Moderately agree 77 (37.6) 73 (29.4) 150 (33.1) Agree 50 (24.4) 93 (37.5) 143 (31.6) Completely agree 20 (9.8) 24 (9.7) 44 (9.7) Missing value 11 (5.4) 2 (.8) 13 (2.9) TOTAL 205 (100) 248 (100) 453 (100) When Table 12 analyzed, it is easily seen that the usage to share thoughts with others, most of the state university participants moderately agree (%37.6), most of the foundation university participants agree (%37.5). Sum of the choosers of moderately agree, completely agree and agree choices in both university types are above average (State: %71.8; Foundation: %76.6). On the other hand, in both university types, total ratios of disagreed and completely disagreed participants are at a substantial level (State: %22.9; Foundation: %22.6). Table 4: Usage to participate in groups of interest State Foundation TOTAL f (%) f (%) f (%) Strongly disagree 16 (7.8) 25 (10.1) 41 (9.1) Disagree 28 (13.7) 43 (17.3) 71 (15.7) Moderately agree 61 (29.8) 72 (29.0) 133 (29.4) Agree 65 (31.7) 75 (30.2) 140 (30.9) Completely agree 22 (10.7) 29 (11.7) 51 (11.3) Missing value 13 (6.3) 4 (1.6) 17 (3.8) TOTAL 205 (100) 248 (100) 453 (100) Usage to participate in groups of interest by the participants is quite high in both university types. Accordingly, total percentage of the choosers of moderately agree, completely agree and agree choices are %72.2 in state university, %70.9 in foundation university. On the other -29-

36 A comparative study of social network usage and adoption A Tutgun Ünal & O.Köroğlu hand, the ratio of the choosers of disagree and strongly disagree choices is %21.5 and %27.4 respectively. Table 5: Usage to share favorite objects (video, pictures, etc) State Foundation TOTAL f (%) f (%) f (%) Strongly disagree 16 (7.8) 20 (8.1) 36 (7.9) Disagree 21 (10.2) 28 (11.3) 49 (10.8) Moderately agree 64 (31.2) 73 (29.4) 137 (30.2) Agree 69 (33.7) 90 (36.3) 159 (35.1) Completely agree 23 (11.2) 35 (14.7) 58 (13.6) Missing value 12 (5.9) 2 (.8) 14 (3.1) TOTAL 205 (100) 248 (100) 453 (100) Usage to share favourite objects (video, pictures, etc) in both university types is high. Those who reported a favourable opinion are %76.1 in state university, and %80.4 in foundation university. Analysis of the questions about social networking sites' use of identification and recognition: Table 6: Usage to meet new people and build new friendships State Foundation TOTAL f (%) f (%) f (%) Strongly disagree 53 (25.9) 68 (27.4) 121 (26.7) Disagree 60 (29.3) 81 (32.7) 141 (31.1) Moderately agree 50 (24.4) 58 (23.4) 108 (23.8) Agree 22 (10.7) 32 (12.9) 54 (11.9) Completely agree 9 (4.4) 8 (3.2) 17 (3.8) Missing value 11 (5.4) 1 (.4) 12 (2.6) TOTAL 205 (100) 248 (100) 453 (100) Favourable opinion on usage to meet new people and build new friendships is low. In both university types, disagree choice is in the first place (%29.3; %32.7), while strongly disagree choice is in the second place (%25.9; %27.4). Table 7: Usage for the purpose of recognition by other people State Foundation TOTAL f (%) f (%) f (%) Strongly disagree 70 (34.1) 104 (41.9) 174 (38.4) Disagree 76 (37.1) 83 (33.5) 159 (35.1) Moderately agree 33 (16.1) 40 (16.1) 73 (16.1) Agree 11 (5.4) 12 (4.8) 23 (5.1) Completely agree 2 (1.0) 6 (2.4) 8 (1.8) Missing value 13 (6.3) 3 (1.2) 16 (3.5) TOTAL 205 (100) 248 (100) 453 (100) Favourable opinion on usage for the purpose of recognition by other people is quite low. In both university types, ratio of choosers of strongly disagree and disagree choices is above average (State: %71.2; Foundation: %75.4). Table 8: Usage in order to meet people from different cultures State Foundation TOTAL f (%) f (%) f (%) Strongly disagree 45 (22.0) 47 (19.0) 92 (20.3) Disagree 61 (29.8) 88 (35.5) 149 (32.9) -30-

37 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 24-42, 1 December, 2013 Moderately agree 48 (23.4) 71 (28.6) 119 (26.3) Agree 28 (13.7) 25 (10.1) 53 (11.7) Completely agree 11 (5.4) 15 (6.0) 26 (5.7) Missing value 12 (5.9) 2 (.8) 14 (3.1) TOTAL 205 (100) 248 (100) 453 (100) Favourable opinion on usage in order to meet people from different cultures is low. In both universities, the ratio of choosers of strongly disagree and disagree choices is %51.8 and %54.5 respectively. However, rate of moderately agree choice is at a considerable level. Accordingly, ratio of favourable opinions is close to the average (State:%42.5; Foundation: %44.7). Analysis of the questions about social networking sites' use in education: Table 9: Usage to do research on school projects/assignments State Foundation TOTAL f (%) f (%) f (%) Strongly disagree 25 (12.2) 25 (10.1) 50 (11.0) Disagree 34 (16.6) 42 (16.9) 76 (16.8) Moderately agree 61 (29.8) 63 (25.4) 124 (27.4) Agree 47 (22.9) 73 (29.4) 120 (26.5) Completely agree 25 (12.2) 43 (17.3) 68 (15.0) Missing value 13 (6.3) 2 (.8) 15 (3.3) TOTAL 205 (100) 248 (100) 453 (100) Majority of participants reported positive opinions on usage to do research on school projects/assignments. Favourable opinions are above average (State: %64.9; Foundation: %72.1). Table 10: Usage to examine educational groups and activities State Foundation TOTAL f (%) f (%) f (%) Strongly disagree 12 (5.9) 18 (7.3) 30 (6.6) Disagree 19 (9.3) 32 (12.9) 51 (11.3) Moderately agree 55 (26.8) 72 (29.0) 127 (28.0) Agree 76 (37.1) 87 (35.1) 163 (36.0) Completely agree 30 (14.6) 36 (14.5) 66 (14.6) Missing value 13 (6.3) 3 (1.2) 16 (3.5) TOTAL 205 (100) 248 (100) 453 (100) Favourable opinion on usage to examine educational groups and activities is very high. In both types of universities, the participants mostly agree on the favourable usage (State: %37.1; Foundation: %35.1). The total ratio of favourable opinions is %78.5 in state university, %78.6 in foundation university. Table 11: Usage in order to meet up-to-date, different information and ideas State Foundation TOTAL f (%) f (%) f (%) Strongly disagree 10 (4.9) 10 (4.0) 20 (4.4) Disagree 11 (5.4) 14 (5.6) 25 (5.5) Moderately agree 49 (23.9) 46 (18.5) 95 (21.0) Agree 74 (36.1) 103 (41.5) 177 (39.1) Completely agree 49 (23.9) 72 (29.0) 121 (26.7) Missing value 12 (5.9) 3 (1.2) 15 (3.3) TOTAL 205 (100) 248 (100) 453 (100) -31-

38 A comparative study of social network usage and adoption A Tutgun Ünal & O.Köroğlu Favourable opinion on usage in order to meet up-to-date, different information and ideas is quite high and the rate of positive opinions is above average (State: %83.9; Foundation: %89) Table 12: Usage in order to improve knowledge of a foreign language State Foundation TOTAL f (%) f (%) f (%) Strongly disagree 40 (19.5) 30 (12.1) 70 (15.5) Disagree 70 (34.1) 82 (33.1) 152 (33.6) Moderately agree 52 (25.4) 72 (29.0) 124 (27.4) Agree 24 (11.7) 41 (16.5) 65 (14.3) Completely agree 7 (3.4) 22 (8.9) 29 (6.4) Missing value 12 (5.9) 1 (.4) 13 (2.9) TOTAL 205 (100) 248 (100) 453 (100) Ratio of negative opinion on usage in order to improve knowledge of a foreign language in both university types is high. Total percentage of disagree and strongly disagree is %53.6 in state, %45.2 in foundation. However, the total ratios of choosers of moderately agree, agree and completely agree choices are at a substantial degree (State: %40.5; Foundation: %54.4). In foundation university, usage in order to improve the knowledge of a foreign language is more common than state university. Another research objective is to find out the level of adoption of social networks by prospective teachers in state and foundation universities. Table 13: Prospective teachers adoption levels of social networks State Foundation TOTAL N x Sd N x Sd N x Sd Benefit Ease of use Social impact Facilitating factors Community identification Total adoption Of participants in both university types, levels of adoption and sub levels are similar. Accordingly, the prospective teachers adoption of social networks is very high ( x =134.16). When sub levels (benefit, ease of use, social impact, facilitating factors, community identification) are examined, social networks are adopted especially because of ease of use and facilitating factors. Maximum score for both factors is 40. Accordingly, prospective teachers have a high average of scores ( x =32.33; x =36.63). Benefit ( x =24.27) and community identification ( x =21.91) factors are above average. But social impact factor is slightly higher than the average ( x =19.00). In another research objective, differentiation of level of adoption of social networks by prospective teachers and sub levels (benefit, ease of use, social impact, facilitating factors, community identification) compared to demographic characteristics (Gender, university type, department etc.) and usage patterns of social networks (amount of daily use, social networking preferences etc.) is analyzed. Table 14: Levels of adoption of social networks by gender Sex n Mean sd df t p Male Benefit n.s Female Ease of use Male n.s. -32-

39 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 24-42, 1 December, 2013 Social impact Facilitating factors Community identification Total adoption Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female n.s n.s n.s Based on analysis of variance and LSD tests conducted by gender, a difference was observed at the level of facilitating factors (p<0.05). Accordingly, the female participants adopt social networks more than males, due to the facilitating factors. Table 15: Levels of adoption of social networks based on having mobile connection Mobile Connection n Mean sd df t p Benefit Yes, I have No, I haven t Ease of use Yes, I have No, I haven t Social impact Yes, I have No, I haven t n.s. Facilitating Yes, I have factors No, I haven t Community Yes, I have identification No, I haven t n.s Total adoption Yes, I have No, I haven t Many sub levels and total adoption level vary according to having mobile connection (p<0.05). Accordingly, participants who have a mobile connection adopt social networks because they are useful, easy to use and have facilitating factors. When total adoption scores were examined, a significant difference was found again (p<0.05). As a result, participants who have a mobile connection adopt social networks more than those who do not. On the other hand, adoption levels of participants with fixed internet connection were also investigated, and no significant difference was observed at the level of adoption. Table 16: Levels of adoption of social networks based on having an account in any social network Having Account n Mean sd df t p Benefit Yes, I have No, I haven t Ease of use Yes, I have No, I haven t Social impact Yes, I have No, I haven t n.s. Facilitating Yes, I have factors Community identification Total adoption No, I haven t Yes, I have No, I haven t Yes, I have No, I haven t

40 A comparative study of social network usage and adoption A Tutgun Ünal & O.Köroğlu Participants who have an account in any social networking site other than Facebook and Twitter are adopting social networks more (p<0.01). Accordingly, participants who have accounts in other social networks think about Facebook that it is more beneficial, has more facilitating factors and provides more community identification. Levels of adoption does not change regarding social impact (p>0,05). On the other hand, when adoption levels examined based on having Facebook account, a significant difference was found only at the level of ease of use (t=2.101; p<0.05). When adoption levels of participants who have a Twitter account are analyzed, significant differences were obtained only in ease of use (t=2.696; p<0.05), community identification (t=2.168; p<0.05) and total adoption levels (t=2.304; p<0.05). In addition, the participants' adoption levels were investigated according to their communication with their families through social networking sites. Accordingly, at the level of benefit (t=2.174; p<0.05), community identification (t=3.806; p<0.01) and total adoption (t=2.762; p<0.05) significant differences were obtained. Participants' adoption levels were also analyzed on how long they have been using social networking sites. Accordingly, prospective teachers who have been using Facebook for more than 5 years, are adopting social networks more for their benefit level, compared to those who use social networks for less than 1 year (F=5.732; p=0.001). On the other hand, according to the analysis made at the level of community identification, with more Facebook usage years, adoption of social networks is also increasing (F=5.553; p=0.001). When Total Adoption scores were examined, it is understood that long time Facebook users adopt social networks more than those of using Facebook for a shorter time (F=5.376; p<0.05). Table 17: Levels of adoption of social networks according to the duration of daily use Daily Use n Mean sd F P Difference Less than 1 hour Less than 1 hour< hours hours; Benefit 3-5 hours Less than 1 hour< More than 5 hours hours; Less than 1 hour<more than 5 hours Ease of use Social impact Facilitating factors Community identification Total adoption Less than 1 hour hours hours More than 5 hours Less than 1 hour hours hours More than 5 hours Less than 1 hour hours hours More than 5 hours Less than 1 hour hours hours More than 5 hours Less than 1 hour hours hours More than 5 hours n.s Less than 1 hour<3-5 hours; Less than 1 hour<more than 5 hours Less than 1 hour<3-5 hours; Less than 1 hour<more than 5 hours Less than 1 hour<more than 5 hours Less than 1 hour<1-3 hours; Less than 1 hour<3-5 hours; Less than 1 hour<more than 5 hours; 1-3 hours<3-5 hours; 1-3 hours< More than 5 hours -34-

41 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 24-42, 1 December, 2013 A high level of significant difference was found at the level of benefit (F=11.21; p<0.01). Prospective teachers using social networks for less than 1 hour per day, find social networks less useful compared to those who use more hours (1-3, 3-5, and more than 5 hours). When facilitating factors were analyzed, prospective teachers using social networks 3 hours or more per day adopt more than those who use social networks less than 1 hour per day, because of facilitating factors. (F=3.19; p<0.05). According to the results of the analysis at the level of Community identification, users of social networks over 5 hours per day adopt social networks more, compared to those who use less than 1 hour because of community identification (F=3.35; p<0.05). In the analysis of total adoption, a high level of differentiation was obtained (F=8.53; p<0.01). As a result, it can be said that with the increase in daily use of social networking, the level of adoption also increases. On the other hand, comparison between both types of universities' education departments, differentiation was found in the adoption of social networks at the level of benefit (p<0.05). Accordingly, departments of CEIT (Computer Education and Instructional Technologies), Social Studies Education and Guidance and Counselling adopt social networks more at usefulness level compared to the English Language Teaching department. Other departments do not differ (p>0,05). In addition, levels of adoption by participants according to the type of university they are attending differentiated only at community identification level. Accordingly, state university teacher candidates compared to participants in foundation university are adopting social networks more in creating community identification (t=2.628; p<0.05). No difference was observed at the other levels of adoption (p>0,05). Finally, in the comparison between senior and junior students, seniors were adopting social networks more compared to freshmen and sophomores (F=3.086; p<0.05). The last research objective was, whether there is a relationship between usage aims of social networking sites and levels of adoption of social networks by participants from state and foundation universities. In both university types, a positive and moderate level of relation was determined between the usage aim of social networks and the level of adoption (State: r = 0,392, p<0,001; Foundation: r=0.373, p<0,001). Accordingly, with the increase of the level of adoption, usage aim of social networks is also increasing. Conclusion and Discussion In this study, prospective teachers' intended uses of social networking sites and adoption levels of social networks are analyzed and comparisons made between state and foundation universities. First of all, according to our first research question, demographic characteristics and usage patterns of social networking sites of prospective teachers from state and foundation universities were determined. To this end, personal computer ownership has been analyzed. In both university types, prospective teachers were found to highly have their own computers (%82.3), but the rate of the group without a personal computer is also noteworthy (16.3%). This rate is close to each other in both university types. On the other hand, 91.9% of prospective teachers in foundation university owns internet connection, while it is %83.4 in state university. Of prospective teachers in state university who do not own a personal computer, one may assume that they also do not have internet connection. Whereas, 16.5% of -35-

42 A comparative study of social network usage and adoption A Tutgun Ünal & O.Köroğlu the participants from foundation university do not have personal computers and 7.7% do not have internet connection. This can be explained with prospective teachers from foundation university use their mobile phones for Internet access. Because when the ownership of mobile connection status is questioned, prospective teachers from foundation university were found to have more mobile internet access than participants from the state university. According to the analysis, 24.4% of participants from the state university do not have mobile internet access. In foundation university, the ratio was 16.9%. In 2010, according to Turkey Statistical Institute ICT Usage Survey, internet access ownership is 90.9% in Turkey. 91.9% of foundation university participants having internet connection is also consistent with this study. Several studies carried out with young people (Deniz, 2001, 2007; Tutgun & Deniz, 2010) have found out that they are using Internet widely even though 83.4% of the prospective teachers from state university have internet access. According to the results of our study, internet access ownership should be considered in relation with the ownership of mobile connection. This situation can be explained by socioeconomic differences. On the other hand, the results are supporting other studies that young people are accessing the Internet via the computer and mobile widely (Gemmill & Peterson, 2006; Wang et al., 2010; Tutgun et al., 2011; Turkey Statistical Institute, 2011). From the analysis of prospective teachers' accounts in social networking sites, Facebook account rates for participants from both universities are close to each other (State:%89.8; Foundation: %87.5). Akyazı and Tutgun Ünal (2013) found in their research with communication faculty students also similar results (State: 89%; Foundation: 89.4%). These findings show that Facebook usage is widespread among university students. Twitter account ownership rates of foundation university participants are 58.9% and state university participants are 51.7%. 179 participants (39.5%) have other social networking accounts, 269 participants (59.4%) do not. After Facebook and Twitter, the other popular social networks are YouTube (20.8%), Foursquare (16.9%), Instagram (17.4%), and others (%38.2). This result supports the other research on Facebook usage (Kabilan et al., 2010; Lampe et al., 2006). 64.9% of participants have social network applications in their mobile devices. Thus, prospective teachers are accessing social networks via mobile phones. Participants from foundation university have more Twitter accounts than participants from state university because they have more mobile access and social network applications. Twitter is based on writing instant messages, so this result was not surprising. According to the results, daily usage time of social networks varies by the type of participants' university. 45.4% of state university participants are using social networks less than 1 hour and 36.1% of them are using 1-3 hours on a daily basis. On the contrary, 41.1% of foundation university participants are using social networks 1-3 hours and 38.7% of them are using less than 1 hour in a day. This is may be due to high levels of mobile connection ownership in foundation university. Foundation university students who access social networks for a long period of time are more than state university students (3-5 hours per day 10.1%, and more than 5 hours 6.5%). On this result, studies can be conducted about addiction and pathological consequences. How long the participants have been using social networks were analyzed. Accordingly, more than half of the participants have been using (57.8%) social networks for 3 years and over. This result is indicative of the rising generation of young people started using the internet earlier than other generations. Wright (2001) highlights the aforementioned situation by calling them the Net Generation. -36-

43 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 24-42, 1 December, 2013 Another research objective was, according to our second research question, to find out usage purposes of social networking sites of prospective teachers in state and foundation universities. For this objective, three factors were analyzed: social interaction and communication purposes, identification and recognition purposes and educational purposes. Each factor was measured by a number of questions. Based on this, within the scope of social communication and interaction purposes, these rates were quite high: To maintain communication with existing friends (State: 73.6%; Foundation: 84.3%), to communicate with old friends again (State: 84.8%; Foundation: 88.3%), share favourite objects (video, pictures, etc). (State: 76.1%; Foundation: 80.4%), participate in engaging groups (State: 72.2%; Foundation: 70.9%), to share his/her thoughts with others (State: 71.8%; Foundation: 76.6%). On the other hand, usage for creating a profile, a personal page, etc. is lower in state university (State: 66.8%; Foundation: 79.5%). Usage rate to examine the lives of friends and others is lower (State: 64.9%; Foundation: 68.8%). Social networks provide users opportunities such as promoting themselves online, communicating with other users (Ellison et al., 2007), content sharing (Kim et al., 2010) and finding new friends (Wang et al, 2010). According to our findings, a high proportion of prospective teachers benefit from these opportunities. Lenhart and Madden (2007) define social networks as online places where users can create profiles and establish a personal network connecting to other users. Social interaction and communication is in the definition of social networks. Our research results revealed that usage of social networks by prospective teachers serves this purpose. The use of social networking sites for identification and recognition is lower: To meet new people and build new friendships (Do not agree: state 55.2% foundation 60.1%), to be recognized by other people (Do not agree: state of 71.2%, foundation 75.4%). On the other hand, usage to meet people from different cultures percentage of agreeing prospective teachers in different degrees is close to half of the total participants (State: 42.5%; Foundation: 44.7%). According to the results, prospective teachers do not much prefer using social networking sites for identification and recognition. One purpose of social networks is to introduce oneself online. Even so, participants preferred this purpose less. On the other hand, for social interaction and communication, choices of maintaining contact with existing friends and getting in touch with old friends again rates are very high. Prospective teachers on social networks aim to communicate with present and old friends rather than finding new ones. Ratio of teachers who have a positive opinion on the use of social networking for educational purposes is quite high: To do research on school projects/assignments (State: 64.9%; Foundation: 72.1%), to examine groups and activities for education (State: 78.5%; Foundation: 78.6%), to meet different and up to date information and ideas (State: 83.9%; Foundation: 89%). However, those who reported a positive opinion on usage in order to improve the knowledge of foreign language vary in different universities (State: 40.5%; Foundation: 54.4%). This item does not very high participation rate, but the total percentage of positive responses of different degrees was at a substantial level. On the other hand, when the results are analyzed according to the type of university, foundation university participation rates are higher. Foundation university teachers having more internet access and mobile connectivity may be the reason for this. To clarify the situation, in both types of universities, more research can be made on prospective teachers' attitudes towards use of social networks for educational purposes. -37-

44 A comparative study of social network usage and adoption A Tutgun Ünal & O.Köroğlu Emphasized topics in the literature include: social networking sites can be used to improve cooperation and collaboration in higher education (Ajjan & Hartshorne, 2008). Thanks to these environments, teachers recognize students better (Mazman, 2009), social networking applications are closely related to many pedagogical points in constructivist approach and support some pedagogical approaches, such as active learning, social learning, communities of practice and learning (Ferding, 2007). However, more detailed studies should be made about prospective teachers' use of social networking for educational purposes. According to our research, prospective teachers are using social networks for educational purposes more than average. Participants' favorable opinion of over 80% on usage in order to encounter the up-to-date different information and ideas is particularly remarkable. On our third research question, according to our research, state and foundation universities' prospective teachers' adoption levels of social networks are close to each other. Based on this, participants adoption levels are very high ( x =134.16). The questions determining the level of adoption were about Facebook. When adoption is analyzed, Facebook adoption is due to the ease of use and facilitating factors. Maximum score for each factor is 40 and participants have higher scores ( x =32.33; x =36.63). Other lower analysis levels are also highly effective (utility, social impact, community identification). On our fourth research question, differentiation in adoption levels of the prospective teachers according to demographic characteristics and social network usage patterns were also studied. Female prospective teachers adopt Facebook more than males because of the facilitating factors (t=2.63; p<0.05). Other levels of adoption were not found to differ by gender. To have a mobile connection differentiates many sub levels and total adoption level (p<0.05). Prospective teachers with mobile connection adopt Facebook because it is useful, easy to use, and has facilitating factors, so they adopt Facebook more. Prospective teachers' levels of adoption are differentiated with mobile connection but have not differentiated with internet connection. When adoption levels of participants with accounts in social networks analyzed, a significant difference was found at the level of ease of use in participants with Facebook accounts (t=2.101; p<0.05). Significant differences were obtained with participants with Twitter accounts in the levels of ease of use (t=2.696; p<0.05), community identification (t=2.168; p<0.05) and total adoption (t=2.304; p<0.05). Adoption levels of participants with an account in other social networks are highly differentiated (p<0.01). Prospective teachers with an account in other social networks are adopting Facebook because it is more useful, easy to use, has facilitating factors and provides community identification. Prospective teachers' adoption levels according to their communication with the families over social networking sites were also analyzed. According to the results, there are significant differences in the levels of benefit (t=2.174; p<0.05), community identification (t=3.806; p<0.01) and total adoption (t=2.762; p<0.05). Participants who use social networks to communicate with their families, naturally find them useful and adopt them more. Prospective teachers' adoption levels according to total usage time of social networking sites were also analyzed. Facebook users for more than 5 years find it more useful and adopt it more than users of less than 1 year (F=5.732; p=0.001). Based on their total adoption scores, Facebook users for a long time are adopting social networks more (F=5.376; p<0.05). -38-

45 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 24-42, 1 December, 2013 According to the duration of daily use, the participants adoption levels are highly differentiated (F=8.53; p<0.01). Participants, who spend more time in social networks in a day, find social networks more useful compared to participants who spend less time. In addition, according to the results of the analysis at the level of community identification, those who use social networks 5 hours or more per day compared to those who use less than 1 hour, adopt social networks more (F=3.35; p<0.05). When all levels were analyzed, it can be said that while daily use of social networking increases, level of adoption also increases. This result was not surprising because it is natural for adopters of social networks to allocate more time per day than others. But it is noteworthy that there are participants adopting because of Community identification and spending time on social networks over 5 hours per day (n=24; Mean=26.54). It is important to identify these prospective teachers with detailed research and to take necessary action. On the other hand, when departments are compared, CEIT (Computer Education and Instructional Technologies), Social Science Education and Guidance and Counselling departments are adopting social networks more on usefulness level than English Language Teaching department. Other departments do not Show difference (p>0,05). It is interesting to note that while some departments embrace social networks by finding them useful, English Language Teaching department has the lowest ratings. Another interesting result, depending on the type of participants' university, adoption levels are differentiated only at the community identification level. Accordingly, state university students adopt social networks more to create community identification than foundation university students (t=2.628; p<0.05). The reasons for these results can be determined with detailed research in universities and departments. Participants in senior classes are adopting social networks more than freshmen and sophomore students (F=3.086; p<0.05). It can be said that senior prospective students have their own social environment and relationships, and carry on these relationships through social networks, but first and second year students do not much have these environment and relationships. Freshmen start with creating new environment and relationships. At first, it can be seen natural that as a friendship and communication environment, they embrace social networks less. Finally, according to our fifth research question, relationship between the intended uses and levels of adoption of social networks of prospective teachers in state and foundation universities was analyzed and positive and moderate correlation was found (State: r = 0,392, p<0,001; Foundation: r=0.373, p<0,001). Accordingly, with the level of adoption increasing, the intended use of social networks is also increasing. As a result, prospective teachers who adopt social networking sites exhibit a more positive attitude to use social networking sites for multiple purposes. Today, social networks are widely used for many purposes throughout the world. Academic studies on social networks are also increasing. Educational communities are discussing and exploring the use of social networks for educational purposes. It would be useful to implement these studies in education faculties on prospective teachers. In the literature, detailed analysis and studies specifically on prospective teachers are not found. The secondary objective of this study is the use of social networks in education. First, however, the following situations must be determined: Purposes of prospective teachers' use of social networks, usage characteristics of social networks, adoption level of social networks, what the variables of differences in the levels of adoption, relationship between the levels of adoption and the intended use. On the other hand, in this study, an idea of perspectives was obtained -39-

46 A comparative study of social network usage and adoption A Tutgun Ünal & O.Köroğlu from prospective teachers on the use of social networks for educational purposes. Based on the research findings, some recommendations can be made: 1. State university prospective teachers' access facilities to the Internet outside the campuses can be increased. 2. Prospective teachers who spend much of their time in social networks can be guided to seminars on time management. 3. With seminars on educational use of social networks, prospective teachers' awareness can be raised. 4. For different departments in state and foundation universities, usage of social networking can be monitored with studies made at regular intervals. Thus, differences may be learned in a healthy manner and activities can be arranged for different groups. References Akyazı, E. & Tutgun Ünal, A. (2013). Purpose, Adoption and Level of Loneliness Relation and the Use of Social Networks: A Study on Undergraduate Communication Students, Global Media Journal TR, 3 (6), Ajjan, H. & Hartshorne, R. (2008). Investigating faculty decisions to adopt Web 2.0 technologies: Theory and empirical tests, Internet and Higher Education, 11, Deniz, L. (2001). A Follow-up Study of Computer Experiences of Student School Councelors, Marmara University Journal of Educational Science, 13, Deniz, L. (2007). Prospective class teachers computer experiences and computer attitudes, International Journal of Social Sciences, 2 (2), Ekici, M. & Kıyıcı, M. (2012). Using Social Networks in Educational Context, Uşak University Journal of Social Sciences, 5 (2), Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C. & Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook "friends:" Social capital and college students' use of online social network sites, Journal of Computer- Mediated Communication, 12 (4), Ferdig, R. E. (2007). Editorial: Examining Social Software in Teacher Education, Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 15(1), Fitton, L., Gruen, M. & Poston, L. (2010). Twitter for dummies. (2. ed.). Kanada: Indianapolis, Wiley Publishing. Gemmill, E., & Peterson, M. (2006). Technology Use among College Students: Implications for Student Affairs Professionals, NASPA Journal, 43(2), Georgina A.D. & Hosford C.C. (2009) Higher education faculty perceptions on technology integration and training, Teaching and Teacher Education 25, Grant, N. (2008). On the Usage of Social Networking Software Technologies in Distance Learning Education. In Mazman, S.G. (2009). Adoption process of social networks and their usage in educational context, Unpublished Mater Thesis, Hacettepe University, Institute of Science, Ankara. Gülbahar, Y., Kalelioğlu, F. & Madran, O. (2010). Use of Social Network for Educational Purposes, 15th. Proceedings of Internet Conference in Turkey, retrieved on December 27, Hamid, S., Chang, S. & Kurnia, S. (2009). Identifying the use of online social networking in higher education. In Same places, different spaces, Proceedings ascilite Auckland 2009, ascilite.org.au/conferences/auckland09/procs/hamid-poster.pdf retrieved on December 20, Kabilan, M. K., Ahmad N. & Abidin, M. J. Z. (2010). Facebook: An online environment for learning of English in institutions of higher education? The Internet and Higher Education, 13 (4),

47 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 24-42, 1 December, 2013 Karal, H. & Kokoç, M. (2010). University Students Aims of Use of Social Network Sites Scale: Development and Validation, Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education, 1 (3), Karasar, N. (1994). Scientific Research Methods. Ankara: 3A Araştırma Danışmanlık Limited. Keleş, E. & Demirel, P. (2011). Using Facebook in Formal Education as a Social Network, 5th International Computer & Instructional Technologies Symposium, September 2011, Fırat University, Elazığ, Turkey. Kim, C., Kim, M., Lee, C., Spector, J. M., & DeMeester, K. (2013). Teacher beliefs and technology integration, Teaching and Teacher Education, 29, Kim, W., Jeong, O. R. & Lee, S. W. (2010). On social Web sites. Information Systems, 35 (2), Köroğlu, O. (2012). New Media in Terms of Human Computer Interaction, AJIT-e Online Academic Journal of Information Technology, 3 (6), (DOI: / x) Lampe, C., Ellison, N. & Steinfield, C. (2006). A face (book) in the crowd: social searching vs. social browsing, Proceedings of the 20th Anniversary Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, Banff, Alberta, Canada. Martinovic, D. & Zhang, Z. (2012). Situating ICT in the Teacher Education Program: Overcoming challenges, fulfilling expectations, Teachers and Teacher Education, 28 (3), Mazman, S. G. (2009). Adoption Process Of Social Network And Their Usage In Educational Context, Unpublished Master Thesis, Hacettepe University, Institute of Science, Ankara. Odabaşı, H., Günüç et al. (2012). A New Media for Education: Twitter, Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, 2 (1), Özmen, F., Aküzüm, C. et al. (2011). Functionality of Social Networks in Educational Settings, 6th International Advanced Technologies Symposium (IATS 11), May 2011, Elazığ, Turkey. Ploderer, B., Howard, S. & Thomas, P. (2010). Collaboration on social network sites: amateurs, professionals and celebrities. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 19 (5), Preeti, M. (2009). Use of social networking in a linguistically and culturally rich India, The International Information & Library Review, 41 (3), Socialbakers (2013). Turkey Facebook Statistics, socialbakers.com/facebookstatistics/turkey retrieved on January 22, Schmucki, L. & Meel, S., K. (2010). Social Networking in Education: Practices, Policies, and Realitie, retrieved on December 25, Stanciu, A., Mihai, F. & Aleca, O. (2012). Social Networking As An Alternative Environment For Education, Accounting and Management Information Systems, 11 (1), Starkey, L. (2010). Supporting the digitally able beginning teacher, Teaching and Teacher Education, 26 (7) Strong, G.W. (1995). New directions in human-computer interaction: education, research, and practice. Interactions, 1 (2), Tiryakioğlu, F. & Erzurum, F. (2011). Network Using As an Educational Tool, 2nd International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April, 2011 Antalya-Turkey. -41-

48 A comparative study of social network usage and adoption A Tutgun Ünal & O.Köroğlu Tutgun, A. & Deniz, L. (2010). Problematic Internet Usage among Prospective Teachers. International Educational Technology Conference] (IETC) 2010, Volume II, Page 1226, Boğaziçi University, Istanbul. Tutgun, A, Deniz, L. & Moon, Man-Ki (2011). A Comparative Study of Problematic Internet Use and Loneliness among Turkish and Korean Prospective Teachers, The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology (TOJET), 10 (4), Turkey Statistical Institute (2011). Information Society Statistics, dpt.gov.tr/docobjects/view/12808/bilgi_toplumu_istatistikleri_2011.pdf retrieved on January 12, Usluel, Y.K. & Mazman, S.G.(2009). Social Network Adoption Scale, Journal of Educational Sciences & Practices, 8 (15), Wang, S. S., Moon, S., Kwon, K. H., Evans, C. A. & Stefanone, M. A. (2010). Face off: Implications of visual cues on initiating friendship on facebook, Computers in Human Behaviour, 26 (2), Wright, C. (2001). Children and Technology: Issues, Challenges and Opportunities, Childhood Education, 78 (1),

49 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at Metaphorical Perceptions of Teacher Candidates towards the School Concept: Lotus Flower Model Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: metaphor, lotus flower technique, school, teacher candidates. Canan KOÇAK * Education Faculty, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey This study aimed to determine teacher candidates s perception about school through metaphors. In this respect, components of school such as Teacher, Student, Principal, Classroom, Teachers Room, Parent, Ministry of National Education and Inspector were categorized separately to determine metaphorical images of teacher candidates about school. The sampling of the study consisted of 346 teacher candidates studying at Science, Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Math departments of Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education.This is a two-dimensional research study where qualitative and quantitative research methods are used together. Metaphors of teacher candidates about school were collected through a diagram prepared according to the Lotus Flower Technique. Findings of this study clearly indicated that Lotus Flower Technique enabled the expression of metaphors by teacher candidates on school, being an effective data collection tool in revealing, understanding and explaining a concept together with its components, which, in this case, are teachers, student, principal, classroom, teachers room, parent, MEB and inspector. Introduction Productivity of education and teaching along with their efficiency in reaching their goals depends on the performances of educational institutions and their components. Depending on the rapid developmental process of education in time, the profiles of teachers, students, parents and administrators change accordingly. Concepts of school and classroom attain different functions in order to fit to the vision this change brings forward. Importance and functionality of school in education, along with the thought on how more different information on school could be gathered, lead this study to proceed with metaphors. As metaphors cater for qualitative data collection, they provide rich pictures and visual images about topics, events and situations to be researched. Additionally, metaphors consist of varied expressions; and this enables researchers to categorize under certain thematic titles according to their similarities and differences (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2005). Lakoff and Johnson (1980) are the researchers to have attracted attentions by doing the first studies on metaphors as facilitating tools. According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), metaphors for many people are poetic tools, * Correspondence: [email protected]

50 Metaphorical Perceptions of Teacher Candidates C.Koçak which blossom through imagination. Events, phenomenon, or situations could be expressed more beautifully through metaphors instead of using a monotonous language. Metaphors require catching the main nature of an experience in an active process, which enables individuals to understand their own worlds along with others. Metaphors are individual symbols for behaviors that cannot be expressed in words and they make verbal expressions unlimited. They enable individuals to present the production of an individual as if it is a part of their own environment. In other words, metaphors enable individuals to express everything they say, see, hear, feel and do in the way they imagine (Lawley &Tompkins, 2000). Metaphors cater for the reflection of a certain mental scheme over another one through establishing connections between two unrelated phenomenon. In this respect, metaphors enable the shifting of an individual s mind from a certain type of perception to another and provide the individual with the chance to see a phenomenon as another one (Önen & Koçak, 2011; Saban, 2008). Although metaphors are known as figures of languages adding attraction to a speech or script, they have a wide range of usage in daily life (Yero, 2001). In additions to certain features of metaphors as clarity, intensity and explanatoriness (Ortony, 2000), they have essential effects over individuals expressions, behaviors, intuitions and emotional developments. Metaphors affect cognitive processes and actions (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) and enable individuals to express themselves while shaping their expressions (Morgan, 1998). Metaphors affecting individuals not only reflect thoughts but also shape them and contribute to the emerging of behaviors (Strenski, 1989). Additionally, by improving individuals intuitions and emotional developments (Fraser, 2000), they provide individuals with the opportunity to establish strong modeling mechanisms to understand and structure their own worlds (Arslan & Bayrakçı, 2006). Metaphors could be used as effective tools in determining the place of teachers in modern education approach (Vadeboncoeur & Myriam, 2003). The fact that metaphors are important tools in researching processes and concepts as basis of the educational process has been proven by the qualitative research findings (Carlson, 2001; Cochran, 2002; Çapan, 2010; Goldstein, 2005; Keränen, 2005; Önen & Koçak, 2011; Saban, 2004,2009; Taşdemir & Taşdemir, 2011). Therefore, metaphors have important roles guiding education and teaching practices of teacher candidates. As metaphors have the ability to enable long-term retention (Arslan & Bayrakçı, 2006), metaphors could be used in education (Botha, 2009; Cook-Sather, 2003; Fang, 2007; Fraser, 2000; Patton, 2002; Zheng & Song, 2010). Metaphors, which enrich the language when used in daily speech and could be used for educational purposes, also have limitations. As metaphors affect individuals meaning construction processes (Wulf & Dudis, 2005; Yalçın, 2012), they could cater for limited meanings. They could sometimes reflect only a single aspect of a complex situation (Perry & Cooper, 2001) and cause misunderstandings. Additionally, meanings related to concepts may intersect and create unexpected complexities (Arslan & Bayrakçı, 2006;Tyson, 1995). Therefore, different methods and techniques could be used in studies using metaphors. For this reason, this study made use of the Lotus Flower Technique to determine teacher candidates perceptions about school as a technique different from the techniques used when working with metaphors (Berman et.al, 2002; Cerit, 2008; Döş, 2010; Öztürk, 2007; Saban, Koçbeker &Saban, 2006; Semerci, 2007). -44-

51 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 43-56, 1 December, 2013 Population and Sampling The sampling of the study consisted of 346 teacher candidates studying at Science, Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Math departments of Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education. Methods This is a two-dimensional research study where qualitative and quantitative research methods are used together. Within the qualitative research dimension of the study, data collected from teacher candidates were evaluated through content analysis, while the quantitative dimension of the study was evaluated using tables displaying the statistical analysis results. In this study, teacher, student, principal, classroom, teachers room, parent, MEB (Ministry of National Education) and inspector components are categorized separately to determine the metaphorical images that teacher candidates had for school. Teacher candidates, therefore, are asked to fill in the leaves of the lotus flower leaves as Figure 1 displays. Figure 1: Lotus flower diagram on school metaphor As displayed on Figure1, since Lotus Flower Technique creates more leaves under each leave, it looks like an opened lotus flower (Sloane, 2006). Lotus Flower technique helps thinking on schematic and important topic, all components of School concept (A. Student, B. Teacher, C. Principal, D. Classroom, E. Ministry of National Education, F. Parents, G, Teachers Room and H. Inspector) are placed in the middle of the diagram. Teacher candidates are expected to think about the School as a whole. Additionally, the lotus flower leaves surrounding the diagram are placed boxes, in which metaphors related to Student, Teacher, Principal, Classroom, Ministry of National Education, Parents, Teachers Room and Inspector are to be written. Teacher candidates are asked to create a maximum of 8 metaphors and write them separately in the boxes surrounding the concepts. Therefore, teacher candidates could create 72 different metaphors related to School. -45-

52 Metaphorical Perceptions of Teacher Candidates C.Koçak Findings Qualitative Findings of the Study Construction of Metaphor Categories No demographical information (name, surname, number, grade level, etc.) is asked from teacher candidates during the study. This enabled teacher candidates to reveal their thoughts confidently and freely. Perceptions of teacher candidates towards school metaphor are analyzed separately through the metaphors written in the lotus flower leaves. The analysis concluded with the categorization of 12,268 metaphors obtained under categories according to their common characteristics. Figure2 displays these categories and the sample metaphors listed under these categories. Figure 2: Categories and sample metaphorical images Figure2 displays that the names of the categories are determined according to metaphorical images listed under these groups. In other words, when naming the categories, -46-

53 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 43-56, 1 December, 2013 metaphors expressed by the teacher candidates are made use of. For example, in Principal dimension, Discipline as common metaphor teacher candidates is determined as the name of the category, which is similar at the Inspector dimension with a category name of Inspection. However, metaphors on Teacher and Student are listed under two categories as Proactive and Reactive, according to the type of personality they reflect. In the psychiatric pattern, there are two different personality profiles classified as proactive and reactive, which differ according to the behavioral structures (Covey, 1998; Schwarzer, 1999). Reactive personality is used to describe individuals who are driven by outside factors. They are individuals, who tend to panic easily, have lost their confidence, are sensitive and passive. They usually act with the foresights of others, while experiencing obstacles in their social roles with a distant and hesitating personality basis (Şahin, 2006). Proactive individuals do not behave according to the conditions and the feelings these conditions bring forward. Instead, they act according to their own values and principles (Covey, 1998). Proactive individuals recognize opportunities in their environments and take action to make use of them, while taking responsibilities and continue until they experience a significant change (Crant, 2000; transferred by Şahin, 2006). Metaphors obtained from the research are analyzed and it is concluded that there are many metaphors expressing these two personality patterns with student and teacher metaphors. Validity and Reliability of the Study After the definition of 12,268 metaphors and development of image categories, these categories were submitted to expert opinion for reliability and validity of the study. Categories, which reached their final structures after expert opinions were evaluated together with the metaphorical images in a confirmation meeting with a group of 35 selected among the participants. Categories and the metaphorical images listed under categories were shared with 35 teacher candidates. Participants discussed and agreed on whether the information structured under categories was temporary or periodic, whether metaphorical images were understood accurately and whether they were listed under correct categories. Therefore, the categories reached their final structures with the reliability and validity of the study, and they were coded on computers so that they would be ready for quantitative analysis. Quantitative Dimension Findings Of The Study Quantitative research dimension of the study involved the calculation of percentage and frequency values of metaphor categories reflecting the perceptions of students on School and its components (Student, Teacher, Principal, Classroom, Ministry of National Education, Parents, Teachers Room and Inspector) using the data obtained from the Lotus Flower Diagram as the data collection tool. Values obtained have been listed under different titles below: Evaluation of Metaphorical Perceptions for Student Metaphors developed by teacher candidates on Student have been analyzed and the values obtained are displayed on Table1. Table 1: Percentage and frequency values of metaphorical categories of teacher candidates for student Student % f Reactive Proactive Total

54 Metaphorical Perceptions of Teacher Candidates C.Koçak Table1 shows that metaphorical perceptions of teacher candidates for Student are mainly listed under the Reactive category. Among the 1832 metaphors expressed by teacher candidates for Student, 84.2% related Student with reactive personality pattern, while 15.8% related it with proactive personality pattern. Evaluation of Metaphorical Perceptions for Teacher Metaphors developed by teacher candidates on Teacher have been analyzed and the values obtained are displayed on Table2. Table 2. Percentage and frequency values of metaphorical categories of teacher candidates for teacher Teacher % f Reactive Proactive Total Table2 shows the distribution of 1730 metaphors between reactive and proactive categories. Among the metaphors expressed by teacher candidates for Teacher, 85.8% were at the proactive category, while 14.2% were placed at the reactive category. Evaluation of Metaphorical Perceptions for Principal Principal as the sole administrative authority of the School was evaluated in terms of its metaphorical reflection in the minds of teacher candidates. The values obtained are displayed on Table3. Table 3: Percentage and frequency values of metaphorical categories of teacher candidates for principal Principal % f Discipline Finance Administration Total As Table3 displays the way Principal is perceived by teacher candidates is listed under three categories. Analysis concluded that metaphorical perceptions of teacher candidates on Principal were grouped under Discipline with 42.4% value, Finance with 8.1% value, and Administration with 49.5% value. Evaluation of Metaphorical Perceptions for Inspector Metaphors developed by teacher candidates on Inspector have been analyzed and the values obtained are displayed on Table

55 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 43-56, 1 December, 2013 Table 4: Percentage and frequency values of metaphorical categories of teacher candidates for inspector Inspector % f Inspection Authority Fear Total Table 4 shows the percentage and frequency values of metaphorical perceptions by teacher candidates for Inspector, and the metaphors were observed to cumulate under Inspection, Authority and Fear categories. This dimension received the least number of metaphors. Among the 1327 metaphors, 52.5% were grouped under Inspection, while 29.7% were under Authority and the 17.8% were under Fear. Evaluation of Metaphorical Perceptions for Classroom Metaphors developed by teacher candidates on Classroom have been analyzed and the following values were obtained as displayed on Table5. Table 5: Percentage and frequency values of metaphorical categories of teacher candidates for classroom Classroom % f Course Family Social Environment Total Table5 shows the metaphorical categories expressed by teacher candidates for Classroom, where different rates of metaphors were observed. Among the 1608 metaphors obtained, 59% were grouped under Course, while 13.7% were under Family and 27.4% were under Social Environment categories. Evaluation of Metaphorical Perceptions for Teachers Room Table 6 displays the values obtained from the analysis on metaphors developed by teacher candidates for Teachers Room. Table 6: Percentage and frequency values of metaphorical categories of teacher candidates for teachers room Teachers Room % f Chat Shelter Locker Total Table 6 displays that metaphorical perceptions of teacher candidates from Teachers Room, where teachers spend their non-class hours, were grouped under three categories as Chat, Shelter and Locker. Chat was the category involving 32.4% of the metaphors, while Shelter involved 37.7% and the Locker involved 29.9% of the metaphors. -49-

56 Metaphorical Perceptions of Teacher Candidates C.Koçak Evaluation of Metaphorical Perceptions for Parent At this phase of the study, metaphors of teacher candidates for Parent were evaluated and the results are displayed on Table7 in percentages and frequencies. Table 7: Percentage and frequency values of metaphorical categories of teacher candidates for parent Parent % f Support Family Meeting Complaint Total Table 7 displays that metaphorical perceptions of teacher candidates for Parent were grouped under Support, Family, Meeting and Complaint categories, where 21.6% of 1469 metaphors were listed under Support, 14.4% were listed under Family, 11.6% were listed under Meeting, and 52.4% of them were listed under Complaint. Evaluation of Metaphorical Perceptions for Ministry of National Education Metaphorical perceptions of teacher candidates for Ministry of National Education as the highest authority for education and teaching were analyzed at three categories as Table8 displays. Table 8: Percentage and frequency values of metaphorical categories of teacher candidates for Ministry of National Education Ministry of National Education % f Relocation Politics Curriculum Total As Table8 displays, the metaphor groups about Ministry of National Education were analyzed under Relocation, Politics, and Curriculum categories, where Politics received the highest value (72.2%). Relocation was the category with second highest value (20.4%) and Program received 7.3% value, becoming the third highest value category in ranking. Conclusion and Discussion Metaphors are known to be essential tools used in understanding human behaviors and perceptions in various fields, one of which is education. Researches on metaphors used by students and teachers have been the center of attraction recently (Çelikten, 2006; Inbar, 1996; Yalçın; 2012). Therefore, it is a common topic in the literature to analyze teachers and teacher candidates perceptions about teacher, student, school, principal and classroom concepts. A quick literature scan would result in studies on metaphors reflecting the perceptions on Teacher (Berman et.al., 2002; Cerit, 2008; Çelikten, 2005; Oxford et.al., 1998; Saban, 2004; Yücel & Koçak, 2008), Student (Saban, 2009; Tyson, 1995; Yücel, Koçak & Cula, 2010), School (Aydoğdu, 2008; Baker, 1991; Balci, 2001; Bayram, 2010; Mahlios & Maxson, 1998; Saban, 2008; Saban, Koçbeker &Saban, 2006; Yılmaz, 2011), Campus (Önen &Koçak, 2010), Chemistry (Koçak et.al., 2011), as well as courses such as Math and Geography (Gecit & Gencer, 2011; Güveli et.al., 2011; McColm, 2007; Öztürk, 2007). -50-

57 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 43-56, 1 December, 2013 This study made use of a data collection tool different from other studies in the literature. Metaphors of teacher candidates about school were collected through a diagram prepared according to the Lotus Flower Technique. In this respect, components of school as Teacher, Student, Principal, Classroom, Teachers Room, Parent, Ministry of National Education and Inspector were categorized separately to determine metaphorical images of teacher candidates about school. Lotus Flower Technique is used to construct more ideas on topics, develop productive opinions and viewing topics as a whole (Sloane, 2006; URL-1). With the help of Lotus Flower Technique, teacher candidates were able to express metaphors for all components of school. Although school seems to be a single concept, it I s rather a system made up of various concepts such as teacher, student and principal. Therefore, it is important to view all components as a whole and question all components constructing the system. Teacher candidates were able to see the sub components of school on the leaves of the lotus flower, while seeing the school with its components in the bigger picture. Collecting data through appropriate tools during the qualitative research increases the validity of the quantitative research (Yıldırım &Şimşek, 2005). Therefore, in order to obtain metaphors for such a concept with various components as school, limiting metaphors to a single expression would decrease the validity. Research on metaphors included studies, where participants were expected to indicate a single metaphor and express the metaphor at the same statement with the reason of its selection (Berman et.al, 2002; Döş, 2010; Ozturk, 2007; Saban, Koçbeker &Saban, 2006). In these studies, it is an obligation to focus on a single metaphor, which leads the sampling group to express a limited number of metaphors. Although the number of participants in the study was 346, the leaves of the lotus flower were observed to contain 1832 metaphors for student, 1730 metaphors for teacher, 1452 metaphors for principal, 1327 metaphors for inspector, 1608 metaphors for classroom, 1431 metaphors for teachers room, 1469 metaphors for parent and 1419 metaphors for Ministry of National Education, which sums up to 12,268 metaphors in total. This conclusion allows for more number of data than the number of participants in the sampling group. These types of studies require the evaluation of collected data for the relevance of the explanation to the metaphor. Participants of this study were not asked to provide a reason for their metaphors, however, were asked to confirm on whether the information structured under categories was temporary or periodic, whether metaphorical images were understood accurately and whether they were listed under correct categories. Therefore, no additional analysis on the classification of the data was required. Some studies on metaphors allow for data collection through surveys (Cerit, 2008; Semerci, 2007). Researcher asks participants to confirm on a previously mentioned metaphor and its explanation. In this case, the participant can neither produce another metaphor nor comment on an existing one (Önen & Koçak, 2011). This study allowed for a wide range of metaphor production opportunity for the participants. Another study by Önen and Koçak (2011) involved the utilization of Lotus Flower Technique in collecting data on metaphors for Campus and similar conclusions were come to. Findings of the study displayed that teachers related students to reactive personality, where passive behaviors are dominant, they related teachers to proactive personality, which indicates a tendency to start and continue and action on changing the environment directly (Şahin, 2006). Parallel to the conclusions of this study, some studies, where teacher and student concepts were questioned through metaphors (Önen & Koçak, 2011; Yücel, Koçak & Cula, 2010), concluded that reactiveness as one of the personality traits in the psychological pattern was found in students, while proactiveness was a trait for teachers. These common conclusions obtained in the studies would enlighten some factors that were avoided in the -51-

58 Metaphorical Perceptions of Teacher Candidates C.Koçak previous studies (Taylor, 1984). Reactive and proactive personality traits found in teachers were concretized through the utilization of metaphors in data collection. This finding is in coherence with the opinion that Lotus Flower Model could promote the creation of seeds for ideas, which would lead to better ones (Sloane, 2006; URL-1). Additionally, teacher candidates of the higher educational institutions were indicated to focus more on training teachers with proactive personalities as the effective planners, appliers and consumers of educational programs (Yücel, Koçak & Cula, 2010). Teacher candidates perceptions on principal were questioned and a multidimensional structure was obtained. Administrative role of the principal was prominent. The study also found that teacher candidates saw the classroom as a place, where lessons are taught while interestingly relating it to social environment and family. Politics, as the highest value category in the Ministry of National Education dimension, was an interesting finding together with the popularity of Relocation category considering the exam that teacher candidates are required to take. Metaphors are cognitive tools, which are sued by individuals to construct (Palmquist, 2001). Therefore, teacher candidates were assumed to have produced metaphors mainly thinking of themselves in this dimension. The metaphors indicated by teacher candidates for Parent concept were mainly at Complaint category, which means that teacher candidates gave concretized examples at the complaint category in terms of parents. This is parallel to the view that a concept could be expressed from the perspective of another individual through metaphors, which leads to attaining important information on metaphors (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). While supportive characteristics of parents should have been prominent, teacher candidates related it to complaint, which enlightened a conceptual understanding by teacher candidates to be considered in detail. Teacher candidates perceptions on teachers room were grouped under categories such as chat, shelter and locker, where the highest value was received by shelter. This shows that, teachers rooms are perceived by most teacher candidates as protective shelters. Although teacher candidates mentioned the least number of metaphors in the principal dimension, indication of the inspection responsibility of inspectors was rather interesting. Findings of this study clearly indicated that Lotus Flower Technique enabled the expression of metaphors by teacher candidates hers on school, being an effective data collection tool in revealing, understanding and explaining a concept together with its components, which, in this case, are teachers, student, principal, classroom, teachers room, parent, Ministry of National Education and inspector. Data obtained allowed teacher candidates to reflect their opinions on the components of school through metaphorical images. Through construction of metaphorical categories and analysis of metaphorical images on school, teacher candidates were enabled to understand the schemes they created in their minds on school and restructure them when necessary. Metaphors are able to change conceptual systems and the perspectives of individuals towards the world (Sanchez et.al, 2000). Therefore, this study catered for the introduction of metaphorical images, which bring new perspectives to teacher candidates about school. The study was participated by teacher candidates studying at Science, Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Mathematics departments of Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education. The concept of school shall be questioned with the participation of teacher candidates from different universities and programs in terms of their metaphorical perceptions. Additionally, metaphor categories shall be increased in number by providing the participation of teachers as sampling groups. -52-

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63 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at Development of an internet-based exam system for mobile environments and evaluation of its usability Aslihan Tufekci * Computer and Instructional Technologies Education Department, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: online exam; online exam systems; mobile learning; educational technologies; usability test Hasan Ekinci Gazi Technical and Industrial Vocational High School, Ankara, Turkey Utku Kose Directorate of Computer Center, Usak University, Usak, Turkey The aim of this study is to develop an online exam system, which is easily accessible by students from computers and other mobile environments, and to carry out the usability tests of both mobile and webbased modules of the exams prepared by using this system. The system developed within the framework of this study provides the users with an electronic environment that can be used easily, quickly and effectively. The overall objective of the system is to meet the demands of students and teachers with regards to efficiency, practicality and effectiveness. Via this system, students can access exams by using their own mobile devices whenever and wherever they wish. Following the design and development phases, various usability tests were applied on real users regarding the effectiveness, efficiency of the system and user satisfaction. The data obtained revealed that the online exam system and the exams prepared by using the system were found to be effective, efficient and useful. 1. Introduction Today, it is seen that many people that prepare for their exams are studying on buses, in parks or in a café with a test book in their hands. The tests prepared via electronic exam systems, now, have been an alternative for those who prepare for their exams by using their personal computers or other mobile devices. Connecting such services requires a computer and internet access. In other words, it is necessary that students must be in their homes or in a place which provides above mentioned conditions in order to access such electronic exam systems. In this study, the authors search for solutions to enable students to access these systems whenever and wherever they want rather than being have to be in a certain place. Due to the practicality and the advantages of mobile devices and the solutions they have provided, the transition from traditional desktop systems to mobile devices has accelerated and the uses of these devices have become varied and more common (Oran, & Karadeniz, * Correspondence: Gazi University, Gazi Education Faculty, Computer and Instructional Technologies Education Department, 06500, Teknikokullar / Ankara / Turkey; ; [email protected]; [email protected]

64 Development of an internet-based exam system for mobile environments A.Tufekci, H.Ekinci & U.Kose 2007). One of the uses of mobile devices is mobile learning, which can be defined as all kinds of learning that do not take place in certain predetermined fixed places. The aim of this study is to develop an electronic exam system that students who are preparing for their exams are able to access from their own personal computers or mobile devices, to evaluate the system developed and to determine its role and success with regards to educational objectives. The system developed within the framework of the current study provides its users with a fast, effective and efficient electronic environment thanks to today s various mobile applications. In this environment, a platform has been developed to help students preparing for important exams study by using their mobile devices whenever and wherever they wish. The system aims at meeting the educational needs and expectations of both students and teachers in terms of effectiveness, practicality and efficiency. In order to evaluate the system in this respect, usability tests were applied to obtain data about effectiveness, efficiency and user satisfaction and the findings were analysed accordingly. 2. Mobile Learning and Online Exam Systems Mobile-learning (M-learning) is a type of learning realized via mobile communication devices. Mobile learning is provided through mobile devices such as pocket PCs, PDAs (Personal Digital Assistant), and mobile phones as an alternative to traditional classroom environments. In other words, M-learning is an education model free from time and place (Kaya, 2002). According to Laroussi and Derycke (2004), M-learning also supports individual and cooperative learning in addition to its function to enable easy and fast access to the requested information anytime and anywhere. Moreover, it encourages students to develop feeling of responsibility, supports both individual and cooperative learning and makes monitoring and assessment of students during learning process easier. Keegan (2004) also claims that future education systems will be based on wireless environments and students will be using these systems via advanced mobile devices. Georgiev et al. (2004) summarizes the relationship between distance learning and M-learning as follows: Historically, distance learning has more than 100 years of experience and tradition. The most important feature of distance learning is to provide environments for students and teachers free from time and place. E-learning suggests new methods for distance learning based on computers and network-based technologies. In addition to e-learning, some different distance learning techniques such as satellite-based distance learning are still being used today. M-learning, one of these techniques, is a part of e-learning and an important component of distance learning as well. The ideal time for individual learning is when learners need to access some sort of knowledge. When such need does not arise, it might be difficult to learn this knowledge. Thus, accessing information when the need arises results in longer and more effective retention (Riva, & Villani, 2005). M-learning provides equality in learning as well as faster learning and variety in the process. (Seppala, & Almaki, 2003). Technically, it is possible to use mobile learning either online or offline. These two options have both advantages and disadvantages. Online education is advantageous in terms of speed, cost and more importantly being free from place (Bulun et al., 2004). Moreover; there is no connection charge or cost since no service provider is used for communication in this option. Despite the following extra advantages such as always being up-to-date and the presence of -58-

65 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 57-74, 1 December, 2013 theoretically unlimited information and interactive education facilities, unfortunately certain amount of cost is charged for the users, which varies according to the size of the data downloaded or uploaded via the mobile devices used while receiving the services. Kissinger (2013), in his study, evaluates the students experiences with mobile e-reader devices during their learning process. The study is an important one since it reveals that social learning is realized considerably effectively via mobile devices. Li et al. (2013) developed a Web portal using Amazon s cloud computing service and enabling the implementation of interactive learning processes and the preparation of interactive learning materials within the framework of mobile learning. This portal provides teachers with the opportunity to design online learning processes quickly without the prerequisite to have any kind of programming and technical knowledge. The applications and materials developed can be used in mobile devices having Android and IOS operating systems. El-Seoud et al. (2013) carried out a study on a mobile application developed to learn and use sign language and contributed to the attempts to foster and advance the communication processes among hearing-impaired individuals and their interactions with regular people. Cochrane (2012) suggests six success factors that are effective while realizing mobile Web 2.0 approaches. Accordingly, the author presents the analysis and evaluation of 35 different studies conducted between 2006 and 2011 while dealing with these factors. The studies examined consist of those dealing with the contribution of mobile Web 2.0 approach to higher education. Mor and Mogilevsky (2012) conducted a study on whether students can be provided with an effective and efficient mobile education process via an application developed in learning design studio format. The application tested with the students of Haifa University was found to be a useful tool in mobile education process. Rao, Sasidhar, and Kumar (2010) conducted a study on what extent mobile education approach that is realized via cloud computing approach facilitates learning process in terms of effectiveness and efficiency. They believe that this approach will take current learning approaches further by providing students with such an effective process. Saran, Cagiltay, and Seferoglu (2008) developed a new system to teach foreign languages by making use of SMS (Short Message Service) and MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service) services. In the study, foreign language texts enriched with visual technologies were sent to the users mobile phones via SMSs and MMSs in regular intervals. Since the application is supported by visual effects, the participants were observed to have learnt the pronunciation of the words more easily and more accurately. In his study, Istanbullu (2008) designed a Mobile Education Management System. The system, which is called as Mobilim, provides online educational content for engineering faculty students and instructors via mobile phones. The evaluation of the system shows that Mobilim is a useful M-learning environment. Tynan and Colbran (2006), in their study, evaluated the podcasts prepared for a total of six courses with the help of 1244 students attending Law Faculty University of New England. The evaluation made following the real application aimed at determining the effects of -59-

66 Development of an internet-based exam system for mobile environments A.Tufekci, H.Ekinci & U.Kose podcasts in learning as well as the expectations and the experiences of the students with the podcasts. At the end of the implementation, it was found that the percentage of the students who were not familiar with podcasts prior to the application decreased from 46% to 3.5 % at the end of the semester, and the practice supplemented the education process with 65,3%. In another practice, approximately hundred students attending Baptist Medical Center at Wake Forest University were distributed pocket PCs so that they were able to access reference information and the information about the patients whenever they need. Thus, this situation facilitated their learning, and both teachers and students were satisfied with the application to a great extent (Kho et al., 2006). Gulseren (2006), in the study titled The Use of Mobile Communication Technologies in Student Information Management Systems and a Sample Application, developed a student information management system that involved static and dynamic information. By using this system, students attending a higher education institution would be able to access various pieces of information such as exam results and timetables via their mobile phones whenever and wherever they want. Bastaki and Ajeeli (2004) developed a WAP-based registration system to prevent students from wasting their time during registration procedures, to reduce the workload of the staff and avoid the crowded queues. Thanks to this system, the students were able to fill out necessary forms by accessing these forms via mobile devices during registration dates wherever and whenever they want. Mobile devices have the following advantages regarding their uses in M-learning: portability; use of handwriting; easy communication with other devices; unlimited access whenever and wherever needed; reasonable cost and popularity. However; small screen size, incompatible operation systems, and the problems with data security are the disadvantages of mobile devices (Wang et al., 2003). Various measurement and evaluation methods are used in order to assess students success, to guide them effectively and to determine the weak points of the education they receive. Many researchers have emphasized that measurement and evaluation processes should be used appropriately and the objectives of these processes with regards to guidance and supplementation should be clearly understood in order to ensure effective teaching (Dwyer, 1998). Online exams can be defined as a method in which the exam content is published on the internet and the exam results are automatically analysed and reported. It is very easy to form exams by using the questions entered into the system by the teachers according to certain criteria applied in online exam systems. The questions might be in various forms such as multiple choice, fill-in-the-blanks etc. The difficulty levels and weight of the questions might also vary. One of the traditional ways to prepare tests in distance education systems is services (Bull, & McKenna, 2003). In this method, the teacher sends test questions to the students via . The students receive these questions, answer them and send back to the teacher to learn his / her grade, which will also be sent via . The exam is evaluated by those who are responsible for this assessment. This process may last between one to five weeks. Since the number of students might be considerably high, providing feedback for each student might not be possible. -60-

67 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 57-74, 1 December, 2013 Automated exam systems are another method supported by today s technologies in which exam administration and assessment process are carried out automatically via a local area network or the internet. In such exams, the questions are restricted to multiple choice and matching type ones. It is necessary to train both teachers and students about the exam interface used in this method, so they will be familiar with the process in detail before the actual use (Torkul et al., 2004). Online exam systems can be used to test proficiency as well as to monitor students learning process. Thus, the following issues should be taken into consideration in online exam systems: The questions in the system must be prepared to ensure easy comprehension. Exam system should be executable in common operation systems and web browsers. Questions should be presented and ordered in a way to avoid distractions on students side. Online exam system should be user-friendly to ensure easy use even by the users with basic computer knowledge. The design of the database of online exam system should be simple enough not to slow down the overall system. The system should report the required data about the students taking the exams. There are a lot of online exam systems with different structures and developed for various purposes. Among the most outstanding ones are as follows: Meletiou (2012) introduces an online exam system developed in order to ensure the provision of fast and effective learning process for the users. Operating on the mobile phones with Android operation system, the system is a significant and effective application based on exam management and performance analysis on mobile devices. The study conducted by Yu (2012) presents an online exam system developed by using J2EE technology for the exams administered in police departments. The test practices in this study showed that this application is successful in terms of efficiency and work load reduction due to its online features. Gimeno-Sanz and de Siqueira (2012) carried out a study in which they dealt with an online exam system developed specifically for the foreign language exams administered as part of the university entrance exams in Spain. Called as The PAULEX Universitas Project, the system was piloted in Valencia with more than 200 students. Bodmann and Robinson (2006) examined the effects of paper-pencil exams and computerbased exams on the process and the points received from the exams. The subjects of the study consisted of 55 students who were familiar with computer-based exam interface use. Of these 55 students, 28 were administered the same test as computer-based exam and 27 in paperpencil format. The exam consisted of 30 questions prepared from the content of the course Educational Psychology and had a multiple choice format with four options. The order of the questions was the same for each test and the duration of the tests was 35 minutes. In the study, ActıveInk web-based course content management system was used. No change was possible after the students submitted their answers. Although no significant difference was found between paper-pencil and computer-based test formats with regards to test grades, paper-pencil exam was found to last approximately 4 minutes longer than the computer-based one. In conclusion, it can be said that exam type does not have any effect on the grades -61-

68 Development of an internet-based exam system for mobile environments A.Tufekci, H.Ekinci & U.Kose received, but it affects the duration of the exam. Talu, Genc, and Kurum (2006) have developed an exam automation system in their study. Both students and teachers are able to access this web-based system, which only requires a Java-supported web browser and is free from any platforms. On the server side, there is a web server and relational database server. The communication with the database was realized via ODBC. Wang et al. (2004) have developed a web-based assessment and test analysis system and later carried out an evaluation of the systems. The tool developed is made of trio-a model (Assembling, Administering, and Appraising). They named the software developed as WATA, which was programmed by using PHP and Pearl. The data retrieved is stored in MySQL database. The teachers access the system by using their own passwords. In WATA system, it is possible to add multimedia components to the question text such as photographs, animations and videos. The system also enables teachers to manage the exams and to do tool, item, test and misconception analyses. Finally, certain statistical calculations can also be made according to the results of the tests such as item difficulty, average test difficulty and item discrimination. 3. Methodology 3.1. Mobi Exam Software Mobi Exam software used in this study was developed to ensure the access to exam system via the internet and the connection by using mobile devices. The technologies and platforms used while developing Mobi Exam software system are as follows: As for the platform in web application, Visual Studio.Net Web and Smart Device were used. During programming phase, ASP dynamic query language was used for both the actions realized by the server and database application since it provides high performance and is a programming language with a simple syntax. AJAX scripting language was also used in this phase in addition to ASP.NET. The database used in the system was MySQL since it does not require any interface controllers, and is directly accessible through programming language, compatible, cost-efficient and highly secure. In order to access MySQL database from a local computer Navicat8.0 for MySQL program was used. Spiral software development model was used in Mobi-Exam software development process. This model consists of four phases; namely analysis, design, test and application. Development processes have been performed by starting from smaller sides of the system to the bigger and more advanced ones. The software was tested by the users during the development process Research Model As for the research model of the study, scanning model was used in order to determine theoretical foundations. Scanning models are generally categorized under two main titles; namely general and sample case. Although this model might be used in some studies as the single model, any other research model used alone cannot be expressed. Scanning researchers might prefer to examine the object or the individual directly or they might refer to previously recorded information (printed document and statistics etc.), historical remains and -62-

69 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 57-74, 1 December, 2013 knowledgeable individuals in the field. Later, they should interpret the obtained data by combining them with their observations into a system (Karasar, 2005). The quantitative methods were used to state and measure the data obtained from this study numerically. In this regard, the following approaches are followed: Online exam software to be used for Mobi Exam system and prepared for the purposes of this study has been published on the internet. The software to ensure students access to mobile exam system via mobile devices was installed into the mobile devices. A survey was developed to measure usability level and functional suitability in terms of visualising and interaction that are predetermined by examining the web-based product evaluation studies available in the related literature Subjects The population of the study consists of students, teachers and administrators in various educational institutions in Turkey (especially schools and private courses). In this respect, the sampling of the study consists of 20 teachers-administrators and 120 students selected from the population Data Collection Tools While developing the surveys for the purposes of this study, quantitative research method based on numerical analyses was considered. Thus, a need analysis survey form was used to determine the expectations regarding the use of online exam system via mobile devices. This survey was adapted from the need analysis used by Saran, Cagiltay, and Seferoglu (2008) in their study. Need analysis survey was administered to people from various schools and private courses in Turkey. The survey consists of 18 items and three parts; namely personal information, mobile phone use data and internet use data. As for the usability test, which was administered after the need analysis survey, a task list was applied; 10 tasks for teacher participants, 7 for student participants and 7 for administrator participants. Another survey used in the current study is user satisfaction survey. Administered after the usability test, user satisfaction survey obtained data about the opinions and comments of the participants who were also given the usability test. Thus, a survey that consists of 10 items focusing on visualising and interaction of the website was administered in order to determine the satisfaction levels of student, teacher and administrator participants who used online exam system via web. In addition to this survey, another 8-item survey was administered to determine the satisfaction levels of 5 students who took the exam only via a mobile device Usability tests A total of 20 participants (10 students, 5 teachers and 5 administrators) were chosen to administer the usability test of the software developed. Out of these 20 participants, 5 students, 5 teachers and 5 administrators accessed the online exam system via web, and the remaining 5 students via their mobile devices. Usability tests consist of certain predetermined tasks that users might see very often and use to complete significant actions in the interface. The users behaviours while carrying out these tasks were also observed. -63-

70 Development of an internet-based exam system for mobile environments A.Tufekci, H.Ekinci & U.Kose 3.5. Data Analysis The replies provided by the participants for the survey that is used as the data collection tool were first processed systematically into a data file and later evaluated accordingly. The evaluation process involved the percentages (%) and mean values ( X ) of the obtained data. 4. Mobi Exam Software System Structure The software system developed for the purposes of the study is accessible via mobile devices such as laptops, smart phones and PDAs by using Wi-Fi connections. Figure 1 represents the system structure for Mobi Exam. Figure 1: Mobi Exam system structure. As shown in Figure 1, there are three types of users in Mobi Exam system; namely, teachers, students and administrators. The functions of each type of users are as follows: administrators are responsible for the system; teachers prepare questions and administer the exam; and students access and take the exam via web or mobile devices. Figure 2 presents uses cases diagram for Mobi Exam system that displays the user types and the tasks they are responsible for The Modules Used by Students The modules that might be used by the students in Mobi Exam system can be explained in brief as follows: Web module Students can access the software system by entering the user names and passwords. If a student is not registered in the system, he can sign up by following some easy steps. Registration process is completed only when an administrator confirms the registration made by students. Otherwise student is not allowed to access the system. -64-

71 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 57-74, 1 December, 2013 Figure 2: Uses cases diagram for Mobi Exam. When a student signs in the system by entering the necessary information, he can see the list of exams and specifically the ones he can take. These exams can be seen only when the exam is confirmed by the teacher. Later, the students can select the exam he wants to take and click on Enter to the Exam and access the page displaying the information about the exam. Detailed information about the exam is presented on exam information page. At this point, clicking on Start the Exam button takes the student to the exam. Figure 3 shows a screenshot from the student exam view window. Figure 3: Student exam view window. -65-

72 Development of an internet-based exam system for mobile environments A.Tufekci, H.Ekinci & U.Kose Mobile module Mobile module uses two different software structures. In order access the system via mobile phones and mobile devices, wireless internet technology is used while the mobile devices with Windows Mobile operating system require additional software for the connection. These two software structures connect to the system via web services. These web services operate independently and can be developed easily on modern application platforms such as.net and Java. In addition, they reduce the time spent and workload for the development of the software and have no weaknesses in terms of security. In order to access the exam system via the mobile devices with Windows Mobile operating system, software developed specifically for this purpose should be installed into the devices first. The first step for the installation is to download the file sinavpda.cab into the mobile device. When this downloaded file is executed, the window which displays user name and password boxes pops up automatically. Figure 4 provides a view from the related window. Figure 4: Access to the system from a mobile device (PDA). When students enter the necessary information, the list of the exams that are uploaded beforehand is displayed on the screen. Students are able to access the results of previously taken exams as well by selecting the exam. In order to access a specific exam, students can select the exam, and click on the related button for starting the exam. The questions for each exam are asked one by one. It is possible to display the questions in a certain order or students can answer the question they want by writing the question number. Figure 5 represents a view from the exam interface (in a mobile device). -66-

73 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 57-74, 1 December, 2013 Figure 5: Exam view window in a mobile device (PDA). It is necessary to use a mobile phone with wireless internet connection function if students want to access the system via their mobile phones. By using a web browser available on the mobile phone, students can access to the website. Although accessing the system and exam procedures are similar, typical exam procedure may differ according to different web browsers provided on different mobile phones. In mobile module, duration of the exam is not displayed in order to reduce test anxiety, to prepare students for real exams and enable them to prepare for the exam free from place and time restrictions. 5. Findings and Discussions 5.1. The Findings Obtained from the Usability Tests A total of 10 participants were administered usability tests. Of these participants, 5 students used the system via web and other five students via a mobile device. The systembased time differences during the administration of the test were ignored. Before usability test is applied, the users were given a participant information form to fill out The findings obtained from the participant information form The information form prepared for students consists of 11 items, which involve personal information and mobile device use information. Table 1 presents the findings obtained from this form. -67-

74 Development of an internet-based exam system for mobile environments A.Tufekci, H.Ekinci & U.Kose Table 1: Student participants characteristics. Web Software Participants Mobile Software Participants K L M N O P R S T U Age Sex M M M M M M M M F M Educational Background High School High School High School High School High School High School High School High School High School High School Have you got your own computer? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Do you use the Internet actively? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Have you ever used an online exam system on the No No Yes No No No No No No No Internet? Have you got your own mobile phone or Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Pocket PC? Have you ever accessed the Internet from your mobile Yes No Yes No No No No Yes No Yes phone? Have you ever installed any programs on your Yes No Yes Yes No No Yes Yes No Yes mobile phone? Have you got any programs with educational purposes No No Yes No No No Yes No No No on your mobile phone? Have you ever accessed a Mobileeducation system with your mobile phone? No No No No No No No No No No As Table 1 shows, there are two different student participant groups; namely web software users and mobile software users. Web software users are symbolized as K, L, M, N and O respectively and mobile software users as P, R, S, T and U. Of these ten participants, nine students are males and 1 female. The ages of the participants range between 16 and 19. All the student participants are high school students preparing for university entrance exams by attending private courses and their own schools. All of the participants own personal computers, and are active users of the internet but do not have any information about online exam system. Similarly, all the participants have their own mobile devices. Of these participants, K, M, S, U accessed the internet with their own mobile devices. K, M, N, R, S and U stated that they knew how to install a program to their mobile device, however only M and R student participants told that they installed some programs for educational purposes. It can be concluded that not all student participants have information about mobile education. -68-

75 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 57-74, 1 December, Usability of Mobi Exam system web software While deciding on the tasks, the basic function and objective of the web software were considered. The equipment and tools needed in the environment where the usability test is applied were prepared and necessary explanations were made to the users before the application. The selection of the participants was based on voluntariness. The participants were told that they can skip the parts they find difficult and even finish the test when they feel bored. There was not any interaction with the participants during the administration of the test. When the time allocated to finish the test expired, some short explanations were made to the participants Usability of M-Web exam system mobile software Five students who took this test were asked to complete seven tasks. The participants P, R and S completed the tasks via their mobile phone while the participants T and U used the software developed for mobile devices. The time spent to complete the tasks was given in seconds. The time units given with an asterisk next to them means the participant couldn t complete the task so the maximum time allocated for the tasks (300 seconds= 5 minutes) were written in the chart for that particular task. Table 2 shows the analysis of the performed tasks. Tasks Table 2: Student participants task analysis for mobile device software. The Time Spent (in seconds) P R S T U Mean Registering to M-Web exam site Logging on to M-Web exam site ,4 Accessing to the exam prepared by the teacher ,4 Accessing to the first two questions and saving ,4 the answers. Proceeding to fifth exam question directly ,4 Saving the exam ,4 Checking the correct and wrong answers and unanswered questions ,2 Since the participants had to enter a lot of information during the registration phase, the time spent for that task was relatively longer than the others. The average time the participants spent to access the exam prepared by the teacher is 20.4 seconds. It was found that the participants did not find it difficult to enter the system. The reason for this situation might be that there is not any unnecessary-extra information on the home page. Similarly, the participants easily used previous question and next question buttons while proceeding to other questions. In the task directly proceed to the fifth question, the entire participants used next question button one after the other until they reached the fifth question. As shown in Figure 6, all the students successfully completed the following tasks; accessing the exam, displaying the exam questions, proceeding to next questions and saving the answers they provided in the exam. The average time spent to save the exam tasks is 19.4 sec. The average time spent for all the tasks was the highest with the participant T. -69-

76 Development of an internet-based exam system for mobile environments A.Tufekci, H.Ekinci & U.Kose Figure 6: Comparison of task completion times of student participants for mobile device software. The general findings obtained from the observation of the whole process performed by student participants (using Mobi Exam system via a mobile device) are as follows: While connecting via mobile phone (wireless internet), the participants had to wait for sometimes due to the problems caused by service provider company. Mobile devices were used by students very easily. Student participants were able to access to the exams easily. Student participants answered the questions in the given order. Sometimes it was difficult to read the questions on the screen since some mobile phone do not have graphic display function. It was relatively more difficult to access the information regarding correct, wrong answers and unanswered questions in mobile software than web software. Results feedbacks regarding to the software satisfaction survey are also provided under Table 3. Statements Table 3: The results of mobile software satisfaction survey. Very Bad Bad Not Sure Good Very Good Total f % f % f % f % f % f % 1- I can easily access to the exams from a mobile device Generally I can easily access to the software system I can access the results of the exams I take I can easily read the exam questions on the screen I can access the exam

77 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 57-74, 1 December, 2013 questions quickly. 6- I can easily proceed to the exam questions I want 7- Anyone with a certain level of computer literacy can easily use this service. 8- Generally I find it easy to use the software Because of the high percentage (88%) of positive opinions (good and very good) in all the items in the surveys, we can conclude that students can easily take the exams via mobile devices. The high successful completion rate of the tasks shown in Table 5.3 and high percentage (80%) positive opinions stated regarding the use of software in general support this conclusion to a great extent. However; it was observed that student participants couldn t access the exam result very easily, which is supported by the fact that 40 % of the participants replied not sure to the item I can easily access the results of the exam I take. The participants stated that accessing the exam questions and proceeding to other questions were very easy. 20 % of the participants replied not sure to the item I can easily read the exam questions on the screen. Since some mobile phones do not have graphic display function, it is normal that some participants had problems reading the exam questions. 6. Conclusions, Recommendations, and Future Work In order to ensure the provision of equal opportunities in education, each individual must have his / her styles and methods of learning suitable for his needs and interests. Generally; it is true that many students suffer from test anxiety and study for their exams in different places whenever they find time to do so. In this study, the authors developed a system that allows students to study for their exams comfortably anytime and anywhere they want by using their mobile devices. In addition, it is known that preparing multiple choice questions take longer time than other question types. Therefore, forming a question bank among teachers was also one of the objectives of this system study. One of the functions of the system which is favoured by the users is to enable teachers to write their comments and critiques about the questions prepared by other teachers (in-site interaction). The results of the study also show that the system has been found interesting by teachers and students. One of the reasons of this conclusion is the increasingly intensive use of mobile devices in today s world. According to the data obtained from the surveys, there is an increasing interest in mobile devices and these devices are primarily used for other purposes rather than education, and finally people were not aware of this function of mobile devices. Developing new systems that might encourage students to use mobile education is quite significant because learning with the highest retention is possible only when people access information whenever the need arises. On the current form of the system, and according to the results obtained with the performed work so far; it is also possible to express some recommendations that have been thought by the authors. In the future, these recommendations may also cause performing newer research works on the related system: -71-

78 Development of an internet-based exam system for mobile environments A.Tufekci, H.Ekinci & U.Kose First of all, it might be an interesting aspect to focus more on visual design of the system and perform more detailed works if users think about any necessary revisions on current visual forms of the system. It might be an important and interesting scientific research approach to enable students from different countries to see if using experiences may differ in different countries and different feedbacks may come from the related students. It also might be an interesting approach to employ the system in different kinds of courses (social science or natural science based, highly theoretical or highly applied etc.) to evaluate its effectiveness on different course types and structures. Another remarkable approach to obtain some scientific findings might also be enabling different educational institutions, where students are educated for specific exams, to use the system along their educational processes, and evaluate if the usage of system may make it more effective to educate students and improve students success levels at the end. In addition to the expressed suggestions, which are known as some potential future works among the authors; there are also some additional, planned future works to improve the current form of the mobile system. These future works include improving the whole system using experience by providing more options while preparing questions exams, and using some intelligent (artificial intelligence based) techniques to form more accurate exams, or obtain automatic evaluation results after taking any exam. References Bastaki, Y., & Ajeeli, A. (2004). Framework for a wap-based course registration system. Computers & Education, 44, Bodmann, S. M., & Robinson, D., H. (2004). Speed and performance differences among computer-based and paper-pencil tests. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 31, Bull, J., & McKenna, C., (2003). Blueprint for Computer- assisted Assessment, London, UK: Routledge. Bulun, M., Gulnar, B., & Guran, S. M. (2004). Mobil technologies in education. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology TOJET, 3, 23. Cochrane, T. D. (2012). Critical success factors for transforming pedagogy with mobile web 2.0. British Journal of Educational Technology, doi: /j x. Dwyer, C. A. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Theory and Practice Assessment in Education, 5, El-Seoud, S. A., Taj-Eddin, I., Nosseir, A., El-Sofany, H., & Rumman, N. A. (2013). A proposed pedagogical mobile application for learning sign language. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies, 7. Georgiev, T., Georgieva, E., & Smrikarov, A. (2004). M-Learning A New Stage of E- Learning, In CompSysTech 2004 International Conference on Computer System and Technologies, 4, 1-5. Gimeno-Sanz, A., & de Siqueira, J. M. (2012). Implementing online language exams within the spanish national university entrance examination: The paulex universitas project. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 34, Gulseren, D. (2006). Mobil İletişim Teknolojilerinin Öğrenci Bilgi Sistemlerinde Kullanımı ve Bir Uygulama [The Use of Mobile Communication Technology in Student -72-

79 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 57-74, 1 December, 2013 Information Systems and an Application on It]. Master Thesis, Anadolu University, Natural and Applied Sciences Institute, Computer Engineering Dept., Istanbullu, A. (2008). Mobillim: mobile learning management framework system for engineering education. International Journal of Engineering Education, 24, Karasar, N. (2005). Bilimsel Araştirma Yöntemi [Scientific Research Method], Ankara, Turkey: Nobel Press. Kaya, Z. (2002). Uzaktan Eğitim [Distance Education], Ankara, Turkey: PegemA Press. Keegan, D. (2004). Next Generation of Learning, Distance Education International Dublin, In the 18th Asian Association of Open Universities Annual Conference, Shanghai, Kho, A., Henderson, L., Dressler, D., & Kripalani, S. (2006). Use of handheld computers in medical education, Emory University School of Medicine Atlanta, 21, Kissinger, J. S. (2013). The social & mobile learning experiences of students using mobile e- books. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 17, Laroussi, M., & Derycke, A. (2004). New E-Learning Services Based on Mobile and Ubiquitous Computing: Ubi-Learn Project, In International Conference on Computer Aided Learning in Engineering Education, France, Li, Y., Guo, A., Lee, J. A., & Negara, G. P. K. (2013). A platform on the cloud for self creation of mobile interactive learning trails. International Journal of Mobile Learning And Organisation, 7, Meletiou, G. (2012). Design and Implementation of an E-exam System Based on the Android Platform, In 16th Panhellenic Conference on Informatics, Piraeus, Greece, Mor, Y., & Mogilevsky, O. (2012). A Learning Design Studio in Mobile Learning, In the World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning, Helsinki, Finland. Oran, M. K., & Karadeniz, S. (2007). İnternet Tabanlı Uzaktan Eğitimde Mobil Öğrenmenin Rolü [Mobile Learning Role in Internet Based Distance Education], In the Academic Informatics Conference, Kutahya, Turkey, Rao, N. M., Sasidhar, C., & Kumar, V. S. (2010). Cloud computing through mobile-learning, International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications, arxiv: [cs.cy]. Riva, G., & Villani, D. (2005). CyberEurope, CyberPsychology & Behavior, 8. Saran, M., Cagiltay, K., & Seferoglu, G. (2008). Use of Mobile Phones in Language Learning: Developing Effective Instruction Materials, In the IEEE International Conference on Wireless, Mobile and Ubiquitous Technology in Education. Seppala, P., & Alamaki, H. (2003). Mobile learning in teacher training. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, Talu, M., F., Genc, Z., & Kurum, H. (2006). Fırat Üniversitesi Web Tabanlı Sınav Otomasyonu (WTSO) [Fırat University Web Based Examination Automation (WTSO)], In the Academic Informatics Conference, Denizli, Turkey, Torkul, O., Kibar, A., & Tasci, T. (2004). Web Tabanlı Sınav Sistemleri [Web Based Examination Systems], In the 1th International Conference on Informatics, Cesme, Turkey. Tynan, B., & Colbran, S. (2006). Podcasting Student Learning and Expectations, In the Annual Conference of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education, Sydney, Australia. Wang, C., Liu, B., Horng, J., & Chen, G. (2003). Using Mobile Techniques in Improving Information Awareness to Promote Learning Performance, In the IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies,

80 Development of an internet-based exam system for mobile environments A.Tufekci, H.Ekinci & U.Kose Wang, T. H., Wang, K. H., Wang, W. L., Huang, S. C., & Chen, S. Y. (2004). Web based assessment and test analyses (WATA) system development and evaluation. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20, Yu, Y. (2012). Design of management information system for online police exam based J2EE. In D. Jin, S. Lin (Ed.), Advances in Future Computer and Control Systems, (pp ). Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. -74-

81 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at The Effect of 2011 Van Earthquake on 8th Grade Students' Value Rankings Bülent Akbaba * Division of Social Studies Education, Gazi University, Gazi Faculty of Education, Ankara, Turkey Article history Received: Bahadır Kılcan Ministry of the Interior, Ankara, Turkey Osman Çepni Geography Department, Karabük University, Faculty Of Letters, Ankara, Turkey Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Values, the value ranking, earthquake. The purpose of this study was to determine which values in social studies teaching program came into prominence after Van Earthquake on October 23, A total of 455 8th grade students chosen randomly from central districts of Van and Ankara provinces in education year participated in the study. This study was designed in survey model. In order to gather data, the students were given a form including both the question "Which of the values in the form came into prominence after Van Earthquake on October 23, 2011?" and 14 values existing in social studies teaching program. The students were expected to write down the values along with their reasons that came into prominence after Van Earthquake during the data gathering process. Descriptive analysis was conducted to analyze the data. Results revealed that there were no significant differences in the first and second order value rankings of participants who experienced Van Earthquake and who did not. Results also demonstrated that there were differences in the third and fifth order value rankings of participants who experienced Van Earthquake and who did not and that participants' value rankings who experienced Van Earthquake and who did not differed on the value of the fourth order. Introduction Natural disaster are the general name given to the natural phenomena which causes grave physical, economic and social losses on humans (in fact every creature living on the earth) and completely or temporarily stops the normal life once present (Turan & Kartal, 2011). Şahin, Doğanay & Özcan (2010: 228) natural disasters are also described as naturally occurred events which causes a mass destruction on the natural habitat of the. In other words they are all sorts of natural phenomena which adversely affect the socio-economic and cultural activities of the society and cost great deal of human life and property (Şahin & Sipahioğlu, 2003: 6). Droughts, tropical cyclones, floods, landslides and avalanches some of the major natural disasters which we can instantly name. However one of them has to be * Correspondence: Gazi University, Gazi Faculty of Education, Division of Social Studies Education, Beşevler Ankara, Turkey, [email protected],

82 The Effect of 2011 Van Earthquake on 8th Grade Students' B.Akbaba, B. Kılcan & O. Çepni singled out from the others: earthquakes. Earthquakes are one of the most destructive natural disasters which the earth faced throughout the history (Aydın, 2010: 802). Şahin, Doğanay & Özcan (2010: 230) describe it as the tremors result from the short term movements of the earth crust while Atalay (2011: 16) claimed that it is the tremors which continues in a time span with the dimension of seconds as the earth crust moves as a result of surfacing the excessive energy accumulated at the top cover of it. Earthquakes which are undeniable reality of Turkey are the most effective and unpredictable natural disasters among them. It causes excessive lives and property for the country (Taş, 2003: 225). Turkey located as the second degree earthquake belt has 935 of her land is in the active earthquake zone and 98% of its population is under the threat of earthquake. The statistical data obtained from the studies carried out in this area show that there is a destructive earthquake occurs at every eight months. There are so many destructive earthquakes took place in the country in the last 100 years such as 1939 Erzincan at the scale of 7.9, Dinar with the scale of 5.9 in November 1995, Marmara with scale of 7.4 in August 1999, Elazığ with the scale of 6.0 in March 2011 and two earthquakes with scale of 7.2 in October 2011 and with the scale of 5.0 in November 2011 (National Earthquake Research Program). Although taken as the physical phenomenon earthquakes area topic which requires a multidisciplinary approach due to sociological devastation and technical problem it causes on communities. The life styles of people changes and the society enter a new adaptation and construction era. This era is highly painful since the substructure and the preparedness of the society are not sufficient. Most of the victims had their social system collapsed and their futures became very vague. According to the study carried out upon the victims of Erzincan earthquake in 1939 most of them were found to be tense and nervous compared with the other people (Karancı, 1999: 56). Most of the victims lost their properties, homes and shops in 17 August 1999 Marmara Earthquake. Moreover there were changes observed in the cultural and religious values of the communities who lived through an earthquake (Kasapoğlu & Ecevit, 2001). There are so many fields of social sciences which can directly contribute to the minimization of the harms caused by the earthquakes. The social responses against the danger of earthquake can be seen in the changes of the degree of importance given to the values such as social environments, beliefs, behavioral patterns, neighboring, natural habitat, preparedness, traditions, organization, cooperation and the security measures. Danger of earthquake causes so many changes in the society (National Earthquake Research Program, 2005). The 1999 Marmara Earthquake is an important turning point for the Turkish society. Before this earthquake the authorities used to regard the post-earthquake period is a period of building the collapsed houses. However Marmara earthquake had its implications in the international arena and caused extreme loss of human life and property. The people realized that the earthquake concept needs to be evaluated in much wider concept emphasizing the educational side of it (Başıbüyük, 2004: 13). The first studies carried out in Turkey were about the psychological and sociological sides of (Bozkurt, 1999; Karancı et al, 1996; Kasapoğlu & Ecevit, 2001). Among the educational studies are the earning and the teaching conditions of the primary school teachers before and after the earthquake (Yıldız, 2000); effect of the earthquake upon the achievement rates of the primary students (Sert, 2002); teaching the earthquake topic in primary schools (Koca, 2001); teaching the topic of natural disasters in Turkey (Taş, 2003); perceptions and the attitudes of the students towards the earthquake concept (Aydın, 2010; Aydın & Coşkun, 2010; Demirkaya 2007a; Demirkaya 2007b; Kaya, 2010). -76-

83 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 75-85, 1 December, 2013 Earthquakes in Turkey wreak havoc in the country causing an extreme destruction in human lives and property to the community and affected its life in diversified points including its locational, socio-economic and psychological dimensions. The worst effected portion of the community is the children and the youth. In addition to sudden loss of their houses, friends, and playing grounds an earthquake has a diversified effects which have educational dimensions on them such as postponed or suspended roles due to this phenomenon, and the new pressures and burdens created by it (Tuna, Parin & Tanhan, 2012). The literature data show that the studies related to the influence of the natural disasters which deeply affect the societies upon their social values highly limited. However the basic concepts and the beliefs which guides the behavioral patterns against the events could change in time due to the other social phenomena (Halstead & Taylor, 2000: 169; Kağıtçıbaşı & Kuşdil, 2000). These changing processes which the values cannot avoid show variation from culture to culture. It can show also differ according to the culture they belong. Two different societies may possess the same value but the importance they attach to it may be different (Reboul, 1995: 365; Aktepe, 2010: 58). The difference in the degree of importance may change according to phenomenon which the societies having the same culture had to face. The needs emerge after a social phenomenon have the function of determining the most desirable, indispensable, beneficial value for the people and drawing the attention of the society towards them (Tezcan, 1974: 15). This study was therefore carried out to determine which of the values stated in the 6 th and 7 th year social studies education program became indispensable after the earthquake took place in 23 October 2011 according to students point of view and whether this value varied according to personally experiencing the earthquake or not. Method This part is related to the design of the study, working groups, data collection tools and the analyses of the collected data. The research design The study was carried out in accordance with the survey model. The survey model is a research approach which aims at the description of the features of a group or a feature which existed in the past or present now in its current form. The event, person or the thing is described under its own condition as it actually exists. There is no effort to change or affect it. There is something which we want to know and it is there. The most important thing is to observe and determine it in the best possible way (Büyüköztürk, Kılıç-Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz, & Demirel, 2010: 16; Karasar, 2010). Participants The study was carried out by the participation of 194 (84 girls and 110 boys) 8 th year students randomly selected in the center of Van province and 261 (139-girls and 122 boys) 8 th year students selected by the same method in the center of Ankara province in academic year. Data collection tool The data collection tool used in this study was the effect of the disasters lived upon the values form developed by the workers. This form was consisted the parts to evaluate -77-

84 The Effect of 2011 Van Earthquake on 8th Grade Students' B.Akbaba, B. Kılcan & O. Çepni which of the values listed in the social studies educational program of the 6 th and 7 th years has become predominant after the disaster with the underlying reasons for that. Data collection and the analyses The participants were asked the question which of the 14 values listed in the 6 th and 7 th years social studies educational program has become predominant after the 23October 2011 Van earthquake? Why? They were instructed to choose one of the choices between 1 to 5 listed in accordance to the importance of the value. The data obtained were evaluated in accordance to the descriptive statistics of (frequency and percentile) with the help of the SPSS 17.0 statistical software. Also the reasons stated by the participants were quoted without any change in order to support the order of importance (In direct quotations the e people from Van who lived through the earth quake were designated with (V) and the people from Ankara, who did not live, thought it with (A)) in results section. Trusthworthiness Necessary amendments about discussions based on the findings of the present study were done in accordance with the support of researchers' comments. Furthermore, researchers tried hard to prevent misunderstandings stemmed from themselves by presenting the research findings to participants. Glesne (2012) suggests that such kind of applications are more likely to support the plausibility of the discussions of researchers. In order to increase the trustworthiness of the study, data obtained from participants were given to another researcher to affirm that findings of the study that were produced by the researchers were not subjective and were completely based on the data from participants. Yıldırım & Şimşek (2006) claim that member-checking has been among the strongest strategies that support the trustworthiness of the methods and techniques. Results 1. The data related to the order of values which emerged became more important after the earthquake according to the people who lived through it Table 1: The order of values as regards to the importance after the earthquake according to the people who lived through it Value No 1 No 2 No 3 No 5 No 5 importance importance importance importance importance No answer f % f % f % f % f % f % Scientificity Sensitivity to natural environment Respect to differences Patriotism Aesthetics Respect to the cultural heritage Respect to the rights and freedoms Hardworking Justice Charity Responsibility Peace

85 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 75-85, 1 December, 2013 Honesty Solidarity When we examine Table 1 we see that number 1 value for the participants who lived through the earthquake was charity (f: 109), followed by solidarity (f: 20), being scientific (f: 19), honesty (f: 9), sensitivity to the natural environment (f: 8). Below are some of the statements of the people who see the charity as the most important value; I think charity comes first. Without it nobody makes an effort to save the people under the rubble. (V, 180) We lost everything in the earthquake. We were very scared and sad. All the people started to collect donations for us. Then we understood that we were not alone. (V, 141) I saw that the people were helping each other after the earthquake. That is why charity comes first. (V, 129) They were not giving even a nut to the others before. But after the earthquake everybody needed somebody so they started to help each other. (V, 118) The city of Van managed to cope with all the problems by the aids sent to there from other cities. We had a hot bowl of soup at least. (V, 71) The people were not used to helping each other before the earthquake but they started after it. (V, 54) When we examine the values which the participants who lived through regarded as of the secondary importance were solidarity (f: 30) followed by responsibility (f: 28), peace (f: 22), charity (f: 20) and honesty (f: 19). When we look at the reasons stated by the people who think that the solidarity is the second important value there were statements like; The people get cold at nights and people give blankets to them. (V, 89) The people with tents invite the other people to their tents who have no shelter. (V, 76) They send as aid all over the country without segregating the people as Kurdish or Turkish... (V, 67). When we examine the Table 1 we see that the values with tertiary importance for the participants who lived through the earthquake were peace (f: 30) followed by honesty (f: 21), justice (f: 19), charity (f: 19) and responsibility (f: 19), hardworking (f: 18), solidarity (f: 14). The participants who see peace as the value of tertiary importance made the following statements: The peaceful relations are very important for the people. However some people in the TV were saying the opposite. (V, 77). Table 1 shows that the value which was put in the fourth place by the participants was the honesty (f: 25), followed by solidarity (f: 17), patriotism (f: 16), hardworking (f: 16), charity (f: 16) and responsibility (f: 16), justice (f: 13), and respect to the rights and freedoms (f: 10). The statements made by the participants who thought honesty the value of the fourth degree -79-

86 The Effect of 2011 Van Earthquake on 8th Grade Students' B.Akbaba, B. Kılcan & O. Çepni importance were as follows: The people take the donations to themselves and do not give the people in need... (V, 89) When the tents were distributed some people got 2 or more tents while others had not. If there was any honesty they would have given one tent for each people. (V, 85) The people who came from the other cities were not honest... they were all opportunists. They used to break in the intact houses where people were scared to enter due to the danger of earthquake. (V, 83) Some people were hiding their properties and did not share with others. (V, 75) People are supposed to be honest during a time of disaster. But they were stealing the properties of others. (V, 73)...We remember to be honest to our relatives after we lose them (V, 22) Finally the value of the participants who lived through the earthquake phenomena at the fifth place were responsibility (f: 25), followed by honesty (f: 18), patriotism (f: 16), peace (f: 14), scientificity (f: 12) and solidarity (f: 12). The reasons of the participants who see the responsibility as the value of fifth degree importance gave the following reason Everybody in the tent took a responsibility. (V, 76) The responsibility of everybody increased after the earthquake. (V, 75) Although the people were perfectly cognizant of the responsibilities incumbent upon them they did nothing. (V, 182) 2. The data related to the participants who did not lived the earthquake Table 2: The data related to the participants who did not lived the earthquake No 1 No 2 No 3 No 4 No 5 Value importance importance importance importance importance No answer f % f % f % f % f % f % Scientificity Sensitivity to the natural environment Respect to the differences Patriotism Esthetic Respect to cultural heritage Respect to rights and freedoms Hardworking Justice Charity Responsibility Peace Honesty Solidarity Table 2 reveals that the people who did not live the earthquake seen the value of charity (f: 144) as the no 1 importance after the earthquake. This was followed by solidarity (f: 69) -80-

87 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 75-85, 1 December, 2013 patriotism (f: 12), responsibility (f: 11), sensitivity to the natural environment (f: 5) and peace (f: 5). The people put the put the following reasons for their choices; I thing charity is the number one value. Because everybody in the tents and the living outside received financial support and tents. (A, 4) Everybody offered help after the earthquake. (A, 52) If there was any feeling of charity in our nation, everybody would be staying in their houses now. (A, 108) This earthquake revealed the good side of the people. They offered help to each other which proved their existence. (A, 186) I chose the charity. Because I do believe that the people living there could reestablish their lives by helping each other. (A, 192) The feeling of charity increased after the earthquake and everybody helped our brothers and sisters there. (A, 214). The value chosen as the first choice of the participants as the value of n2 importance was solidarity (f: 89), followed by charity (f: 71), responsibility (f: 27), patriotism (f: 22) and peace (f: 15). Some of the statements related to this choice are as follows: There was a very good solidarity among the people to save the wounded. (A, 30) If there was no solidarity the results would have been much graver. (A, 161) I saw the campaign initiated by Turkcell. The Turks have no friends but the Turks... (A, 191) In spite of all those efforts to separate the country there was an enormous solidarity between the people after the earthquake. (A, 203) I think solidarity is of utmost importance. Turkish people are known with its solidarity during hard times. They have overcome so many problems like that throughout the history. (A, 221) The solidarity between the people was overwhelming. Everybody competed with each other to help those people in need. (A, 263) The value which the people who did not lived the earthquake chose at third place was responsibility (f: 60), followed by peace (f: 40), solidarity (f: 34), patriotism (f: 33) and charity (f: 24). Some of the statements made by the people who saw responsibility as their first choice of tertiary importance were as follows: The people who made these buildings are responsible for the people. They skimp on the material. (A, 4) If nobody knows their responsibility and the authorities do not carry out their duties the fatalities will minimum. (A, 7) This was the responsibility of the people who made all these buildings and they are accountable for all the casualties. (A, 16) -81-

88 The Effect of 2011 Van Earthquake on 8th Grade Students' B.Akbaba, B. Kılcan & O. Çepni We can only cope with hard times as being aware of our responsibilities towards each other. (A, 64) Under these conditions I think everybody should assume responsibility and do whatever incumbent upon them. (A, 242) The value which the participants who did not live the earthquake put at the third place was patriotism (f: 49) followed by responsibility (f: 42), peace (f: 32), honesty (f: 25) and justice (f: 24). Some of the remarks made about this topic were as follows: I think everybody understood the value of its country. (A, 35) Turkish people love each other. Because they sent help from every part of the country. (A, 46) The patriotism is the most important concept now. You can only achieve peace if you love your country. It is like a chain. (A, 87) The fact that we are helping the people here is the indication of patriotism. (A, 168) Most of the people sadly left Van province after the earthquake. (A, 197). According to Table 2 the value which the people who did not live the earthquake regarded as fifth degree of importance was peace (f: 31) followed by hardworking (f: 29), solidarity (f: 26) and responsibility (f: 26), justice (f: 25), and respect to the rights and freedoms (f: 24). Some of the opinions stated out this topic were as follows: There was no Turkish-Kurdish segregation (A, 199) We must live in peace So they will help us under a situation like that. (A, 211) A country in peace can overcome everything. (A, 240) The aids made are the symbol of peace (A, 259) Results and discussion The results of the study which investigated the value emphasized after the earthquake by the people who lived through and did not live the earthquake revealed that the first two values emphasized by the both groups were the same. This shows the fact that the experience of the people to any social phenomena related to this values do not play an important role in their emphasis to these values. Because the consequences of the social phenomena were immediately informed to all sections of the society by the mass media. The fact that the people gave examples which they learned from the media proves this point. This result is also in good compliance with the data that the having experienced he earthquake does not cause a significant change in the emotional and behavioral problems of the children (Erkan, 2010). However the value of peace was within the first five values emphasis by the both groups after the earthquake. This result may be indication that the participants want to make up all the grievances they had before and establish a peaceful life together after this disaster. However the fact that that the people gave higher priority to this value than the people who did not live thought it may be interpreted that that they desire to cope the damages incurred by it with solidarity and peace. Also both participants reiterated the opinion that there must be no Turkish-Kurdish segregation and the country should live in peace. -82-

89 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 75-85, 1 December, 2013 The fact that the people who lived through the earthquake put the responsibility among the first five values which emerged after the earthquake and stated the opinions related to the responsibility can be attributed to the fact that they demanded this value to be kept in the agenda in post-earthquake era. On the hand the fact that the participants who did not live the earthquake putting the same value at the third place and made statements that the buildings should have been built with the social responsibility shows that they think that this value was much more important during the pre-disaster era. The fact that both the people who lived and not lived through the earthquake put the honesty as one of the five virtues which became important and stated opinions related to it can be attributed to the unjust treatments after the earthquake. Although patriotism was not placed within the five values which emerged after the earthquake by the people who lived through the earthquake, it was among the five important values for the people who did not live the earthquake and they stated the opinions that the patriotism was the indication of peace, charity and solidarity reveals the fact that they see the patriotism as an ultra-value for coping the harm incurred by the earthquake. The values which the people give importance depends upon the experiences they had during they lives. As indicated by the above data these values of the people can change significantly according to the phenomena affected the society. Acknowledgement This paper was presented at the International Social Studies Education Symposium II (ISSES II), April 2013, Aksaray-Turkey. References Aktepe, V. (2010). Primary 4th grade in social studies course teaching "philantropy" value with activety based and effect on students 'attitudes (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Gazi University, Ankara. Atalay, İ. (2011). Turkish geography and geopolitics (Extended 8th ed.). İzmir: Meta. Aydın, F., & Coşkun, M. (2010). Observation of the students earthquake perceptions by means of phenomenographic analysis (Primary education 7th grade Turkey). International Journal of the Physical Sciences, 5(8), Aydın, F. (2010). The perceptions of primary education eighth grade students towards earthquake : A phenomenographic analysis. Turkish Studies International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, 5(3), Başıbüyük, A. (2004). Earthquake knowledge of adolescents and examining the effective factors. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 161. Bozkurt, V. (1999). Earthquake and society. İstanbul: Alfa. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Çakmak, E. K., Akgün, Ö. E., Karadeniz, Ş., & Demirel, F. (2010). Scientific research methods. Ankara: Pegem Academy. Demirkaya, H. (2007a). Examining the earthquake attitudes of and 7. grade primary school students according to various variables. Turkish Journal of Social Research, 3,

90 The Effect of 2011 Van Earthquake on 8th Grade Students' B.Akbaba, B. Kılcan & O. Çepni Demirkaya, H. (2007b). Primary school students understanding of earthquake and their perspectives towards earthquake. Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Journal of Education Faculty, 8, Erkan, S. (2010). A comparative study on the behavioral/emotional problems of preschool children with and without experience of earthquakes. Pamukkale University Journal of Education, 28, Glesne, C. (2012). Introduction to qualitative research. A. Ersoy and P. Yalçınoğlu (Trans. Ed.). Ankara: Anı. Halstead, J. M., & Taylor, M. J. (2000). Learning and teaching about values: A review of recent research. Cambridge Journal of Education, 30(2), Karancı, N. A. (1999). The psycho-social dimensions of earthquakes: Dinar and August 17, 1999 Marmara earthquakes. Turkish Psychology Bulletin, 14, Karancı, A. N., Akşit B., & Sucuoğlu H. (1996). The psycho-social dimensions of disaster management in Dinar. The Search For Solutions to The Earthquake Problems of Turkey in the Lights of Erzincan and Dinar Earthquakes (Proceedings of Earthquake Symposium of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey) (Complier. Tuğrul TANKUT), p Karasar, N. (2010). Scientific research method. Ankara: Nobel. Kasapoğlu, A., & Ecevit, M. (2001). Sociologic research of earthquake. Ankara: Sociology Association. Kaya, H. (2010). Metaphors developed by secondary school students towards earthquake concept. Educational Research and Review, 5(11), Koca, M. K. (2001). Teaching the earthquake and the ways of prevention from the damages of earthquake in primary education (Unpublished mater thesis). Ataturk University, Erzurum. Kuşdil, M. E., & Kağıtçıbaşı, Ç. (2000). Value orientations of Turkish school teachers and Schwartz's value theory. Turkish Psychology Association, 15(45), Reboul, O. (1995). Are our values global? (Trans. H. Izgar). Educational Administration, 1(3), National Council for Earthquake. (2005). The preparation report of the Program for Earthquake Research. Retrieved from content_files/ardeb/kamag/turkiye_ulusal_deprem_arastirmalari_programi.pdf on April 21, Sert, E. (2002). The level of effects of earthquake on students' motivation and success-failure predication (Unpublished master thesis). Sakarya University, Sakarya. Şahin, C., & Sipahioğlu, Ş. (2003). Natural disasters and Turkey. Ankara: Gündüz. Şahin, C., Doğanay, H., & Özcan, N. A. (2010). Turkish geography (Physical-Human- Economics-Geopolitics) (Extended 3rd ed.). Ankara: Gündüz. Taş, N. (2003). A model proposal for damages of a potential earthquake and a method for the Bursa metropolitan field (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Yıldız Teknik University, Istanbul. Tezcan, M. (1974). Stereotypes about Turks and a test on Turkish values. Ankara: Ankara University. -84-

91 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); 75-85, 1 December, 2013 Tuna, A. K., Parin, S., & Tanhan, F. (2012). Assessment report of Van earthquake's socioeconomical and psychological situation (Report No: Children's Research Center/April, 15, 2012). Retrieved from panel/files/files/yayinlar/ Van_Depremi_SEPD_Tesbiti_Raporu.pdf on January, 06, Turan, İ., & Kartal, A. (2011, September). Evaluating the instruction of natural disasters according to the views of teachers. Proceedings of 20th National Congress of Educational Sciences. Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, September 8-10, Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2006). Qualitative research methods in social sciences (6. Ed.). Ankara: Seçkin. -85-

92 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at Evaluation of the Standards for Recruiting and Training Elementary School Principals Used in Some European Union Countries by Teachers and School Principals in Turkey Ali Balcı Department of Administration and Politicis in Education, Ankara University; Turkey Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Turkish education system, European Union education system, school management, Hasan Basri Memduhoğlu Department of Educational Sciences, Yüzüncü Yıl University; Turkey Abdurrahman İlğan * Department of Educational Sciences, Düzce University; Turkey Mustafa Erdem Department of Educational Sciences, Yüzüncü Yıl University; Turkey Murat Taşdan Department of Educational Sciences, Kafkas University; Turkey This study purposes to determine how adoptable and applicable teachers and school administrators in Turkey think the practice of selecting and training elementary school administrators is in England, France and Germany, as well as how adoptable and applicable Elementary School Principal Selecting and Training Model is, which is developed considering the conditions in Turkey. The sampling is composed of 356 school administrators and 382 teachers working in 121 public schools in provincial centers in Turkey. The data required for the research has been compiled through the scale The Standards for Selecting, Appointing and Training Elementary School Principals developed by the researchers. In the analysis of data, percentage, frequency, arithmetical mean and standard deviation have been used for descriptive statistics, and t-test has been used for unrelated sampling as interpretative statistics technique. It is concluded in the research that the model is found to be adoptable by elementary school administrators and teachers in Turkey, and it is thought to be applicable although its level of adoptability is lower than that of the model used in the Turkish education system. The level of adoptability in all sub-dimensions of the model is higher than the level of applicability. Introduction Educational administration became a scientific study that transformed and developed especially after the Second World War. However, professional training of principals in education and professionalism in educational administration have not become prevalent * Correspondence: Department of Educational Sciences, Düzce University; Turkey, [email protected]

93 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 enough worldwide. The reason for that is a consistent notion of management describing all managerial functions and allowing forecast of all managerial applications, which is accepted by all related parties, has not yet been developed. This hinders agreement on the concepts of educational administration, as a result of which an agreement cannot be reached so as to establish a common understanding about the educational administrator training programs and to identify particular components. The optimum way in training school principals has been advocated as training based on practice as opposed to concepts occasionally proposed; education as opposed to research; being general as opposed to being specific (Calderhead, 1997; McIntyre, 1993; Forsyth & Murphy, 1999; Walker, 1969; Griffiths, 1977). Selecting and training principals in education has two dimensions. In the first dimension, the analysis, research and concepts discussing the answer to the question How principals should be selected and trained? are covered. In the second dimension, the answer to the question How principals in education are selected and trained? is considered (Balcı, 1988). As seen, the first dimension attempts to find out the ideal whereas the second dimension reflects the reality. Alternative approaches have been proposed to decide how programs for training principals in education should be developed. Some of them are: (1) Task oriented training program: Training programs are structured according to the duties of the principal. (2) Process oriented program: This approach anticipates centralization of training programs around significant administrative processes. (3) Concept based program: This approach considers school a social institution, and it is based on conceptual formulation such as system concept, organizational concept and individuality concept. (4) Interdisciplinary and multidiscipline training program: Training programs are based on certain interdisciplinary approaches and the basic notions of related disciplines. Basically, this approach is performance-based, and proposes the cooperation of field oriented disciplines (Sergiovanni, Burlingame, Coombs & Nos, 1980; Balcı, 1988). Competencies and roles undertaken have a significant role in selecting and training school principals. Parallelism is observed between the competency as well as fields of competency of education and school principals, and their roles and fields of roles. This ascertainment can be attributed to competency and role relation, and such a parallelism is both natural and rational. As known, in a general sense, role is the whole of the behavior expected from a person at a certain post. Competency, on the other hand, is the existence of certain knowledge, skills and attitudes to display the expected behavior. In other words, the role of the school principal defines his areas of responsibility whereas his competency defines his being equipped with knowledge, skills and attitudes to fulfill his responsibilities. Hence, school principals should have competency both in school management leadership and educational leadership (Balcı, 1988). In general, programs for training principals in education passionately disallows principals to be far away from or insensitive to the social, economic and political context of the society they live in, aims that they earn an advocate at their earning an advocate identity that intervene social and political fields (Sisman & Turan, 2003). Nowadays in Turkey, an important development that deeply affects the education system in general and schools in particular, in addition to globalization and information society is the phenomenon of Turkey s entering European Union (Balcı, 2000; 2004). Turkey was unanimously approved as the European Union nominee country during the summit of EU state and government head meeting in Helsinki on December Certain steps have -87-

94 Evaluation of the Standards for Recruiting and Training Elementary A. Balcı, H. B. Memduhoğlu, A. İlğan & M. Taşdan been taken so that Turkish education system complies with EU education system and standards, and an EU office has been formed in the Ministry of Education (MoNE, 2006). Analyzing the education system of the member countries shall be guidance in forming a roadmap during the EU accession period. For this reason, studying the procedure for selecting, training and appointing school principals, especially in the developed EU countries, is considered a subject worth analyzing. The research question in this study is analyzing the adoptability and applicability of the standards for selecting, training and appointing elementary school principals in developed countries in EU by teachers and principals in Turkey during EU accession period. Considering the difficulty in studying all countries in the European Union, the practice of selecting, training and appointing elementary school principals in England, Germany and France, which are the three biggest countries forming the core of European Union in political, economic and socio-cultural sense, has been evaluated in this study. When education and school administration in European Union countries is considered, the picture generally observed is as following: In Europe, systematic research and development attempts for training principals in education initially started in Sweden in 1979 with school leadership program that lasted six years (Dalin, 1980), as a result of which selecting and training administrators in education and school principals have gained importance especially in EU countries. Governments face more demands for schools to become more effective. Local authorities hold school principals liable for school quality and performance. To illustrate, in some countries such as Sweden and England, parents and community leaders are more powerfully represented in school rules and organs of government (Thody et all, 2007). Selecting, Appointing and Training Elementary School Principals in England, France and Germany England, Germany and France, which are the three biggest countries forming the core of European Union, have different administrative structures. In these countries, the management of education system in general, and the management of elementary schools in particular show variations depending on the country s public administration approach. France has a rigid centralist structuring whereas Germany, which has a system based on states, and Britain, where liberalism and autonomy are prevalent, have decentralized systems. Therefore, decision of the central government is the determining factors in selecting and appointing school principals in France while school councils made up of related stakeholders, such as teachers, parents, students and local authorities are closely involved in decisions in Britain and Germany. Comparing recruiting and training systems of school principal of the countries within the scope of the study; that is the systems of Turkey, England, France and Germany it might be noticed that working as a teacher is the common condition to apply for being recruited as principal at all the countries (Akin, 2012; Sungu, 2012, p. 48). Similarities and differences between the standards for selecting, training and appointing (Cinkir 1999; DfES, 2004; Erdogan, 2000; European Commission, 2000; Eurydice, 1996; 2005a: 2005b; Hausman & Boyd, 1994; Hopes & Döbrich, 2001; Leithwood & Jantzi, 1999; Osborn & Mc Ness, 2001; Solakoğlu,2006; 2004; Sungu, 2012; Thody et al, 2007; TTA, 1998) school principals in England, France and Germany can be identified as following: -88-

95 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 In England and Germany, employing and selecting school principals is realized by a council consisting of related parties (principals, teachers, parents representatives, students representatives, local government representatives) whereas in France, central authority is in charge. In England, teaching diploma, master s degree, Ph.D. degree or an equivalent certificate approved by the government is required to become a school principal. However, the general tendency is Germany and France is having the qualification to become a teacher at the school where one is to be appointed as the principal. Experience, seniority and competence are significant criteria in applying for and being appointed as school principal in all three countries. In France, an examination is given for selecting school principals while an interview is conducted in England and Germany in addition to considering the certificates obtained. In-service training programs have a considerable role in training school principals in all three countries. Such programs are conducted by professional organizations in England (former name: Teacher Training Association- TTA, new name: Teacher Development Association- TDA). However, they are conducted by central government in France and by states and local institutions in Germany. In Germany and France, a minimum 5 year teaching experience is a must to be appointed as a school principal. Different from the two other countries, age limit (30-56) and A class state official qualification are expected to be met in France. In England, experience is a prerequisite. The procedure to be appointed as a school principal works as following in England and Germany: Vacant posts for school principals are announced and applications of candidates are evaluated by school councils formed by stakeholders, after which applications are submitted to the local authorities for appointment. In France, announcement is not made for vacant posts. Instead, selection and appointment of candidates are made by the central authorities. In Germany, each school gives a job advertisement listing the required qualifications. In other words, job advertisement for the principal may vary depending on the characteristics and requirements of the school. Interview is conducted related to the background, experience and professionalism in school principal selection exams in England, Germany and France. While written exam is given in addition to the interview in France, it is not the case in the other two countries. In England, after candidates are selected, whether they are supposed to obtain school principal certificate in training programs depends on the level of success in the exam. Candidates are observed teaching, chairing a meeting and working on a case study in the principal selection exam in some states of Germany and in France. In England, in addition to these, several other activities (shadowing an experienced principal, brainstorming session, taking part in school development projects) are also carried out during training period. In France, a two-phase exam to become a school principal is given once a year, the first phase being the written knowledge exam, and the second phase being the interview. In the knowledge exam, laws related to education, general management institutions, school administration and pedagogical knowledge are tested. In the interview, general knowledge is tested. The successful candidates attend a one-year inschool principal training at Ecole Normal Superior (ENS) in Paris, during when they continue to get paid (Ada, 1997). -89-

96 Evaluation of the Standards for Recruiting and Training Elementary A. Balcı, H. B. Memduhoğlu, A. İlğan & M. Taşdan In England, the level of candidates who have been successful in the selection exam is evaluated and they are trained accordingly. The training may range from entering an exit test to attending a two-year intensive training program. In France, the successful candidates attend in-service training programs during their two-year trainee principal period. In Germany, the successful candidates attend a training program before being assigned to the post and they have to take part in in-service training programs to get equipped during the first few years of their post as a principal. In England, successful candidates are allocated funds for training. In England, training programs for successful candidates cover contemporary management knowledge and skills, such as quality education, higher standards, collaboration with the environment, human resource management, efficient school, school financing, leadership, decision-making, communication, school vision and mission, strategic targets. However, in France, training a principal who would meet the requirements of bureaucracy (representing the state, tracing exams, providing security, dealing with education) is mainly focused on. In Germany, training programs including relatively contemporary management practices (managing school, organizing and developing, relationships with the environment, school quality, image and development, leadership) are applied though not as contemporary as in England. In England, training programs for school principals are prepared further to the views of teachers, experienced and successful school principals, professional associations, local education authorities and universities whereas limited number of stakeholders such as trainers, experts and in-service training unit contribute to designing training programs. However, no such finding has been noted in the related literature about France. Several stakeholders (trainers, academicians, experienced principals, inspectors and managers in different fields) may take part in school principal training practices in England while such participation is rather limited in Germany and France. To sum up, school principal selection and training practice in England is quite intensive at high standards and based on participation of all related stakeholders, placing emphasis on contemporary management and leadership applications, which involve a variety of methods and techniques. However, in Germany and especially in France, such positive practices are rather limited. Selecting, Appointing and Training Elementary School Principals in Turkey The Ministry of Education Regulation published in 1896 is an important milestone in the history of Turkish education, and selection and appointment of school principals. In this regulation, which made detailed planning of Ottoman education system forming the base for the current Turkish education system (Bursalıoğlu 1987; Kaya 1996; Akyuz, 2001), basic characteristics of school principals are identified, as well as identifying the characteristics of students at male and female teacher training schools. The practices related to selecting and appointing principals could not be implemented within a set system or according to an official policy during the first few years of the Republic. Since French public administration model used to be applied in management, in education its effects were reflected, as a result of which still today a centralist application is seen in educational management. In this approach, everything being planned by the central authority, education and school principals used to work as an executor rather than a principal. For this reason, the need was not noted for principals to be equipped with managerial formation (Balcı, 2003). -90-

97 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 In Turkey, the dominant concept in the field of training elementary school principals has been apprenticeship model since foundation of the Republic (Simsek, 2003). This model shows some similarities with the principal training model in some European countries. Principal training models in France, Italy, Sweden and Denmark are examples for such a similarity (Simsek, 2003). Apprenticeship model places Turkish education system on centralist bases. In fact, the emphasis in educational law stating what actually matters in this profession is teaching indicates this concept (Law related to the Ministry of Education). In order to evaluate procedure related to selecting, appointing and training elementary school principals in Turkey, it is crucial to consider the legal arrangements in the recent past. Selecting, appointing, evaluating and training principals are the subject matter of these legal arrangements (Balcı, 1999). According to the legal arrangement made in 1993, work experience as an assistant principal is a prerequisite to be appointed as a school principal and graduate study in educational management is a factor for appointment (MoNE, 1993). According to the legal arrangement made in 1998, every teacher with a bachelor degree, whose trainee teacher status is over, can become a school principal. This clause reflects the understanding that school administration work can be accomplished by any teacher, and that becoming a school principal can be learnt by gaining experience while teaching. With this legal arrangement, selection exam was put into application for in-service training programs before appointment. Those who had completed certain programs (EYTEP, TODAİE Public Administration Specialization Program) were exempted from the selection exam (MoNE, 1998). Further to the regulation introduced in 1999, to be qualified to be appointed as a principal in education, having a bachelor degree or being a teacher with a university degree (having a bachelor degree in any other field apart from education, such as Faculty of Political Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary or others as well) was considered satisfactory, and it was not regarded necessary to have pre-service training or in-service training in the field of educational management. However, the regulation requires a selection test to be taken for the post of assistant principal in elementary schools as well as a 120-hour in-service training program for principals, both of which could be regarded as a significant improvement (MoNE, 1999). This is the first regulation mandate to candidate principals and assistant principal to be trained before appointing as a principal or assistant principal (Kayikci, 2001). The regulation introduced in 2004 can be seen as a turning point in selecting and appointing elementary school principals, since with this regulation, appointing elementary school (and also other education institutions) principals started to be done through written examinations, and the ones who succeed qualify to take the interview. In this examination system, principals take achievement tests and assistant principals take selection test. In both the written exam and the interview, although the candidates are evaluated with respect to their competency in the field and professional competency, representative ability, course of conduct and attitude, expressive and judgmental abilities, it is noted that the topics and content in the exam mainly focus on laws and regulations to meet the requirements of bureaucracy (MoNE, 2004). According to the regulation, having graduated from education faculty, departments of educational management inspection, planning in education and educational economics does not qualify one to be appointed without taking the exam. With this regulation, the regulation introduced in 1999 that necessitated trainee principals to attend pre-service training program upon selection, which was introduced as a positive change and development was made invalid. -91-

98 Evaluation of the Standards for Recruiting and Training Elementary A. Balcı, H. B. Memduhoğlu, A. İlğan & M. Taşdan The regulation revealed in 2007 abolished the selection test that was supposed to be taken to be appointed as a principal, and requires school principals to be appointed based on their interview results. According to this regulation, assistant principals are appointed as following: A candidate among the teachers in the related school is proposed by the principal. The candidate is then appointed by the governor following the proposal of County Director of Education in countries or Province Director of Education in provinces. Among the principals in elementary schools, elementary school principals are appointed by the governor upon the proposal of the County or Province Director of Education (MoNE, 2007). However, implementation of the mentioned regulation has been held by the Council of State. Thus, the issue of appointing principals is currently in ambiguity, which is expected to be settled once the Council of State gives the final decision related to the court case. From 2004 till 2010, approximately 30 regulations or public mandates had been made in order to get rid of the problems related to principal selecting and appointing. In all of the regulations within this period, as in the case for previous ones, to be a teacher for some period and to have university degree are the fundamental restrictions in order to apply the administrator position (Tas, Onder, 2010, p.172). Nine regulations made by MoNE related to principals selecting and appointing since 1990 s. The regulations conducted after 1990 s has generally set the standards of being a teacher or having passed selection exam as pre requisite in order for principalship. Post graduate degree of educational sciences could be basic standard for teachers in order to be principal in schools (Aslanargun, 2011). The current regulation (MoNE, 2013) revealed in 2013, mandate for assistant principal candidates to be successful in centralized paper and pencil test and for principal to be successful in paper and pencil test as well interview results. The regulation mandate that paper and pencil test includes these topics along with proportions: Instructional leadership (10 %), school administration and development (10%), human relations in administration (4%), ethic in education (4%), Turkish language grammar (10%), general knowledge (8%), Turkish administration system (5%), code of conduct (2%), and Ataturk principles and history of Turkish revolution (2%). As could be seen from paper and pencil test the components of directly related with contemporary school administration were not enough. Their proportions totally were 28%. When we analyze the historical course of related articles of the regulations on recruiting school principals in Turkey, we notice that some articles come into prominence in all regulations like; being successful at the selection exam, being experienced in management (as vice principal), having good credentials as a civil servant, not having a disciplinary penalty and seniority in the profession. There is not any compulsory in-service training course or training program for candidate to attend before being appointed as a principal (Sungu, 2012, p. 48). As Ozmen and (Komurlu, 2012) mentioned in Turkish context that there are a variety of problems in the selection, appointment, and training of principals and assistant principals. Although there are regulations about selecting and appointing principals and assistant principals in Turkey the MoNE did not able to set up decent standards about this issue (Sisman & Turan, 2002; Sungu, 2012). When currently effective legislation and regulations related to selecting and training principals in education are considered as a whole, it can be concluded that since the regulation put into effect in 1869, there has not been much change in the field of selecting and training -92-

99 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 principals in education, and that school administration is still seen as an additional assignment, assuming that the teacher can accomplish administrative work without any need for additional training. However, it is not a rational expectation that a successful teacher can always manage a school successfully. School administrators should be educated in accordance with the universal standards and have certain competencies in addition to having a good understanding of basic concepts in the field of educational management (Sergiovanni, 1991). It seems inevitable that certain changes take place in the Turkish education system in general and in the application for selecting and training principals in education as well, as in other fields during EU accession period of Turkey. During organizational change period, the key factor to increase the success of change is to inform the parties who are to be affected by the change and who are to apply the change, to provide detailed information related to the change and to get the support of related parties. Thus, since Turkey intends to become a member of European Union, it is significant to analyze how adoptable and applicable candidate and current school principals in Turkey think the practice of selecting and training school principals in schools in European Union is. The aim of this study is to reveal the procedure for selecting and training elementary school principals in three EU member countries, England, France and Germany, and to determine, among elementary school principals and teachers in Turkey, the level of adoptability and applicability of Elementary School Principal Selecting and Training Model scale, which is developed based on the procedure in the mentioned countries. Method Samples and Data Collection The field under survey in this study is principals and teachers employed in public elementary schools in provincial centers in Turkey. Stratified sampling technique has been used in the research. Based on this approach, the field under study has been initially divided into corresponding sub-fields under survey according to geographic regions that is seven strata composed of seven survey areas. Then, one province has been selected impartially from each survey area with the attempt of ensuring representation of each sub-field in the survey in the sampling. At the final stage of the sampling, cluster sampling method has been used. Elementary schools in the provincial centers under survey have been listed and the schools where the research is to be carried out have been partially selected. While determining the number of schools under survey, the number of principals who would be under survey has been considered. Assuming that elementary schools in provincial centers have 3 to 5 administrators on average, the number of schools has been determined to allow 3 administrators from each school to be under survey. Target field under survey in this research is composed of administrators and teachers in total. Out of this, 356 administrators and 382 teachers in 121 schools have been given the questionnaire. Anderson s (1998) formulation for sampling size has been used to determine the sampling size. Provincial centers where the survey has been conducted and the number of principals and teachers are as following: Bursa, 80 administrators and 78 teachers; Denizli, 33 administrators and 33 teachers; Konya, 68 administrators and 66 teachers; Adana, 82 administrators and 101 teachers; Trabzon, 23 administrators and 37 teachers; Van, 29 administrators and 29 teachers; Şanlıurfa, 41 administrators and 38 teachers. -93-

100 Evaluation of the Standards for Recruiting and Training Elementary A. Balcı, H. B. Memduhoğlu, A. İlğan & M. Taşdan Out of these provincial centers, while Adana constitutes the biggest one in the sampling with 82 administrators and 101 teachers, Trabzon forms the smallest one with 23 administrators and 37 teachers. Considering the administrators in the survey, 18% are females and 82% are males. With respect to teachers in the survey, 53% are females and 47% are males. This ratio indicates that the rate of female school administrators in Turkey is rather low. 89% of the administrators have a bachelor degree, and 11% have graduate degree. 88% of the teachers have a bachelor degree and 12% have a graduate degree. 56% of the administrators are class teachers and 44% are specific course teachers. 48% of the teachers are class teachers and 52% are specific course teachers. 47% of the administrators have been in the profession for over 20 years of, and only 2% have been in the profession for less than 5 years. This ratio indicates that experience is a significant criterion for school administration position. Instrument Elementary School Principal Selecting and Training Model which is designed based on the elementary school principal selecting and training applications used in England, Germany and France and which is developed considering the conditions in Turkey has been turned into draft data collection tool with the purpose of collecting data needed for the research. Data collection tool is made up of two parts. Personal information is collected in the first part. The second part has two sub-dimensions with items related to the standards for selecting and appointing principals and applications for training principals. The level of adoptability and applicability for each item or expression in the Likert scale data collection scale is defined in 5 graded scales. Draft data collection tool which is developed based on the related literature has been evaluated for content and face validity by the experts in the field and the ones in the field of measurement-evaluation. Based on the feedback, revisions have been made, after which the tool has become available for pilot study. Pilot study of the scale has been carried out with 100 principals and teachers employed in public schools. Factor analysis (principal component analysis) has been used for constructive validity of each sub-dimension of the data collection tool, which consists of 11 sub-dimensions or scales. Alpha coefficient and item-total correlation have been used for testing reliability. Further to the factor analysis studies, the items with factor loading.40 and over are grouped, and the items with lower factor loading are deleted. However, three items (Items with factor loading below.40, but included in the scale after being revised as considered significant are: Item 21; including field practice in administrator formation (0.39), though with low factor loading, have not been deleted as they are considered significant. Instead, they have been revised and included in the scale. Out of total 11 sub-dimensions or scales, the one with the lowest explicable total variance (35,40%) is Institutions to conduct in-service training and courses, and the one with the highest explicable total variance (89, 71%) is selection of candidate principal. Data Analysis Descriptive statistics techniques (percentage, frequency, arithmetic mean, standard deviation) have been used in the analysis of data collected by scales, and t-test has been used for unrelated sampling. Criterion intervals stated below have been considered while discussing the data: 1,00-1,79 = Never; 1,80 2,59 = Rarely; 2,60 3,39 = Moderately; 3,40 4,19 = Frequently ; 4,20 5,00 = Completely. -94-

101 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Findings and Discussion Standards for Selecting Elementary School Principals I-Findings and discussion related to the features expected from elementary school candidate principals It is noted that the statements and items in the model under the dimension called features expected from elementary school candidate principals are found completely adoptable by principals ( X =4,36) and teachers ( X =4,24). In this dimension, the statement (feature) that is found to be the most adoptable by principals and teachers is having assistant principal experience ( X =4,53); the one that is found to be the least adoptable is the candidate not having been penalized ( X =3,91). It is also observed that the statements and items in the model under the dimension called features expected from elementary school candidate principals are found completely applicable by principals ( X =3,82) and teachers ( X =3,64). In this dimension, the statement (feature) that is found to be the most applicable one by principals and teachers is having assistant principal experience ( X =3,96); the one that is found to be the least applicable is the candidate having had education (bachelor s degree, master s degree, seminar, course, etc) in the field of school management ( X =3,54). T-test results comparing the views of administrators and teachers with respect to levels of adoptability and applicability of the features expected from elementary school candidate principals dimension are given in Table 1. Table 1: t-test results comparing the views of administrators and teachers with respect to levels of adoptability and applicability of the features expected from elementary school candidate principals dimension Categories Groups N X S sd t p Adoptability Applicability Administrator ,43 2,83 Teacher ,98 2,75 Administrator ,28 3,58 Teacher ,58 3,84 663,27 2,33, ,44,015 It is noted in Table 1 that there is a meaningful difference in favor of administrators between views about both adoptability [t (663) =2,33, p <.05] and applicability [t (669) =2,44, p <.05] of administrators and teachers. This finding indicates that compared to teachers, public elementary school administrators believe features expected from elementary school candidate principals dimension of the model is more adoptable and they find it to be more applicable in the Turkish education system. II. Findings and discussion related to the process of selecting, evaluating and appointing elementary school candidate principals a) Sub-dimension for testing: It is noted that the adoptability of the statements and items in the model under the dimension for selecting, evaluating and appointing elementary school candidate principals is thought to be at moderate level ( X =3,33) by administrators, and at considerable level ( X =3,73) by teachers. In this dimension, the statement whose adoptability level is the highest by both administrators and teachers is giving written examination ( X =4,53); the statement whose adoptability level is the lowest is giving oral exams (designed to test knowledge and compatibility). It is also observed that the statements and items in the model under the dimension selecting, -95-

102 Evaluation of the Standards for Recruiting and Training Elementary A. Balcı, H. B. Memduhoğlu, A. İlğan & M. Taşdan evaluating and appointing elementary school candidate principals are found moderately applicable by administrators ( X =3,09) and teachers ( X =3,14) In this dimension, the statement that is found to be the most applicable by administrators and teachers is giving written examination ( X =3,50) the one that is found to be the least applicable is having interview together with written and oral examination ( X =2,89). T-test results comparing the views of administrators and teachers with respect to levels of adoptability and applicability of the selecting, evaluating and appointing elementary school candidate principals dimension are given in Table 2. Table 2: t-test results comparing the views of administrators and teachers with respect to levels of adoptability and applicability of the selecting, evaluating and appointing elementary school candidate principals dimension Categories Groups N X S sd t p Adoptability Administrator ,34 4,27 Teacher ,91 4, ,74,000 Applicability Administrator ,36 4,22 Teacher ,57 4,37 669,638,524 It is seen in Table 2 that teachers find selecting, evaluating and appointing elementary school candidate principals dimension of the model more adoptable compared to the administrators [t (669) =4,74; p <.05]; however, there is no difference between the administrators and teachers with respect to the applicability level of the model in the Turkish education system [t (669) =,638; p >.05]. b) Sub-dimension for evaluation criteria for elementary school candidate principals: It is noted that both administrators ( X =3,96) and teachers ( X =4,02) regard the criteria in the model for evaluating candidate principals completely adoptable. In this dimension, the statement that is most highly regarded as adoptable by administrators and teachers is professional experience of the candidate as teacher or assistant principal ( X =4,58), while the least adoptable one is reports of inspectors ( X =3,14). Administrators and teachers ascribing the same level of importance to all statements in the evaluation criteria dimension of the model indicates that they share the same opinion about evaluation criteria. It is observed that administrators regard the criteria for elementary school candidate principals completely applicable ( X =3,53) and teachers regard it moderately applicable ( X =3,79) in the Turkish education system. In this dimension, the statement found the most applicable by administrators and teachers is professional experience of the candidate as teacher or assistant principal ( X =3,50); and the least applicable one is candidate having had master s degree in the field of educational management ( X =3,02). T-test results comparing the views of administrators and teachers with respect to levels of adoptability and applicability of the criteria for evaluating elementary school candidate principals dimension are given in Table 3 Table 3: t-test results comparing the views of administrators and teachers with respect to levels of adoptability and applicability of the criteria for evaluating elementary school candidate principals dimension Categories Groups N X S sd t p Adoptability Applicability Administrator ,80 3,59 Teacher ,38 4,05 Administrator ,18 5,46 Teacher ,64 5, ,99, ,58,

103 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 According to results shown in Table 3, although teachers have a more positive view than administrators about the adoptability of criteria for evaluating elementary school candidate principals [t (669) =1,99; p <.05] in the model, administrators have a more positive view about its applicability in the Turkish education system [t (669) = 3,58; p <.05]. c) Selecting elementary school candidate principals: Administrators and teachers find School principal to be selected by the school board the most adoptable ( X =3,34), and School principal to be selected by the Ministry of Education the least adoptable ( X =2,8 1). On the other hand, administrators and teachers consider School principal to be selected by the Ministry of Education the most applicable ( X =3,35), and School principal to be selected by the school board the least applicable ( X =2,55). d) Appointing elementary school candidate principals: Administrators and teachers find School principal to be appointed by the Ministry of Education upon the proposal of the school board the most adoptable ( X =3,40), and School principals to be appointed by the local authorities the least adoptable ( X =1,85). Both administrators and teachers having the same opinion with respect to the most and the least adoptable items in this dimension are noteworthy. Administrators and teachers consider School principal to be appointed directly by the Ministry of Education the most applicable ( X =3,37), and School principal to be appointed by the local authorities the least applicable ( X =2,55). Standards for Training Elementary School Principals I. Training principals Principles related to training elementary school candidate principals in the model are found completely adoptable by administrators ( X =4,15) and teachers ( X =4,15). The principle/statement found the most adoptable ( X =4,35) by administrators and teachers in this dimension is Candidates, upon their appointment, being obliged to attend periodical inservice training programs within the context of continuing education, and the least adoptable ( X =3,91) is Principal formation to be composed of minimum 10 courses and one seminar to match the master s degree studies. The degree of importance given to the statements in this dimension is quite similar when administrators and teachers are considered separately, which is regarded as noteworthy. It is observed that principles related to training elementary school candidate principals are found moderately applicable by administrators ( X =3,39) and teachers ( X =3,28). In this dimension, administrators and teachers find Candidates, upon their appointment, being obliged to attend periodical in-service training programs within the context of continuing education the most applicable, and Principal formation to be composed of minimum 10 courses and one seminar to match the master s degree studies the least applicable ( X =3,18). T-test results comparing the views of administrators and teachers with respect to levels of adoptability and applicability of principals related to training elementary school candidate principals are given in Table 4. As seen in Table 4, there is no difference between the views of administrators and teachers about the principles related to training elementary school candidate principals regarding both the level of adoptability [t (669) =,054; p >.05], and the level of applicability in the Turkish education system [t (669) =1,39; p >.05]. -97-

104 Evaluation of the Standards for Recruiting and Training Elementary A. Balcı, H. B. Memduhoğlu, A. İlğan & M. Taşdan Table 4: t-test results comparing the views of administrators and teachers with respect to levels of adoptability and applicability of principals related to training elementary school candidate principals Categories Groups N X S sd t p Adoptability Administrator ,08 4,58 Teacher ,06 4,89 669,054,957 Applicability Administrator ,75 7,18 Teacher ,97 7, ,399,162 In other words, elementary school administrators and teachers find principles related to training elementary school candidate principals adoptable and applicable in the Turkish education system almost at the same level. Although the views of administrators in this respect seem more positive compared to the views of the teachers, the difference is not meaningful statistically. II. Conducting principal formation program Elementary school administrators and teachers in the study consider principal formation program to be conducted by universities the most adoptable ( X =3,85), whereas they think it to be conducted by professional associations or unions the least adoptable ( X =2,05). Similarly, administrators and teachers think that principal formation program to be conducted by universities is the most applicable ( X =3,56), and they think it to be conducted by professional associations or unions the least applicable ( X =2,06). III. Content of the principal formation program It is noted that administrators ( X =4,55) and teachers ( X =4,55) completely agree with the content of the elementary school principal formation program. In this dimension, the content that is found the most adoptable by administrators and teachers is Human relations in management and human resources management ( X =4,67) and School-community relations ( X =4,63). These findings indicate that there may be problems in elementary schools related to human relations and schools being exposed to their environment and community. The contents found the least adoptable ( X =4,40) in this dimension by administrators and teachers are The bases of education (social, economic, historical, political) and Organization and management theories ( X =4,41). Though these statements are regarded relatively the least adoptable, they are found completely adoptable by administrators and teachers. Administrators ( X =3,84) and teachers ( X =3,67) find the content for elementary school principal formation program moderately applicable in the Turkish education system. In this dimension, the contents that are found to be the most applicable by administrators and teachers are Turkish education system ( X =3,85) and Inspection and evaluation ( X =3,85). The contents found the least applicable in this dimension are Organization and management theories ( X =3,66) and Financing Education and school budget ( X =3,66). T-test results comparing the views of administrators and teachers with respect to levels of adoptability and applicability of school principal formation program content are given in Table 5. As it is seen in Table 5, although the views of administrators and teachers related to their finding the content of elementary school principal formation adoptable [t (669) =,036; p >.05] are the same, there is a difference between their finding it applicable [t (669) =2,21; p <.05]. -98-

105 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Table 5: t-test results comparing the views of administrators and teachers with respect to levels of adoptability and applicability of school principal formation program content Categories Groups N X S sd t p Adoptability Administrator ,66 7,00 Teacher ,68 7,52 669,036,971 Applicability Administrator ,72 13,61 Teacher ,36 13, ,21,027 In other words, administrators and teachers at public elementary schools have similar views about adoptability of the content of elementary school principal formation program; however, administrators ( X =53,72) have more positive views related to the applicability of the content of the program in the Turkish education system compared to the teachers ( X =51,36). IV. Who should be lecturing in principal formation program Administrators and teachers find the statement Experienced and successful principals should lecture the most adoptable ( X =4,34), and Local education managers should lecture the least adoptable ( X =2,89). Similarly, administrators and teachers think Experienced and successful principals should lecture is the most applicable ( X =4,34), and Local education managers should lecture is the least applicable ( X =2,89). V. Conducting in-service training programs and courses Administrators and teachers think in-service training programs and courses being conducted by an unaffiliated principal training institution is the most adoptable ( X =4,34), and such courses to be conducted by local administration is the least adoptable ( X =2,89). On the other hand, administrators and teachers feel that in-service training programs and courses to be conducted by the Ministry of Education is the most applicable ( X =4,34), and to be conducted by local administration is the least applicable ( X =2,89). VI. Methods of teaching of the subjects in the training program a) Techniques to be applied: Out of the methods to be used for teaching the subjects during the school principal training program in the model, administrators and teachers think case studies (f:187; 27,9%), and brain-storming and similar group discussions (f:180; 26,8%) are the most adoptable ones. The methods found the least adoptable are reading books and articles (f:144; 21,5%), and having guest speakers (f:110; 16,4%). Hence, elementary school administrators and teachers think that case studies and brain-storming and similar group discussions methods, considering the methods of teaching subjects in the training program, are the most acceptable. However, they believe reading books and articles and having guest speakers are the least acceptable. Therefore, it can be concluded that techniques that are based on active participation are preferred rather than relatively passive techniques that involve reading and listening. b) Activities that candidates should be obliged to do during the training program: Administrators and teachers think that preparing projects (f:207; 30,8%) and giving presentations (f:126; 18,8%) in the model developed are the most adoptable activities that candidate school principals should be obliged to do during the related training program. The activities that are thought to be the least adoptable are reading assignments (f:201; 30%) and self-evaluation and peer-evaluation (f:68; 10,1%). Accordingly, out of the activities for which candidates should be responsible in the training program, preparing projects and giving presentations are thought to be the most acceptable elementary school administrators -99-

106 Evaluation of the Standards for Recruiting and Training Elementary A. Balcı, H. B. Memduhoğlu, A. İlğan & M. Taşdan and teachers while reading assignments and self-evaluation and peer-evaluation are believed to be the least acceptable. VII. Evaluation of school principal training program The dimension in the model related to the evaluation of school principal training programs is found to be completely acceptable by administrators ( X =4,3) and teachers ( X =4,26). Considering the principals for evaluating training programs, administrators and teachers feel Candidates displaying to what extent expected knowledge and skills are achieved ( X =4,34) is the most acceptable, and the principle that is least accepted is Candidate principal activities anticipated for teaching subjects in the previous section (item VI/b) are assessed with a grade out 100 during the training process, and that they make up 50% of the graduation score ( X =4,11). The dimension in the model regarding the principles for evaluating school principal training programs are thought to be frequently applicable in the Turkish education system by administrators ( X =3,63), and moderately applicable by teachers ( X =3,02). In this dimension, among the principles to evaluate training programs, administrators and teachers think the most applicable one is Candidates displaying to what extent expected knowledge and skills are achieved ( X =4,34); and the least applicable one is Candidate principal activities anticipated for teaching subjects in the previous section (item VI/b) are assessed with a grade out 100 during the training process, and that they make up 50% of the graduation score ( X =4,11). T-test results comparing the views of administrators and teachers with respect to levels of adoptability and applicability of principles to evaluate training program designed for elementary school principal candidates are given in Table 6. Table 6: t-test results comparing the views of administrators and teachers with respect to levels of adoptability and applicability of principles to evaluate training program designed for elementary school principal candidates Categories Groups N X S sd t p Adoptability Applicability Administrator ,90 1,87 Teacher ,77 1,93 Administrator ,89 3,01 Teacher ,52 3,01 669,912, ,608,108 As it is seen in Table 6, there is no difference between the views of administrators and teachers with respect to finding the principles to evaluate elementary school candidate principal training program adoptable [t (669) =,912; p >.05] and applicable in the Turkish education system [t (669) =1,608; p >.05]. In other words, public elementary school administrators and teachers have similar views about the adoptability and applicability of principles in the model to evaluate candidate school principal training program. Discussion Based on the findings, it is concluded in the research that Elementary School Principal Selection and Training Model developed based on the procedure used in England, Germany and France to select and train elementary school principals are thought to be adoptable by elementary school administrators and teachers in Turkey and, though at a relatively low level, it is also believed to be applicable in the Turkish education system. One of the most significant conclusions arrived in the research is that experience is considered to be the most adoptable and applicable criterion related to the features expected from -100-

107 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 candidate elementary school principals. Likewise, experience is believed to be the most important criterion in British public administration tradition. In other European Union countries such as Sweden, Greece and Cyprus, experience in teaching and as an assistantprincipal in general is required to be appointed as a principal, which indicates that seniority plays a crucial role for appointing school principals (Tody et al, 2007). Administrators find evaluation process of elementary school principals moderately adoptable, and teachers find it completely adoptable, while they think of it to be moderately applicable in the Turkish education system. Administrators and teachers believe evaluation process of elementary school principals in the model developed is more adoptable when compared to its applicability in the Turkish education system. Evaluation process of the elementary school candidate principals in the model developed is believed to be more adoptable by teachers when compared to administrators; however, there is no difference between the views of administrators and teachers considering its applicability in the Turkish education system. The fact that the criterion related to having completed education in the field is thought to be relatively of less applicable in the system proves that education and training in the field (Bachelor degree, master s degree, seminars, courses) is not given much importance in appointing principals in Turkey. Master s degree in the field is not regarded significant enough considering the policies and applications of the Ministry. It could be concluded that being principal is believed to be a post that may be achieved by anyone who has certain amount of experience in teaching, which results from the understanding what is important in the profession is teaching. This is the attitude of administrators and teachers who highlight professional experience not only to find it applicable, but also to find it adoptable. Administrators and teachers completely agree with the evaluation criteria of elementary school candidate principals, whereas administrators find it completely applicable in the Turkish education system, and teachers find it moderately applicable. Evaluation criteria of elementary school candidate principals in the model are found to be more adoptable by administrators and teachers compared to its applicability in the Turkish education system. Although teachers have a more positive view about adopting the evaluation criteria of elementary school candidate principals compared to administrators, administrators have a more positive view when its applicability in the Turkish education system is considered. It is determined in the research that while written exams are found adoptable in selecting and evaluating candidate principals, interviews are not accredited much. It is an expected result that, considering the conditions in Turkey, administrators and teachers find objective written exams based on meritocracy the most adoptable while interviews that may allow favoritism are believed to be least adoptable. The reason for this may be the fact that the required substructure and professionalism related to interviews are yet to be settled. Sensitivity of administrators and teachers related to appointment of principals without an exam is quite understandable due to current undesirable practices, especially observed recently without any reasonable or concrete criteria. Among the statements regarding selecting elementary school candidate principals, School principal to be selected by the school board is the most favored by the administrators and teachers, while School principal to be selected by the Ministry of Education is believed to be the least favorable. Among the statements regarding Who to appoint elementary school candidate principals, -101-

108 Evaluation of the Standards for Recruiting and Training Elementary A. Balcı, H. B. Memduhoğlu, A. İlğan & M. Taşdan School principal to be appointed by the Ministry of Education upon the proposal of the school board is the most favored by the administrators and teachers, while School principal to be appointed by the local authorities is the least favored. The view that school principals are selected by the school board and appointed by the Ministry upon the proposal of the school board is found adoptable in the research. Concerns like informal relations, influence and favoritism that may have a role in appointments, and practices that may change depending on governments should be the reasons why administrators and teachers find this view adoptable. In addition, it may be concluded that an approach that allows school-centered administration concept in which all other stakeholders are closely involved with decisions is found adoptable by administrators and teachers. It is possible to establish a connection between such an expectation and effectiveness of schools. In fact, research reveals that effective schools have qualities such as decentralized school administration, shared decision-making process, high participation of parents, educational leadership, high academic expectations, and coordinated climate both at school and class levels (Fitch, 1992; as cited in. Alston, 2004, p. 80). However, in Turkey, where unique special conditions (favoritism, deficiency in sub-structure and experience) are found, it is probable that principals being selected and appointed only by the school board may create certain drawbacks. Actually, a selection system regarding and evaluating the views and proposals of the boards made up of school stakeholders instead of processes that require localization and devolution of power, where school boards are the sole determiner, should be more appropriate for the social structure in Turkey. In fact, that administrators and teachers regard principal to be selected by the school board the most adoptable though they believe it to be the least applicable results from the above mentioned reality in Turkey. Furthermore, research results indicate that school principals to be appointed by local authorities are not thought to be adoptable. Actually, local authorities have not been interested enough in education or provided any support, assuming that educational services are the responsibility of the central administration. Besides, local authorities have not been given such a duty or responsibility legally, as a result of which they tend to keep away from education. Principles for training elementary school candidate principals are found completely adoptable, but moderately applicable in the Turkish education system by administrators and teachers. Therefore, administrators and teachers feel that the principles for training elementary school candidate school principals in the model developed are more adoptable but less applicable in the Turkish education system. Out of the statements related to which institutions are to conduct principal formation programs for elementary schools, administrators and teachers find universities to conduct such programs the most adoptable, while they find professional associations and unions to conduct such programs the least adoptable. On the other hand, principal formation programs to be conducted by the Ministry of Education is found to be the most applicable, while professional associations and unions to conduct such programs is believed to be the least applicable. Content of elementary school principal formation program is found completely adoptable by administrators and teachers. The statements that are believed to be the most adoptable by administrators and teachers are Human relations in management and human resources management and school-community relations. The statements that are considered the least adoptable by administrators and teachers are The bases of education (social, economic, -102-

109 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 historical, and political) and Organization and management theories. It is noted that administrators and teachers are of the same opinion related to the adoptability of the content of elementary school principal training formation program developed in the model. Out of statements regarding who to lecture in training elementary school principal formation program, administrators and teachers find experienced and successful principals to lecture the most adoptable, and local educational administrators to lecture the least adoptable. Similarly, experienced and successful principals to lecture is thought to be the most applicable, and local educational administrators to lecture the least applicable. Administrators and teachers believe that the statements related to Who to lecture in elementary school principal formation program are more adoptable compared to their applicability in the Turkish education system. Candidate principals, upon being appointed, to attend in-service training programs periodically within the framework of continuing education is believed to be adoptable and applicable based on the research. This may result from the in-service training tradition in the Turkish education system in spite of certain deficiencies in the Turkish education system. Such programs to be conducted by universities are found adoptable, but their being conducted by the Ministry of Education is thought to be applicable, whereas their being conducted by professional associations and unions is not thought to be applicable. This indicates that professional organizations and non-governmental organizations fail to provide assurance or support to the profession of teaching in Turkey The research results indicate that such topics as human relations in management and school-community relations should be focused on in the in-service training once the candidate principals are appointed to the post. Hale and Moorman (2003; cited in Barnett, 2004) state that most programs related to training school principals fail to provide the training necessary for public school leaders. According to the literature, it is more meaningful for candidate school principals to have practical management courses accompanied by successful principals (Barnett, 2004). Administrators and teachers believe that an institution to be established so as to conduct inservice training programs for training elementary school candidate principals is quite agreeable. This view may indicate that such an institution is expected to be isolated from political pressure and be autonomous in addition to having expert trainers in the field. It may be assumed that the possibility of local authorities lacking infrastructure, insight and experience to conduct training programs may be the reason why such programs and courses being conducted by local authorities is thought to be the least adoptable. In fact, participants believing such programs to be conducted by local authorities may be considered as a reflection of conditions in Turkey. Considering the teaching methods of topics in candidate school principal training programs, administrators and teachers believe that techniques based on active participation such as casestudy, brain-storming and similar group activities are more adoptable compared to relatively passive activities such as listening and reading. Regarding activities that candidates should be responsible for in elementary school candidate principals training programs, preparing projects and presentations are believed to be the most adoptable by administrators and teachers, while reading assignments and self-evaluation and peer-evaluation are thought to be the least adoptable

110 Evaluation of the Standards for Recruiting and Training Elementary A. Balcı, H. B. Memduhoğlu, A. İlğan & M. Taşdan While administrators and teachers find the statements related to evaluating the developed training programs completely adoptable, administrators find them greatly applicable in the Turkish education system, and teachers believe that they are moderately applicable. Administrators and teachers find the statements related to evaluating the program developed for elementary school candidate principals more adoptable than applicable in the Turkish education system. The level of adoptability in all sub-dimensions of the model is higher than the level of applicability, which indicates that standards and practices for selecting and training school principals foreseen in the model are found adoptable by educationalists made up of administrators and teachers; however, the level of applicability of these standards is believed to be relatively low (at least in the short-term) due to current management tradition and bureaucratic structure in Turkey. The thesis that concepts such as devolution of full-authority, localization could be implemented in Turkey without any problems in the historical context just like in England and Germany could be arguable. Considering the unique social conditions in Turkey, rather than practices, some of which may create drawbacks, practices such as deconcentration and authority sharing, which shall enable local community to take active part in educational service, could be an alternative to consider. In this respect, instead of implementing the practices used in countries such as England, Germany and France in Turkey, it would be a more rational approach to make adaptations in such practices, considering the conditions and inner dynamics in Turkey. References Ada, S. (1997). Okul yöneticilerinin yetiştirilmesinde Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı-üniversite işbirliği. [Collaboration of the Ministry of Education and universities in training school]. Hacettepe University. Social Sciences Institution, Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Akin, U. (2012). Selection and training of school administrators: Different applications in Turkey and selected countries, comparisons. AIBU Journal of Social Sciences, 12(2), Akyuz, Y. (2001). Türk Eğitim Tarihi (başlangıçtan 2001'e) [History of Turkish Education (Up to present since the start]. İstanbul: Alfa Publications. Alston, J. A. (2004). The many faces of American schooling: Effective schools research and border-crossing in the 21st century. American Secondary Education. 32 (2), Anderson, G. (1998). Fundamentals of educational research. London: The Framer Pres. Aslanargun, E. (2011). Türkiye de okul yönetimi ve atama yönetmelikleri [School administration and appointment process in Turkey]. e-journal of New World Sciences Academy Education Sciences, 1C466, 6(4), Balcı, A.(1988). Eğitim Yöneticisinin Yetiştirilmesi:Türkiye deki İlk ve Orta Dereceli Okul Yöneticileri Üzerinde Yapılan Bir Araştırma. (Training Educational Administrators: Research about Elementary and Secondary School Administrators in Turkey). Ankara University, Faculty of Educational Sciences. Balcı, A. (1999) Eğitim yöneticilerinin yetiştirilmesi. Eğitimde yansımalar: V, 21. yüzyılın eşiğinde Türk Eğitim Sistemi ulusal sempozyumu [Training managers in education. Reflections in education V: Turkish Education System national symposium at the threshold of 21st Century] November, Ankara. Tekışık Publication

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113 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 with self-evaluation]. Çanakkale 18 Mart University, Social Sciences Institution, Unpublished Master s Dissertation. Simsek, (2003). Türkiye de eğitim yöneticisi yetiştirilemez. 21. yüzyıl eğitim yöneticilerinin yetiştirilmesi sempozyumu. [Educational administrator cannot be trained in Turkey. Symposium on training managers in education in 21st Century] (16-17 May 2002), Ankara University, Faculty of Educational Sciences Publicaitons, Ankara. Publication Number: 191. Sisman, M., & Turan, S. (2003). Dünyada eğitim yöneticilerinin yetiştirilmesine ilişkin başlıca yönelimler ve Türkiye için çıkarılabilecek bazı sonuçlar. 21. yüzyıl eğitim yöneticilerinin yetiştirilmesi sempozyumu. [Main trends in the world in training managers in education and some conclusions to arrive about Turkey. Symposium on training managers in education in 21st Century] (16-17 May 2002), Ankara University, Faculty of Educational Sciences Publicaitons, Ankara. Publication Number: 191. Sungu, H. (2012). Recruiting and preparing school principals in Turkey, Germany, France and England. Sakarya University Journal of Education. 2(1), Tas, A., & Onder, E. (2010) yılı ve sonrasında yayınlanan eğitim kurumları yöneticilerinin atama ve yer değiştirmelerine ilişkin yönetmeliklerin karşılaştırılması [Comparison the regulations on the assignment and relocation of administrators of educational institutions functioning in 2004 and the years later] Journal of Suleyman Demirel University Insititute of Socail Sciences. 12(2), Thody, A., Papanaoum, Z., Johansson, O., & Pashiardis, P. (2007). School principal preperation in Europe. International Journal of Educational Management, 21(1), TTA (Teacher Traininig Agency) (1998). National training for serving headreachers. London

114 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at The Utilization of Social Media Tools for Informal Learning Activities: A Survey Study Ilker Yakin * Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey Ilke Evin Gencel Department of Educational Science, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale, Turkey Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Social Media, Informal Learning, Web 2.0, Social Software Today, educators and researchers are taking advantage of the advances in the Internet more than ever before. With the advent of social media tools, a new paradigm of teaching and learning has emerged. This study aims to explore social media uses in informal learning activities among CEIT students. A descriptive survey method was used in the study. The participants of the study were 357 undergraduate students in the department of CEIT in a state university. Data was collected through a survey questionnaire developed by the researchers. 18 popular social media tools and 6 major informal activities were selected and integrated into the questionnaire so as to identify the social media tool preferences of the students. Additionally, the participants were asked to identify their main reasons for not using social media tools. The results were presented with frequency and percentage tables. The findings indicated that Facebook is an important social media tool preferred by the majority of the students to fulfill their informal learning activities. This study also point out that besides Facebook, other social media tools are used for different purposes. The results also revealed that barriers for nonuse of social media tools can be grouped under psychological and technological factors. In light of the study results, some methodological and practical suggestions are made for further studies regarding the utilization of the utilization of the social media tools for informal learning activities. 1. Introduction Advances in telecommunications and computer technology have dramatically altered the way educators do their jobs and the way students are engaged in learning activities and processes. With the advancement of Web 2.0 technologies, a new paradigm of teaching and learning has been created in a way that both educators and students take a role as coconstructors of learning in these environments (Baran, 2013). The rapid growth of research on technologies such as social media tools has aroused an interest in the area of education; some examples of specific areas of research are students educational use, teachers pedagogic practice, and related concern regarding trust and privacy factors (Madge, Wellens, & Hooloey, 2009). * Correspondence: Mersin University, Faculty of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, Yenisehir Kampusu, Yenisehir, Mersin, Phone: , [email protected] [email protected]

115 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, Social Media Tools Emphasizing the social side of the Internet, social media as a term is often interchangeable with Web 2.0 and social software (Dabbagh & Kitsantas, 2012). In general terms, social media enable users to share information and collaborate with each other to create web content and utilize it. It refers to users activities, practices, and behaviors occurring through media via sharing information, knowledge, and opinions (Safko & Brake, 2009). These technologies are internet-based and they facilitate creativity, information sharing, and collaboration among users (Clough, 2010). Indeed, social media puts great emphasis on sharing, participating, and collaborating processes and activities (Lucas & Moreira, 2009). Social media, social networks and social communities provide a new form of collaboration and communication for users (Ebner, Lienhardt, Rohs, & Meyer, 2010). The use of these tools both facilitate and support the development of communities and networks where incidental or self-directed learning may occur resulting in established connections and interactions of their members (Lucas & Moreira, 2009). In general, collaboration, social interaction, and participation generate main constructions of the social software tools (Lucas & Moreira, 2009). Researchers have offered many typical technologies and applications that stand for the term Web 2.0. Clough (2010, p.1) asserts that Web 2.0 is not any single collection of applications or technologies. More specifically, social media involve social networking sites, video sharing sites, wikis, blogs, subscription services, and folksonomies (Madge et al., 2009). Although thousands of social media tools are available today, it is important to categorize the tools in terms of their general features and functions (Safko & Brake, 2009). Based on the classification constructed by Safko and Brake (2009), social media tools are tabulated in terms of their common characteristics in the Table 1. In the literature, it is possible to see different tools and categories defined by different researchers in terms of particular functions of the tools. Day by day; moreover, new tools and applications are added to these categories and also shaped by the categorizations. Categories Social Networks Publish Audio Video Microblogging Livecasting Virtual Worlds Gaming Productivity Applications Aggregators RSS Search Mobile Interpersonal Table 1: Categorization of Social Media Tools Social Media Tools Facebook, Bebo, LinkedIn, Friendster, MySpace, MOLI, Plaxo, Ning, Orkut Blogger, Constant Contact, Joomla, Knol, SlideShare, Wikia, Wikipedia, WordPress İTunes, PodBean, Podcast.net, Rhapsody Google Video, YouTube, Metacafe, Brightcove, Hulu, Viddler Twitter, Twitxr, Plurk BlogTalkRadio, Live 365, TalkShoe, Justin.tv, SHOUTcast Active Worlds, Kaneva, Second Life, There, ViOS EverQuest, 4x4 Evolution, Entropia Universe, World of Warcraft Survey Monkey, Yahoo!, Google Docs, Google Gmail, AOL, Acteva, etc. FriendFeed, igoogle, My Yahoo!, Reddit, Yelp, Digg, etc. RSS 2.0, PingShot, FeedBurner, Atom Google Search, Yahoo! Search, EveryZing, Ice Rocket, MetaTube, etc. airg, AOL Mobile, CallWave, Jumbuck, etc. Acrobat Connect, AOL Instant Messenger, Skype, Go To Meeting, etc Informal Learning In the literature, three perspectives on the nature of learning have been defined to address the intention to learn and structure or context in which learning takes place. While formal learning has been defined as learning occurring within organized and structured contexts such as formal education and training, non-formal learning occurs in an institutional -109-

116 The Utilization of Social Media Tools for Informal Learning Activities I. Yakin & I. E. Gencel context; but it does not include the formalities of grades, degrees, or certificates (Kahnwald, 2009). Different from these two types of learning, informal learning refers to experiential and accidental learning (Colardyn & Bjornavold, 2004). This type of learning has been recognized as a widespread phenomenon for 50 years (Clough, 2010). Informal learning has been considered a vital element of new learning environments (Ebner et al., 2010). Indeed, it is conceptualized a vital element of person s life cycle (Lucas & Moreira, 2009). An iceberg was used to represent a relationship between formal and informal learning by Coffield (2000a,b). According the illustration, informal learning was characterized by the two-thirds of the iceberg which is kept hidden from view. As for a definition of informal learning, it has been considered to be any learning that occurs outside the formal curricula of schools or other educational programs (Clough, 2010; Smaller, 2005). The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in its 2005 report defines informal learning as daily, work-related, family or leisure activities. Therefore, it is possible to assert that informal learning is not managed by any institution or curricula; rather, it is directed by individuals and their activities. In that sense, informal learning is not directed by any organized or structured objectives, time or learning support (OECD, 2005). Therefore, informal learning does not address educational objectives and results; rather, it focuses on practical objectives and purposes (Kahnwald, 2009). The category of informal learning was established by both John Dewey s and Malcolm Knowles s terminologies (Kahnwald, 2009). After these categorizations were made, many informal learning activities have been defined in the literature. Conversations, reading, watching TV, observing the world, experiencing an accident or embarrassing situation (Lucas & Moneira, 2009, p.327), observation, trial and error, asking for help, listening to stories, reflecting on a day s events, or stimulated by general interest (Cross, 2007; Selwyn, 2007 as cited in Dabbagh & Kitsantas, p.3) can be given as examples of such activities. Because informal learning depends on learners choices, it can be intentional, self-directed, unintentional or tacit (Clough, 2010) Social Media and Informal Learning In the literature, ICT, Web 2.0 and social software are often linked to informal learning (Kahnwald, 2009). As Greenhow and Robelia (2009) point out, these tools and applications give individuals an informal context for learning to complement and enhance formal learning processes and studies. Informal learning results from activities or products of social activities (Golding, Brown, & Foley, 2009). It takes places in many social contexts such as families, communities, and leisure activities (Golding et al., 2009). Because the web has transformed to a social platform, social software has been acknowledged as probable tools for fostering informal learning (Lucas & Moreira, 2009). As Madge et al. (2009) indicate, young generations especially use social media in the daily routines. It allows them to connect in a diverse range of places and social environments. Indeed, these applications have been regarded as learning tools outside of school by the many youth (Greenhow & Robelia, 2009). Social media software including many tools, applications, and services embodies appropriate technologies to provide support of different types of learning (Lucas & Moreira, 2009). Therefore, it is possible to assert that social media can be used to promote informal learning processes and experiences (Dabbagh & Kitsantas, 2012). Because talking and sharing resources with others, searching the internet, and experimenting with new techniques can be considered informal learning (Lohman, 2006), students might be involved in these processes with social media tools. Moreover, exploration -110-

117 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 of different learning channels, learning through exploring, wandering and finding the direction can be listed as functions that social software tools allow users to experience (Lucas & Moreira, 2009). In that sense, informal learning becomes a result of social knowledge through distributed by using tools (Lucas & Moreira, 2009). To date, an educational implication for social media has not emerged; nor has a utilization of the tools and software in the informal learning activities been thoroughly examined. Therefore, this research aims to explore social media tool utilization in the informal learning activities of students in the department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology (CEIT). To fulfill the stated research purpose, the following main research question was addressed: How are CEIT students using social media tools in the context of informal learning activities? Moreover, the following four sub-questions guided this research: How much time do CEIT students spend with social media? How often do CEIT students use social media tools to facilitate their informal learning activities? Which social media tools are preferred by CEIT students to fulfill specific informal activities? What are the barriers to the use of social media tools within students informal activities? Method 2.1. Participants The study was carried out in a state university with 357 student volunteers, 79.3% of the whole population (n=450), were in the department of CEIT. Of the 357 students, 143 were female whereas 214 were male. The demographics of the students are tabulated in Table 2. Table 2: Demographics of the students Grade Gender Total Female Male Total Overall Design and Instrumentation In order to reveal the utilization of social media tools for informal learning activities, a descriptive survey method was used. The descriptive survey method is used to analyze, interpret and report the present status of the subject matter or problem (Ariola, 2006:47). The questionnaire was developed by the researchers. Aside from demographic questions, the questionnaire was composed of three main parts addressing students social media usage, their social media preferences in the informal activities, and barriers to the use of social media tools in these activities. 18 popular social media tools (Facebook, MySpace, Linkedln, Youtube, Foursquare, Pinterest, Flickr, Twitter, Tumblr, WordPress, Blogger, Wikipedia, itunes, Second Life, Skype, MSN, Google Groups, RSS) and 6 major informal activities based on the Bartlett-Bragg s (2006) classification (networking, coaching, learning from experts or advisors, searching for solutions, informal distribution, and self-analysis or reflection) were integrated into the survey so as to identify social media tool preferences as well as the individual usage routines of the students. Lastly, the students were expected to -111-

118 The Utilization of Social Media Tools for Informal Learning Activities I. Yakin & I. E. Gencel write down four main barriers against their usage of social media tools. The quantitative data obtained through the survey was analyzed through with descriptive statistics. 3. Results 3.1 Social Media Usage The first and second research questions try to disclose the frequency and duration of use of students social media tools usage. The duration of social media tools usage is tabulated in Table 3. Table 3: The duration of social media tools usage Duration N % Less than 30 minutes minutes minutes minutes More than 120 minutes As seen in Table 3, the results indicated that in this sample of 357 students, 34.2 % of students reported using social media more than 2 hours in a day while 48% of them stated they spent an average of minutes per day using social media. The frequency of major social media tools use among students for informal activities is presented in Table 4. The Frequencies Facebook (n) Table 4: The frequency of social media tools use Social Media Tools Google Youtube Twitter Blogger Groups (n) (n) (n) (n) Wikipedia (n) Skype (n) Everyday Every 2-3 days Every 4-7 days Once a week Once a month Never According to Table 4, the most daily used social media tools for informal leaning activities are Facebook (82.4%), Youtube (69.5%), Google Groups (38.1%), and Twitter (27.2%). Although some tools such as Wikipedia and Skype are not used daily, the students did report using them regularly Social Media Tools Use Preferences for Informal Learning Activities The results of social media tools use preferences by CEIT students are presented in seven specific informal activities Networking The students major and minor social media tool preferences regarding networking are presented in Table

119 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Table 5: Preferred social media tools for networking Social Media Tools n % Facebook Twitter Skype Youtube MySpace 18 5 Linkedln 7 2 As can be seen in Table 5, Facebook (74.8%), Twitter (41.5%), Skype (40.9%), and Youtube (35.6%) are the most preferred social media tools to build and join social networks. The results also indicate that the students do not use some tools for informal learning activities although they are considered as networking tools in the literature. To illustrate, it is possible to assert that very few students prefer MySpace (5%) and Linkedln (2%) for networking in the social media Mentoring The students major and minor social media tool preferences in terms of mentoring are presented in Table 6. Table 6: Preferred social media tools for mentoring Social Media Tools n % Facebook Google Groups Youtube Skype Pinterest Table 6 shows that the most commonly used type of social media tools are Facebook with a rate of 35.3%, Google Groups with a rate of 28.3%, and Youtube with a rate of 21.6% for mentoring. Related to these matters it is certainly interesting to note that some sharing and messaging platforms which can be used to support and encourage people to manage their own learning are not commonly used. To illustrate, only 24 students are using Skype (6.7%) for these purposes. Similarly, only 2 students prefer Pinterest (0.6%) as a content sharing service for mentoring Learning from Experts or Advisors The students major and minor social media tool preferences in terms of learning from experts or advisors are presented in Table 7. Table 7: Preferred social media tools for learning from experts or advisors Social Media Tools n % Facebook Youtube Google Groups Wikipedia Twitter Skype According to Table 7 the rate of Facebook usage for learning from experts or advisors among students is 39.5%, and the rate of Youtube in the same group is 34.5%. These rates are 21.3% for Google Groups and 19.65% for Wikipedia. Twitter with the rate of 13.4% and Skype with the rate of 11.5% are used to communicate with experts or advisors. Responses given by students are indicated in Table

120 The Utilization of Social Media Tools for Informal Learning Activities I. Yakin & I. E. Gencel Searching for Solutions The students major social media tool preferences regarding networking are presented in Table 8. Table 8: Preferred social media tools for searching for solutions Social Media Tools n % Wikipedia Youtube Google Groups Blogger Facebook Wordpress As can be seen in Table 8 the students prefer using Wikipedia (54.9%), Youtube (37.3%), Google Groups (32.8%), and Blogger (15.1%) when they search solutions. Besides these social media tools, Facebook (13.7%) and Wordpress (12.6%) are also used for this purpose Information Distribution The students major and minor social media tool preferences regarding information distribution are presented in Table 9. Table 9: Preferred social media tools for information distribution Social Media Tools n % Facebook Youtube Wikipedia Google Groups Skype Myspace Linkedln Table 9 shows that Facebook (47.1%), Youtube (34.2%), Wikipedia (22.7%), and Google Groups (19.0%) are the most preferred social media tools to distribute information. Related to these matters it is certainly interesting to note that some sharing, messaging, social networking platforms which can be used to distribute information and knowledge are not used commonly. For example, Myspace (4.5%), Linkedln (2.5%), Pinterest (3.4%), and Skype (10.4%) are not preferred disseminating information Self-Analysis or Reflection Students responses regarding self-analysis or reflection given by students are indicated in Table 10. Table 10: Preferred social media tools for self-analysis or reflection Social Media Tools n % Facebook Youtube Twitter According to Table 10, 33.6% of the students surveyed use Facebook for self-analysis or reflection. While the rate of Youtube is 23.0% for this informal activity, 14.6% of the respondents prefer Twitter to comprehend their own personality, emotions, and behavior

121 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, The barriers against usage of social media tools Students responses regarding the main barriers against use of social media tools were grouped under two factors. While the first factor was related to psychological reasons, the second barrier had to do with technological factors. The main psychological barriers are tabulated in Table 11. Table 11: Psychological barriers Barriers n % I do not need it I am not interested in it I do not have time for it As seen in Table 11, a very high majority of the students (n=154) stated that they do not feel any necessity to use these tools. The other two stated reasons are not having an interest in the use of social media (26.1%) and not having enough time (15.4%). The technological barriers are presented in Table 12. Table 12: Technological barriers Barriers n % I use alternative ones I do not trust them They are not updated Table 12 shows that 15.4% of the students stated that they do not use some social media tools because they prefer alternative ones. According to the students responses, being unsafe (13.2%) and not being up-to-date (6.4%) are other technological reasons for nonuse of social media tools (Table 12). 4. Conclusion The aim of this study was to reveal the utilization of social media tools among CEIT students for their specific informal learning activities. In general, the results pointed out that Facebook, Youtube, Google Groups, Wikipedia, and Twitter are the most preferred social media tools. More specifically, Facebook is an important social media tool preferred by the majority of students to fulfill their informal learning activities. For example, networking, mentoring, learning from experts, information distribution, and self-analysis activities are managed through Facebook. These results are congruent with those given by Madge et al. (2009) states that Facebook is utilized informally by students for learning purposes such as connecting with their tutors and collaborating on group projects. Students also use Facebook to informally discuss their academic work and studies. They continue to assert that Facebook offers university students the chance to build informal learning space. Kert and Kert (2010) found that students have positive opinions about using Facebook as a learning environment. In doing so, social networking tools provide users the opportunity to share information about themselves with friends and others (Safko & Brake, 2009). This study also point out that besides Facebook, other social media tools are used for different purposes. In general, social software tools can be used to promote the development of communities and learning networks occurring unexpected learning processes due to the connections and interactions (Lucas & Moreira, 2009). Moreover, publishing tools support the management of online content through social media tools such as Wikipedia and WordPress (Safko & Brake, 2009). Webblogs and microblogs can be considered important representatives of social media technologies (Ebner et al., 2010). In the study, the students use -115-

122 The Utilization of Social Media Tools for Informal Learning Activities I. Yakin & I. E. Gencel mainly Wikipedia (% 54.9 of respondents) to find solutions. As for microblogging services, Twitter is becoming popular for informal activities such as self-analysis and networking. In general, information sharing, information seeking, friendship-wide relationships, changing ideas, and reflections are the functions which microblogging provides students and teachers using in educational context (Ebner et al., 2010). The results also pointed out that barriers for nonuse of social media tools can be grouped under two main categories, psychological and technological reasons. For many of the students surveyed, lack of necessity and preference for alternative social media were major barriers to specific media tool utilization. It is apparent that many factors may impact the use of and preference for social media tools to support informal learning activities. This study is limited to survey findings. Thus, future research should be conducted using qualitative and mixed methods to explore other barriers for nonuse of social media tools. Moreover, this study was conducted with a specific group of students and with a specific set of social media tools. Hence, the study results are highly dependent on this specific context. Therefore, the same study should be replicated within other contexts in order to validate the findings. Although informal learning activities are not limited to specific frameworks and classifications, the taxonomies regarding these activities have been developed by different researchers for different purposes. To illustrate, Clough, Jones, McAndrew, and Scanlon (2008) proposed the framework including the informal learning activities for mobile learning environment. According to their framework, referential, location aware, reflective, data collection, constructive and administrative have been defined as main categories. Although these extensive categories were developed for general utilization of the mobile technologies, individual, collaborative/distributed, and situated as qualifiers can also be investigated specifically on the social media tools. Moreover, new technologies such as tablets and smart phones should also be integrated to the informal learning research studies so as to reveal more about the practical utilization of social media tools. To conclude, in the literature, community building and its importance in society more generally, beyond formal learning, is increasingly being recognized. However, it still needs to be investigated how communities are developed and maintained within different technologies (Cook & Smith, 2004). Although the potential of social media tools and applications has been widely discussed for formal learning, the area regarding utilization of the tools in informal learning remains poorly represented in research. More specifically, informal activities conducted with the help of social media tools should be scientifically researched so as to understand how their utilization can be increased in the specific environments and contexts where they are most applicable. There is also a need to study shared understandings in preferences of social media tools for these perspectives. Acknowledgement This paper was presented in 7 th International Computer and Instructional Technologies Symposium on ICITS2013, Erzurum, Turkey. References Ariola, M. M. (2006). Principles and Methods of Research. Manila: Rex Book Store. Baran, E. (2013). Connect, participate and learn: Transforming pedagogies in higher education. Bulletin of the IEEE Technical Committee on Learning Technology, 15(1),

123 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Bartlett-Bragg, A. (2006). Reflections on pedagogy: Reframing practice to foster informal learning with social software, Retrieved from Clough, G. (2010). Geolearners: Location-based informal learning with mobile and social technologies. IEEE Transactions On Learning Technologies, 3(1), Clough, G., Jones, A.C., McAndrew, P., & Scanlon, E. (2008). Informal learning with PDAs and smartphones. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24(5), Coffield, F. (2000a). Differing Visions of a Learning Society Bristol: Polity Press. Coffield, F. (2000b). The Necessity of Informal Learning. Bristol: Polity Press. Colardyn, D., & Bjornavold, J. (2004). Validation of formal, non-formal and informal learning: policy and practices in EU Member States. European Journal of Education, 39(1), Cook, J., & Smith, M. (2004). Beyond formal learning: Informal community elearning. Computers & Education, 43, Cross, J. (2007). Informal learning: Rediscovering the natural pathways that inspire innovation and performance. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Dabbagh, N., & Kitsantas, A. (2012). Personal Learning Environments, social media, and self-regulated learning: A natural formula for connecting formal and informal learning. Internet and Higher Education, 15, 3-8. Ebner, M., Lienhardt, C., Rohs, M., & Meyer, I. (2010). Microblogs in Higher Education A chance to facilitate informal and process-oriented learning?. Computers & Education, 55, Golding, B., Brown, M., & Foley, A. (2009). Informal learning: a discussion around defining and researching its breadth and importance. Australian Journal of Adult Learning, 49(1), Greenhow, C., & Robelia, B. (2009). Informal learning and identity formation in online social networks. Learning, Media and Technology, 34(2), Kahnwald, N. (2009). Social Software as a Tool for Informal Learning, Retrieved from Kert, S. B., & Kert, A. (2010). The usage potential of social network sites for educational purposes. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 2 (2), Lohman, M. C. (2006). Factors influencing teachers engagement in informal learning activities. Journal of Workplace Learning, 18(3), Lucas, M., & Moreira, A. (2009). Bridging formal and informal learning A case study on students perceptions of the use of social networking tools. In U. Cress, V. Dimitrova & M. Specht (Eds.): EC-TEL 2009 (pp ). Berlin Heidelberg: Springer- Verlag. Madge, C., Meek, J., Wellens, J., & Hooley, T. (2009). Facebook, social integration and informal learning at university: It is more for socialising and talking to friends about work than for actually doing work. Learning, Media and Technology, 34(2), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2005). The Role of National Qualifications Systems in Promoting Lifelong Learning. Retrieved from Safko, L., & Brake, D. K. (2009). The social media bible: Tactics, tools and strategies for business success. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Smaller, H. (2005). Teacher informal learning and teacher knowledge: Theory, practice and policy. In N. Bascia, A. Cumming, A. Datnow, K. Leithwood, & D. Livingstone (Eds.), International handbook of educational policy (pp ). New York: Springer -117-

124 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at The teacher student relationship as a predictor of preschoolers social anxiety Neslihan Durmusoglu Saltali * Mevlana University, Faculty of Education, Preschool Education Department, Konya, Turkey. Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Teacher-child relationship, social anxiety, preschooler The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship of teacher-child relations and the social anxiety of the preschool child. Twelve preschool teachers provided socio-demographic data regarding children and themselves and rated their teacher student relations and candidate teachers rated preschool children s (n=169) social anxiety. In this study, the Student-Teacher Relation Scale, developed by Pianta and adapted into Turkish by Beyazkürk was used to assess teacher-student relations. The social anxiety sub-dimension of the Children s Behavior Assessment Scale developed by Şehirli was also administered. Students social anxiety score were negatively correlated with teacher-student relation closeness scores and positively correlated with teacher-student relationship conflict and dependence. A regression analysis indicated that the teacher-student relation was a significant predictor of children s social anxiety. The results of the study indicated that teacher-student relationship in the preschool period has an important effect on children s social anxiety. From the findings of this study, it can be inferred that intervention programs aiming at teachers professional advancement should consider student-teacher relationship as an issue to emphasize. Teachers should be encouraged to gain and use certain skills and methods which would enable them to establish warm and caring relationship with children in classroom. Introduction School is important for the socialization for students. One of the most important relationships students establish in the school environment is their relationships with teachers. The child s interaction with his teacher is important both for social development and for learning (Barret & Pahl, 2006). Relations established with children in the early childhood period form the basis for the interpersonal relations the children will establish in the future. According to attachment theory, relationships established in early childhood are influential on the child s perceptions of self and others (Beyazkürk & Kesner, 2005; Şahin & Anlıak, 2008). In terms of early period relationships, teachers seem to be the persons who the students meet after their parents and who have important influences in children. Pre-school children regard the teacher as the representative of parents at school (Tok, 2011). Children use their teachers as examples in many respects, including behavior, clothing, and even manner of walking (Yeşil, 2002). A growing body of literature suggests that developmental outcomes for children in schools * Correspondence: Mevlana University, Faculty of Education, Preschool Education Department, Konya, Turkey. [email protected]

125 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 depend on teacher-student relationship quality (Birch & Ladd, 1997; Birch & Ladd, 1998; Pianta, 1999; Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Hamre & Pianta, 2006). From the initial days of school, children trust their teachers and expect teachers to be understanding and encouraging toward themselves because teachers friendly and accepting attitudes form a basis for children to benefit from daily exchanges in classroom (Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Hamre & Pianta, 2006). An emerging body of literature suggests that student engagement is associated with teacherstudent relationship (Furrer & Skinner, 2003). Although researchers have described the term of student engagement differently, common definitions include the elements of collaborative participation, obedience to classroom rules and procedures, self-directedness, autonomy, perseverance, energy and desire to achieve (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004; Hughes, & Kwok, 2007). Teacher-child relationship studies have indicated that children s establishment of secure relation with their teachers during the early years is a good predictor of their future relations with peers and teachers (Kontos, & Wilcox-Herzog, 1997; Pianta, 2001). On the other hand, a child who does not have an intensively emotive relationship with his teacher, or a child who is in an insecure relationship with his teacher may suffer from feelings of isolation (Meesters & Muris, 2002; Beyazkürk, 2005). Studies on this issue are of great importance in terms of attracting teachers and academics to this issue and for the provision of supplementary activities that will develop the student-teacher relationship. In this study, the effects of teacher-student relationships on children s social anxiety were investigated. The definition of anxiety embodies several elements such as irrational tension and fears felt in response to so-called dangers and uncontrolled reactions to those feelings (Erol & Öner, 1999). The characteristic and type of anxiety can vary according to the developmental process of children (Swedo & Leonard, 2000). A child s being anxious to eat in a social setting or the anxiety related to speaking in social situations are considered to be social anxieties. According to Gümüş (2006), social anxiety is the feeling of disturbance and tension as a result of fears of behaving inappropriately in various social occasions, leaving a negative impression, or being judged negatively. Thus, socially anxious children feel a need not to behave in self-desired way because of the fear that other people will judge them negatively. These children avoid eye-contact and looking at someone s face, they prefer solitary play, show unwillingness to participate in group discussions and speak in front of people (Gülay, 2010). In the model developed by Rapee and Heimberg (1997) to explain social anxiety, it is maintained out that people with social anxiety problems start their life with excessively authoritarian or rejecting parents. According to this model, children infer that being positively judged by others is important (Sertelin Mercan, 2007). Social relations come to be reason for fear in children who receive these messages from their family. Individuals with social anxiety are afraid of and try to avoid as much as possible occasions that require social interaction (Köroğlu, 2006). Development of social anxiety may not only be related with family s attitudes and behaviors. Bronfenbrenner s (1979) ecological systems theory suggests that developing child is influenced by several factors. In ecological systems theory, microsystem includes individuals that the developing child is in close relationship. Those relationships are believed to contribute to social development of children and they protect children in risky situations (Hamilton et al., 2006). Based on this theoretical framework, teacher-child relations are examined in this study for determining whether those relationships predict social anxiety in preschool children

126 The teacher student relationship as a predictor N. Durmusoglu Saltali Social anxiety can play a role in the development of negative social behaviors; it can be the reason for social withdrawal or not being able to take part in peer activities (La Greca & Stone, 1993). There are different views about when social anxiety comes into being and which behaviors at which age are regarded as evidence of social anxiety. Based on studies on social anxiety in the pre-school period, it is possible to define social anxiety as showing fear, anxiety, and shyness in an exaggerated way in social relations with adults (Akan, 2001; Roza, Hofstra, Ende, & Verhulst, 2003; Şehirli, 2007). When the results of the findings that indicate social, emotional and behavioral disorders in early childhood are related with problem behaviors in the older ages, (Babinski, Hartsough, & Lambert, 1999; Eisenberg, Fabes, Murphy, Shepard, Guthrie, Mazsk, et al., 1999; Nelson, Martin, Hodge, Havill, & Kamphaus, 1999), it is important to determine social anxiety at early ages and reveal issues related with it. However, as a consequence of a lack of research, we know relatively little about social anxiety problems among preschoolers (Campbell, 1995). Therefore, it is believed that studies on the frequency of the incidences of social anxiety among pre-school children in terms of its varieties, reasons for anxiety, and the factors that affect anxiety will contribute to the literature in this field. Following from this point, the effect of teacher-student relationships on social anxiety in pre-school children was investigated. The main purpose of this study was to investigate teacher-student relations as predictors of social anxiety among a sample of Turkish preschoolers. Based on the previous literature, our research questions were: (1) What is the correlation between teacher-student relations and social anxiety? (2) How would the conflict between teacher and student predict the social anxiety of Turkish preschoolers? (3) How would the closeness between teacher and student predict the social anxiety of Turkish preschoolers? (4) How would the dependency of the student on the teacher predict the social anxiety of Turkish preschoolers? Method Participants The target population of this study was composed of preschool teachers and their students from the Konya city center during the academic year. Because both of the research instruments have to be completed by teachers, results may be biased; for this reason, two different teachers completed the instruments. Therefore, criterion (criterion sampling) method from purposeful sampling methods is used the determination of the sample of the study sample. Thus, study group has been recruited from the population that has pre-service trainee teachers in addition to a major teacher in classroom; finally 12 kindergarten classrooms constituted the study group. The study sample selection criteria is that pre-service trainee teachers who give opinion about children s social anxiety had to be working in the same classroom for at least one semester. After selecting the sample of the study, the researcher discussed with the teachers of selected classrooms about present study and teachers and pre-service trainee teachers stated their willingness to participate in research. Written permission was obtained from all parents whose children participated in the study. Twelve preschool teachers provided socio-demographic data and rated their teacher-student relations. Candidate teachers completed the instruments measuring social anxiety behaviors for each student (n=169 students). The children who took part in the study were aged between 60 to 72 months old (Mean=64.4; Sd= 1.2) and 89 of them were women and 80 were men. Nine of the teachers were female and three were male. The mean age of the teachers was 32.8 (sd=5.01), mean length of service was 7.7 years (sd= 4.2) and the average class size was 20.9 students (sd= 4.9)

127 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Instruments The Child Behavior Assessment Scale: The Child Behavior Assessment Scale was developed by Şehirli (2007) to measure undesired behaviors and emotional and behavioral disorders of 5 to 6 year olds. The five-point Likert type scale is completed by teachers based on their observations of the child. Instrument consists of 43 items and three sub-scales. These are: non-compliant behaviors, compliance and social anxiety. Cronbach s alpha was found to be.96 for the non-compliant behaviors sub-test,.93 for the compliance sub-test, and.88 for the social anxiety sub-set and.95 for the whole scale (Şehirli, 2007). In this study, the social anxiety sub-dimension of the scale which assesses children s fear, anxiety, shyness, and excitement in social environments was used. Social anxiety sub-scale used in this study includes 19 items. Student Teacher Relationship Scale STRS: The Student Teacher Relationship Scale (STRS) developed by Pianta (1996) is a five point Likert type scale formed of 28 items. It is applicable for students from preschool period to third grade. The scale is completed by teachers and has three sub-dimensions: conflict, closeness, and dependence (cited in Beyazkürk & Kesner, 2005). The conflict points of the scale include the behaviors of the child perceived as negative by the teacher and the negative interactions in the emotional dimension. High points of conflict indicate possible conflicts between the teacher and the student, an uncertainty about how the teacher will deal with such students emotionally or that the teacher cannot define himself as effective in this relationship. The closeness subscale includes paying attention to the child as required, being responsive and engaging in positive emotional interactions. High scores of closeness indicate that the teacher perceives this specific student to be a good students and the student considers the teacher as a supportive adult and uses him as an effective resource. The dependence subscale, on the other hand, includes the children's search for physical closeness and help, their negative emotional interactions and the teacher's highly responsive behaviors against some children. High scores of dependence indicate problems of children being excessively dependent on the teacher, such that the student would react violently when leaving the teacher and that the student may demand help although he does not need it (Beyazkürk, 2005; Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Kesner, 2002; Beyazkürk & Kesner, 2005). The reliability and validity assessment of the Student-Teacher Relationship Scale on Turkish sample have been provided by Beyazkürk (2005). According to the factor analysis results that have been made, it has been observed that the items in the scale have concentrated on three factors with 28 items basically similar to its original. Conflict factor is formed of eleven items with the sample item belonging to this factor being "This child will easily get angry with me". Closeness factor is formed of ten items with the sample item belonging to this factor being "I can share a warm relationship full of love with this child". Dependence factor is formed of seven items with the sample item belonging to this factor being "This child will give a violent reaction against leaving me". Cronbach alpha coefficients were calculated to determine that the internal consistencies of the scale were.84 for the conflict subscale,.80 for the closeness subscale,.72 for the dependence subscale and.86 for the total score (Beyazkürk, 2005). Data Analysis Student-teacher relationship scale was completed by teachers for each student. Social anxiety subscale of The Child Behavior Assessment Scale was completed by preservice trainee teachers for each student. Pearson product moment correlation analysis which was utilized to answer the first research question and compute bivariate correlations between the social anxiety and teacher-student relation scale sub-tests. In addition, the descriptive statistic related dependent and independent variable are presented in Table 1. Next, a multiple -121-

128 The teacher student relationship as a predictor N. Durmusoglu Saltali regression analysis was conducted. SPSS statistical software (version 15.0) and a significance level (p) of less than.05 were used for all of the statistical analyses. Results The effect of the teacher-student relationship on the social anxiety level in the preschool period was examined firstly by the relationship between the teacher-student relationship and social anxieties of the children and secondly by the multiple regression analyses regarding the regression of social anxieties of children by the teacher-student relationship. Descriptive statistics belonging to dependent and independent variants of the study and the results of the correlation analysis showing the results between these variants have been given in Table 1. Table 1. Bivariate Correlations among Interval Variables, Means and Standard Deviations N=169) Variable Conflict - 2. Closeness -,64** - 3. Dependence,44**,05-4. Social anxiety,36** -,46**,29** - 5. Mean Standard deviation Notes: * p <.05, **p <.01 When Table 1 is examined it is seen that the conflict point mean of children in the teacherstudent relationship is (sd=9.12); the closeness point mean is (sd=7.48); the dependence point mean is (sd=4.73) and the social anxiety point mean is (sd=14.11). When the relationship between variants is examined it is seen that there is a positive significant relationship between conflict between teacher-student and the social anxieties of the children (r=36, p<.01), a positive significant relationship between the dependence of the student on the teacher and the social anxieties of children (r=.29, p<.01) and there is a negative significant relationship between the closeness between teacher-student and social anxieties of children (r=.46, p<.01). Table 2. Multiple Regression Analysis on Children s Social Anxiety (N=169) Teacher-Student Relation Beta SH B T P Constant 70,51 8,14 8,66,00 Conflict -,39,16 -,25-2,37,02* Closeness -1,22,18 -,64-6,80,00*** Dependence 1,30,24,44 5,38,00*** Notes: R=.58 R 2 =.34 F (3/165) = * p <.05, **p <.01, ***p <.001. In order to know what degree the teacher-student relation predicted children s social anxiety, -122-

129 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 the multiple regression analysis was performed and statistical significance found between them (F (3/165) = 27.78, p<.001). It was found that all of the sub factors of the teacher-student relation (conflict, closeness, dependency) could explain %34 of the difference in the child social anxiety scores (R=.58, R 2 =.34). It was determined that in teacher-student relation conflict ( =-.25, p<.05), closeness ( =-.64, p<.05) and dependency ( =.44, p<.05) have model specific contributions. Discussion and Conclusion According to the study results, students social anxiety score were negatively correlated with teacher-student relation closeness scores and positively correlated with teacher-student relationship conflict and dependence. Besides, the results of regression analysis indicate that teacher-student relations significantly predict children s social anxiety. Preschool educational institutions are the educational environments in which children feel safe because they leave the family environment for the first time and spend a long period of time. In these environments, there are peers who he has not known before and a community formed by his teacher and he will be working as an individual for the first time without his parents. The preschool teacher is the first adult that a child has an authority relationship with after the people giving him primary care. When considered from this point of view, the teacher is important for the child on emotional terms. All the messages he derives from his relationship with his teacher such as appreciation will be initiated by the teacher. Likewise if a reprimand is to be given by the teacher, his perception regarding whether his teacher likes him or not is important for the child. It is important to remember, as suggested by Rapee and Heimberg (1997), that a child's perception is that "it is important to be positively appreciated by others". Given that this view provides the basis for social anxiety it is clear how the conflict that a teacher has with a child or how a closeness between them is important for the child. A teacher having a friendly relationship with the child, his avoiding entering into a power struggle and conflict with the child and making the child feel that he is aware of his positive behaviors and that he approves them will give the child a sense of safety in the classroom. With the studies that have been conducted and the relevant literature that has been examined, it is seen that a warm and close relationship between teachers and students can have positive effects on the social, emotional, behavioral and academic skills of the child (Howes & Smith, 1995; Ladd, Birch, & Buhs, 1999; Howes, 2000; Pianta & Stuhlman, 2004). Findings obtained by various researchers of preschool students, state that the conflict in relationships between teachers and students adversely affects the social relationship with peers, increases aggression and behavioral problems (Pianta & Steinberg, 1992; Pianta, 1994; Birch & Ladd, 1997) and positive relationships between teachers and students support the child's socialization (Raikes, 1996; Birch & Ladd, 1997; Kontos & Wilcox-Herzog, 1997; Pianta, 1999; Pianta & Stuhlamn, 2004) support the results of this study. One of the findings of the study is that a child's social anxiety increases as his dependence in the relationship with his teacher increases. When we consider this finding in a theoretical framework and examine the family structures of children with a high level of social anxiety, it has been determined that such children came from families which are overprotective and which have relationships with their children based on dependence. Takako (1994) states that the families of individuals with social anxiety are overprotective, excessively strict families which like to be in control but which can give only a limited amount of emotional support. Children raised in such family structure worry in social environments and fear making mistakes and being assessed negatively which limit the child's behavior in social environments (Cited by Erkan, 2002). Given such a family structure, when the child starts his preschool education the child may carry on a similarly dependent relationship with his -123-

130 The teacher student relationship as a predictor N. Durmusoglu Saltali teachers which may be one of the reasons of social anxiety that the child experiences. There are information in literature indicating that relationship between child and family influences the relationship that will be established between child and teacher (Pianta & Steinberg, 1992). The results of the study indicated that teacher-student relationship in the preschool period has an important effect on children s social anxiety. From the findings of this study, it can be inferred that intervention programs aiming at teachers professional advancement should consider student-teacher relationship as an issue to emphasize. Teachers should be encouraged to gain and use certain skills and methods which would enable them to establish warm and caring relationship with children in classroom. However, it is a limitation for this study to assess teacher-student relationship based on teacher reports. For this reason, supporting the study findings with different measurement scales would be useful. When rating their relationship with students, teachers may have given biased answers because of the feeling that they will be judged. For this reason, supporting the results of study with qualitative data relying on observation would be useful. Future studies examining the influential factors on social anxiety of preschool children would make great contribution to detailed understanding of this issue. Besides, based on research results, it can be suggested that school psychologists should identify children with high social anxiety and do interventions to reduce anxiety. In these interventions, school psychologists can use intervention programs like FRIENDS. In addition to this, due to preschool children s young ages, bibliotherapy, puppets, drawing, sandplay, games and method of cross age peer tutoring can be used (Campbell, 2003). It is recommended that teachers should be included in these interventions and interventions should involve activities that support intimacy between teacher and child, and activities that reduce independency and conflict. References Akan, G. A. (2001). The relationship between adjustment and behavioral disorders and selfesteem at age 7-12 child. Master thesis. Istanbul University: Social Sciences Institute. Babinski, L. M., Hartsough, C. S., & Lambert, N. M. (1999). Childhood conduct problems, hyperactivity- impulsivity and inattention as predictors of adult criminal activity. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 40(3), doi: / Barrett, P. M. & Pahl, K. M. (2006). School-based intervention: examining a universal approach to anxiety management. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 16(1), doi: /ajgc Beyazkürk, D. (2005). The effects of banking time intervention program on student-teacher relationships during preschool period. Doctorat thesis, Izmir: Ege University Social Sciences Instute. Beyazkürk, D., & Kesner, J. E. (2005). Teacher-child relationships in Turkish and United States schools: A cross-cultural study. International Education Journal, 6(5), Birch, S. H., & Ladd, G. W. (1997). The teacher-child relationship and children's early school adjustment. Journal of School Psychology, 35, doi: /S (96) Birch, S. H., & Ladd, G. W. (1998). Children s interpersonal behaviors and the teacher child relationship. Developmental Psychology, 34, doi: / Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press

131 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Campbell, S. B. (1995). Behavior problems in preschool children: A review of recent research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36(1), doi: /j tb01657.x Campbell, M.A. (2003). Prevention and intervention for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: A whole school approach. Australian Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 13, Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R.A., Murphy, B.C., Shepard, S., Guthrie, I.K., Mazsk, P., Poulin, R., & Jones, S. (1999). Prediction of elementary school children's socially appropriate and problem behavior from anger reactions at age 4-6 years. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 20(1), doi: /S (99) Eren Gümüş, A. (2006). A prediction of social anxiety based on self-esteem and dysfunctional attitudes. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 26, Erkan, Z. (2002). A study on adolescents level of social anxiety, parental attitude and the type of risk factors taking place in the families. Doctorat thesis, Adana: Cukurova University Social Sciences Institute. Erol, N., & Öner, Ö. (1999). New insights into anxiety. Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 6(1), Fredricks, J. A. & Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74: doi: / Furrer, C., & Skinner, E. (2003). Sense of relatedness as a factor in children s academic engagement and performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, doi: / Gülay, H. (2010). Peer relations in preschool period. Ankara: Pegem Akademi Publishing. Hamilton, S. F., Hamilton, M. A., Hirsch, B. J., Hughes, J., King, J., & Maton, K. (2006). Community contexts for mentoring. Journal of Community Psychology, 34, doi: /jcop Hamre, B., & Pianta, R. (2001). Early teacher child relationships and the trajectory of children s school outcomes through eighth grade. Child Development, 72, doi: / Hamre, B. K. & Pianta, R. C. (2006). Student-teacher relationships. In: Bear, George G. (Ed); Minke, Kathleen M. (Ed). Children's needs III: Development, prevention, and intervention, (pp ). Washington, DC, US: National Association of School Psychologists, x, 1106 pp. Howes, C. & Smith, E.W. (1995). Relations among child care quality, teacher behavior, children s play activities, emotional security, and cognitive activity in child care. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 10, doi: / (95) Howes, C. (2000). Social-emotional classroom climate in child care, child teacher relationships and children s second grade peer relations. Social Development, 9(2), doi: / Hughes, J., & Kwok, O. (2007). Influence of student teacher and parent teacher relationships on lower achieving readers engagement and achievement in the primary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, February; 99(1), doi: / Karadağ, E. (2009). Spiritual leadership and organizational culture: A study of structural equation model. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 9(3), Kesner, J. E. (2002). The personal side of teaching: Perceptions of teacher-child relationships. Journal of Early Education and Family Review, 9 (5),

132 The teacher student relationship as a predictor N. Durmusoglu Saltali Kontos, S., & Wilcox-Herzog, A. (1997). Teachers interactions with children: Why are they so important? Young Children, 52(2), Köroğlu, E. (2006). Our concerns-fears. Ankara: HYB Publishing. La Greca, A. M., & Stone, W. L. (1993). Social anxiety scale for children-revised: factor structure and concurrent va6lidity. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22 (1), Ladd, G., Birch, S., & Bush, E. (1999). Children s social and scholastic lives in kindergarten: Related spheres of influences? Child Development, 70, Meesters, C., & Muris, P. (2002). Attachment style and self-reported aggression. Psychological Reports, 90, Nelson, B., Martin, R. P., Hodge, S., Havill, V., & Kamphaus, R. (1999). Modeling the prediction of elementary school adjustment from preschool temperament. Personality and İndividual Differences, 26, Pianta, R. C., & Steinberg, M. (1992). Teacher-child relationships and the process of adjusting to school. New Directions for Child Development, 57, Pianta, R. C. (1994). Patterns of relationships between children and kindergarten kindergarten [Ger.,=garden of children], system of preschool education. Friedrich Froebel designed (1837) the kindergarten to provide an educational situation less formal than that of the elementary school but one in which children's creative play instincts would be teachers. Journal of School Psychology, 32, Pianta, R. C. (1999). Enhancing relationships between children and teachers. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Pianta, R.C. (2001). Students, teachers, and relationship support: Professional manual. U.S.A.: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. Pianta, R. C., & Stuhlman, M. W. (2004). Teacher child relationships and children s success in the first years of school. School Psychology Review, 33 (3), Raikes, H. (1996). A secure base for babies: Applying attachment concepts to the infant care setting. Young Children, 51 (5), Rapee, R.M., & Heimberg, R.G. (1997). A cognitive-behavioral model of anxiety in social phobia. Behavior Research and Therapy, 35, Roza, S. J., Hofstra, M. B., Ende, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2003). Stable prediction of mood and anxiety disorders based on behavioral and emotional problems in childhood: a 14-year follow-up during childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. The American Journal Of Psychiatry, 160 (12), Sertelin Mercan, Ç. (2007). The effect of social skills education program integrated with cognitive behavioral approach on social anxiety level of adolescents. Doctorate thesis. Istanbul: Istanbul University Social Sciences Institute. Swedo, A. S., & Leonard, L. H. (2000). Child passes, all problems from infancy through adolescence that may require intervention. Transl.: Nilgun ERZIK. Istanbul: Epsilon Publishing. Şahin, D. & Anlıak, Ş. (2008). Pre-school children's perception of the relationship established by teachers. Journal of Educational Sciences and Practice, 7(14): Şehirli, N. (2007). Developing child behaviour checklist and evaulating according to some variables. Master thesis, Ankara: Gazi University Educational Sciences Institute. Tok, M. (2011). Evaluating the implications of relationships perceptions of preschool children and teachers on behaviors. Master thesis, Izmir: Ege University Social Sciences Institute. Yeşil, R. (2002). Human rights and democracy education in schools and families. Ankara: Nobel Publishing

133 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at Assessing the oral English proficiency of the Faculty of Fountain international School: Inputs to in-service training Yusuf Ozdemir* Mevlana (Rumi) University, Faculty of Education, Department of English Language Teaching, Konya, Turkey Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Oral, English, proficiency, service, teacher, test This descriptive-correlation study attempted to assess and correlate the level of oral English proficiency and selected profile variables of 79 faculty of the Fountain International School (Philippines), consisting of 8 pre-elementary school, 29 elementary school and 42 high school teachers. A researcher-made questionnaire consisting of 25 items which were content validated covers five (5) dimensions, namely; pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, fluency and intonation. The assessment was made by the unit head, peers and the teachers themselves, including selected students in the case of elementary and high school teachers. The obtained raw data were treated statistically using the percentage, weighted mean, ration coefficient, and point biserial coefficient of correlation. Likewise, the ANOVA was used to test the significant difference in the assessment of the groups of respondents. From the findings revealed in the study, the researcher is moved to conlcude that pre-elementary, elementary and high school teachers of the school respondent are much proficient in their oral English, with varying level of proficiency. Also apparent from the findings has lead to construing that the high school teachers are more proficient than the elementary and pre elementary teachers. Their level of proficiency varies in relation to their profile. Among others, fluency and vocabulary need to be emphasized in teachers in service training. Introduction English is dubbed as an international language. It is the language of economy, diplomacy, industry, education, sports and the like. It is the world s language. It is spoken as a native language by developed countries like the United States, United Kingdom, Australia and Canada which are the dictators of language that has to be spoken universally. It is also considered as a second language by other countries like the Philippines. A lot of people today are learning the language especially those countries where English is considered a foreign language. As Roland J. Breton, a geolinguist from the University of Paris states: The spread of English may be seen as a positive development which saves resources and makes cultural exchange easier. After all, it might be said, the advance of English is not aimed at killing off local language or languages. And over several generations, the most useful language eliminates the others. Furthermore, voices calling for multicultural education, long in the background of education, * Correspondence: Mevlana (Rumi) University, Faculty of Education, Department of English Language Teaching, Konya, Turkey, [email protected]

134 Assessing the oral English proficiency of the Faculty of Fountain international School Y. Ozdemir are growing more audible in the mainstream, and new voices are joining the chorus. Multicultural education owes its momentum to a variety of interrelated factors. Foremost among these factors is society's burgeoning demographic diversity, which is reflected in the nation's schools. In 1984, approximately one in four school children were minority students. By 2020, that figure likely will increase to nearly one in two, and many of these students will be poor (Pallas, Natriello, & McDill, 1989). Compounding this demographic phenomenon is the academic underachievement of many minority students. Such relative low achievement is attributable to a complex configuration of causes, one cause being the lack of equity of opportunity to learn. Jones and Fennimore (1990). They noted that schools do not legitimize the knowledge or experiences these [minority] children bring to school. To address these issues, Banks (1991a) notes the importance of integrating multicultural education within the teacher education curriculum. According to him an effective teacher education policy for the 21st century must include as a major focus the education of all teachers, including teachers of color, in ways that will help them receive the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to work effectively with students from diverse groups. Background of the Study Fountain International School, which is the researcher s school, is committed to the realization of a dream to provide the youth with an authentic learning environment that would make them acquire solid competencies in critical thinking, creative problem solving, consensus building, informed decision making and technical literacy. It is a co-educational reload with diverse multi-cultured students. However, it emphasizes English as a second language (for non-speakers of English), English conversational fluency and Turkish as a foreign language which are non-academic subjects. The teachers are dominated by Filipinos and Turkish and the researcher would like to actually verify the level of speaking proficiency in English. The researcher is motivated to elevate their skills in teaching by means of measuring some of their communicative competence specifically speaking. Their levels in this particular competence should be measured first before enhancing more of their communicative as well as their teaching abilities in this area of language. It is on this premise that this study was undertaken. Theoretical Framework The theoretical foundation of this study was taken from the theory of communicative competence by Canale and Swaine (1980). They define communicative competence in terms of four components: grammatical competence: words and rules sociolinguistic competence: appropriateness, discourse competence: cohesion and coherence, strategic competence: appropriate use of communication strategies A more recent survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides it into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence," which includes both sociolinguistic and "illocutionary" competence. Strategic Competence is associated with the interlocutors' ability in using communication strategies (Faerch & Kasper, 1983; Lin, 2009)

135 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Through the influence of communicative language teaching, it has become widely accepted that communicative competence should be the goal of language education, central to good classroom practice. This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority. The understanding of communicative competence has been influenced by the field of pragmatics and the philosophy of language concerning speech acts as described in large part by John Searle and J.L. Austin (2008). Communicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology, lexicon, discourse and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately. The term was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966, reacting against the perceived inadequacy of Noam Chomsky's (1965) distinction between competence and performance. To address Chomsky's abstract notion of competence, Hymes undertook ethnographic exploration of communicative competence that included "communicative form and function in integral relation to each other" (Leung, 2005). Research Paradigm The research paradigm (Fig. 1) clearly reflects the research flow which guided this researcher in conducting the study. The legend explicitly identified the groups that assessed the oral English proficiency of Prep, Elementary and High School Teachers, separately, as shown in the three (3) rectangular boxes in the middle of the frame. It will be noted that selected grade VI pupils are included among the four (4) groups asked to assess the oral English proficiency of their teachers. Figure 1. Research Paradigm Likewise, in the high school level, selected fourth (4 th ) year students are included; this was done to eliminate bias in the self-assessment done by the teachers-respondents who are the -129-

136 Assessing the oral English proficiency of the Faculty of Fountain international School Y. Ozdemir main subjects of this study. The heavy lines numbered 8, 9 and 10 indicate relationship while the broken lines numbered 3, 4 and 7 indicate differences in the assessment of the groups concerned. The expected output as shown in the last frame is the proposed in- service training program on oral English proficiency, based on the result of the study Statement of the Problem This study assessed the oral English proficiency of pre-elementary, elementary and high school teachers of Fountain International School as basis for in-service training activities. Specifically it sought to answer or provide information on the selected demographic profiles of the teacher-respondents and their levels of oral English proficiency as assessed by the school head, peers and themselves in terms of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and intonation. To have statistical bearing, the researcher made corresponding tests of significant differences in the assessment of the three groups of respondents as to their levels of oral English proficiency. Further, in here attempts to correlate the profile variables of the respondents and their levels of oral English proficiency are made. Considering these all premises, the query as to what in service training to improve the oral English Proficiency of the teachers in FIS can be proposed is timely answered. Scope and Delimitation The study centered on the assessment of the level of the oral proficiency in English in terms of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency and intonation of pre elementary, elementary and high school teachers. This is speaking which is one of the macro skills in communication. It does not measure the other macro skills which are listening, reading and writing. The number of participants of the study is limited to 79 teachers of Fountain International School which has three branches Greenhills, Pinaglabanan and in Zamboanga del Sur. All the teachers/respondents are teaching for the school year To reduce the bias in the self-assessment, peers, representative s heads and selected students were also asked to assess the target respondents. Method This chapter includes the research design, the respondents, research instruments, data gathering procedure and the statistical treatment of data. Research Design The researcher used descriptive correlational research design employing both qualitative and quantitative approaches, to provide detailed information and understanding of the study. According to Fraenkel (2006), correlational research is a form of descriptive research because it describes existing relationship between variables. This design also includes identifying, analyzing, interpreting, and testing the difference on relationship among variables. First, a quantitative analysis of the teachers/respondents profile was made. Second, a qualitative analysis and interpretation of the teachers/respondents assessments of the oral English proficiency, leading to the final results was done

137 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Population, Sample and Sampling Techniques The researcher utilized all the 79 teachers of Fountain International School as main subject of the study. They are teaching preparatory, elementary and high school. Other participants who were asked to assess the oral English proficiency of the subject teachers were the head teachers, peers and students, in the case of elementary and high school levels, no sampling techniques was used since all the teachers and students assessors were involved of the 79 subject teachers, 33 are from Zamboanga unit of Fountain International Schools and 46 are from the two Fountain Schools in Metro Manila. Research Instrument The main instrument that was used in gathering data is a researcher made questionnaire. It is a 25- item multiple choice survey created to measure oral English proficiency. The self-rating questions are divided into five categories: (a) pronunciation (b) grammar (c) vocabulary (d) fluency (e) intonation, the researcher based the items in questionnaire from the reviewed literature and suggestions of English experts. The research instrument was validated by a pool of experts; language professors and tested for reliability through a dry-run. Data Gathering Procedure After the instrument was validated and finalized, data gathering started first week of January 2011, upon the resumption of classes. The researcher who is the Director of the School, gathered all the faculty members from Greenhills and Pinaglabanan units, they were oriented on the purpose of the survey, after which they accomplished the questionnaire which were immediately retrieved by groups. For the student assessors, in the case of grade six and fourth year students, assessment was done with the help of the teacher adviser. For Zamboanga participants, the research questionnaires were mailed to the school and were managed by the principal and sent back to Greenhills where the researcher holds office. Statistical Treatment of Data For the purpose of this study, the following statistical techniques were used: Frequency and Percentage, Weighted mean, F-test, Point- Biserial Coefficient of Correlation, and Ratio Coefficient of Correlation. To interpret the weighted mean, a 5- point likert scale was used observing the following: Scale Range Verbal Interpretation Very Much Proficient Much Proficient Proficient Less Proficient Least Proficient The qualitative interpretation of the degree of linear relationship existing is shown in the following range of values: -131-

138 Assessing the oral English proficiency of the Faculty of Fountain international School Y. Ozdemir ±1.00 ±0.91- ±0.99 ±0.71- ±0.90 ±0.51- ±0.70 ±0.31- ±0.50 ±0.01- ±0.30 perfect positive (negative correlation) very high positive (negative) correlation high positive (negative) correlation moderately positive (negative) correlation low positive (negative) correlation negligible positive (negative) correlation Results and Discussion This chapter includes the presentation, analysis and interpretation of data on the assessment of oral English proficiency of pre-elementary; elementary and high school teachers of Fountain International School basis for faculty in-service training. For consistency, the presentation of data follows the order in which the specific problems and the research hypotheses are presented in statement of the problem section. Profile of pre-elementary, elementary and high school teachers respondents in terms of age, gender, civil status, years in teaching, education, language use and nationality. It is found out that according to age, majority, 29 or 31 percent belong to the age bracket of 26-30; 20 or 25 percent are within percent; 11 are in bracket 4 and above. For the gender, 49 or 62 percent are males and 30 or 38 percent are female. Considering their civil status, 50 or 63 percent are married and 29 or 27 percent are single. Meanwhile, in terms of years of teaching, 32 or 40 percent are in 6-10 years; 21 or 26 percent are in bracket 1-5 years; and 18 or 22 percent are in bracket years. It is also revealed that in terms of the respondents education, all the 79 respondents are bachelors degree in education either preschool, elementary or high school. The top 3 majors are Science, English and Math. All the 8 pre-school teachers have units in Early Childhood Education. As to the native language used, four (4) of 5 percent are native speakers of English; 31 or 39 percent are Filipino speakers and 44 or 56 percent speak Turkish. Gleaning further, according to their nationalities, it is apparent that majority of the teachers are Turkish, 44 or 56 percent; 31 or 39 percent are Filipino; and 4 or 5 percent are Americans. Level of oral English proficiency of pre-elementary teachers as assessed by the school head, peers and pre-school teachers themselves. The overall level of oral English proficiency of pre-school teachers is described as much proficient with a composite mean of Receiving the highest mean are grammars and intonation (3.50) and the lowest is fluency (3.43). There is significant difference in the assessment of the level of oral English proficiency of pre-elementary teachers made by the head, peers and the teachers themselves. Table 1: Summary of Values on the significant difference in the Assessment of the Three Groups of respondents of the Oral English Proficiency of the Pre-Elementary Teachers Computed F Value F Critical value Decision Reject Ho Level of Significance

139 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) the computed F is 9.59 which is greater than the F critical value of 3.12 and therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference is rejected. This means that the assessments of the peers, unit head and the teachers differ as regards the oral English proficiency of pre-school teachers along the five dimensions of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency and intonation. Comparing the assessment of the three groups the unit head gave lower ratings than the peers and the teachers themselves. This appears to validate the assessment made since the unit head of the pre-school has direct supervision over the preschool teachers inside and outside the classroom. Through classroom observations, pre-school teachers oral discourse and interaction with multi-cultural pupils can be readily assessed objectively by the unit head. Level of oral English proficiency of elementary teachers as assessed by the principal, peers, grade six pupils and the elementary teachers themselves. On the whole, the level of oral English, proficiency of elementary teachers in terms of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency and intonation is described as much proficient with an overall mean of 3.79, the highest being intonation (3.83) and the lowest is fluency (3.71). There is no significant difference in the assessment of the level of oral English proficiency of elementary teachers as assessed by the four (4) groups. Table 2. Summary of F-test Values showing the significant difference in the assessment of the four of respondents in the oral English proficiency groups of the Pre Elementary School Teachers F computed value F Critical value Decision Reject Ho Level of Significance 0.05 As shown on the table, the computed F value of is greater than the F critical value of 2.69, suggesting the rejection of the null hypothesis of no significant difference. Therefore it can be concluded that the four (4) groups the principal, peers, students and the teachers themselves significantly differ in their assessment of the oral English proficiency of Elementary teachers. Mostly the assessment of the head and the students appears to be slightly lower than that of the teachers themselves, thus the element of bias is reduced. Based on the obtained data, it appeared that in almost all the five (5) dimensions of oral English proficiency, the assessment of the unit head and the students are a few points lower than the teachers themselves, tending to prove that the receiver of the message is in a better position to assess the oral English proficiency of the elementary teacher, more so if one is speaking in a second language, which in this case is English. Level of oral English proficiency of high school teachers as assessed by the principal, peers, fourth year students and the high school teachers themselves. The level of the oral English proficiency of high school teachers can be summed up as much proficient with a composite mean of The lowest dimension with an overall mean of 3.76 are vocabulary and fluency while the highest is intonation (4.08)

140 Assessing the oral English proficiency of the Faculty of Fountain international School Y. Ozdemir There is significant difference in the assessment of oral English proficiency of high school teachers as assessed by the principal, peers, fourth year students and the teachers themselves. Table 3.Summary of F-test values showing the significant difference in the assessment of the four groups of respondents in the level of oral English Proficiency of High School Teachers F computed value F Critical value Decision Reject Ho Level of significance 0.05 Using the analysis of variance (ANOVA), the computed F is 9.91 which is greater than the F critical value 2.70, supporting the decision of rejecting the null hypothesis. Therefore, there is significant difference in the assessment by the four groups on the oral English proficiency of high school teachers. Although the verbal interpretations of the obtained measure in the assessment made by the four (4) groups are generally the same as much proficient it is evident that the student respondents and head gave lower ratings than the teachers. Since many high school students come from multi-cultural backgrounds with diverse sociolinguistic orientations they seem to find difficulty in adjusting to the oral discourse of their teachers. Significant difference between the level of oral English proficiency of pre-school teachers and their profile variables. Age, education, years of teaching has low positive correlation. Gender and civil status have negligible correlation, and Language and nationality have moderate correlation. All profile variables have significant relationship to the level of oral English proficiency at varying degree of linear correlation. Significant relationships between the levels of oral English proficiency of elementary teachers and their profile variables. Age and years of experience have negligible negative correlation. Gender, civil status, language and nationality have negligible positive correlation. Education has very high positive correlation. There is significant relationship between the level of oral English proficiency of elementary teachers and their profile variables at various degree of linear relationship. Significant relationship between level of oral English proficiency on high school teachers and their profile variables. Age and years of experience showed negligible negative correlation. There is no significant relationship. Gender, civil status and education revealed negligible positive correlation, while language and nationality registered low positive correlations. All profile variables except age and years of experience, have significant positive relationship to the level of oral English proficiency of high school teachers. Based on the findings, the researcher proposes in-service training to improve oral English proficiency of the teachers Proposed Framework of In-Service Training on Oral English Proficiency for Preschool, Elementary and High School Teachers of Fountain International School -134-

141 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Rationale This proposed framework consists of two levels, each level to be accomplished in a 5-day inhouse training using the school s speech laboratory. Aside from the findings of this study which will serve as anchors of this framework, the researcher who is also the school Director will seek the help of the American special English teacher to conduct a more in-depth needs assessment of the teachers with regards to oral communication skills, as basis for classifying their level of training. Objectives of the Training For Level 1: To provide a language learning environment for the acquisition of basic oral English skills Attain high level of intelligibility in speech through correct pronunciation, intonation, fluency and proper use of words Interact and converse freely with ease and confidence For Level 2: To augment and improve upon the skills acquired in level 1 (a) Make oneself understood by other speakers with ease. (b) Participate and discuss wide range of topics effortlessly. (c) Speak before an audience and express oneself effectively. III. Strategies/Activities Area of Concern A. For Pre-school and Elementary school Teachers (assumed to be in level I) Fluency Intonation Vocabulary enhancement Grammar Pronunciation (Based on weaknesses revealed in the study) B. For High School Teachers (level 2) Fluency Vocabulary Pronunciation Grammar Intonation (based on priority weaknesses as revealed in the study) Strategies/ Activities Eclectic Methodology using a variety of instructional device, classrooms procedures, multimedia devices. Use variety of Instructional materials, classroom modes such as simulation, role playing, small group discussion, debates, public speaking Use of programmed TESOL materials Reflection journals for selfevaluation IV. Evaluation Evaluation for both levels is through performance test. Level 1 Level 2 1. Recorded speech of individual teachers 1. Group discussion (by 4 s) 2. Impromptu speech 2. Public speaking -135-

142 Assessing the oral English proficiency of the Faculty of Fountain international School Y. Ozdemir 3. Group discussion (by 4 s) Conclusions and Recommendations Conclusions Based on the findings, the researcher analytically concluded that in terms of their demographic profiles, the teachers-respondents can be described as young, married, mostly male, experienced and educationally qualified. Most of them are Turkish and Filipino teachers. It is also concluded that the oral English proficiency of the respondents across all levels can be described as much proficient and the assessments made for this vary accordingly. Further, it is concluded that pre-elementary, elementary and high school teachers profile and their level of oral English proficiency have varying degrees of relationship. Recommendations Based on the findings and conclusions, the following are recommended: (1) Since pre-school and elementary teachers appear to have lower level of oral English proficiency, the school administrator should provide more intensive training for this group, particularly on fluency, vocabulary and grammar. (2) High School teachers with major in English or native speakers of English should be tapped as trainers or hire professionally trained English trainers from service providers such as Speech Powers. (3) In hiring new teachers, give oral English Proficiency Test or its equivalent. (4) If funds permit send special English teachers for further training in English Language Center to become the school trainer. (5) Encourage teachers to take TESOL test on line. (6) Encourage teachers to join the Toastmasters Club to enhance their oral English proficiency. (7) For further research the oral English proficiency of high school students from diverse culture is proposed. References: Bachman, L. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN Canale, M. and Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics 1, Canosa, Evelyn G (1992), Factors Affecting the oral English Proficiency of Teachers of English, Unpublished Dissertation, Xavier University, Cagayan de Oro City. Chomsky, N. (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Fries, Charles C. (1995) Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign language University of Michigan Press. U.S. Gunio, Butch (2004) Not Just Knowledge of English, Have a command of It, Sunday Panorama, Manila Bulletin. Hymes, D.H. (1966) "Two types of linguistic relativity." In W. Bright (ed) Sociolinguistics pp The Hague: Mouton

143 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Hymes, D.H. (1971). On communicative competence. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Lucas, Tamra, Integrating Students of Limited English Proficiency, Adobe Acrobat Com. Leung, C. (2005). Convival Communication: recontextualizing communicative competence. International Journal of Applied Linguistics. Vol. 15, No.2, Lin, G.H.C.(2009). A case study about communication strategies.changhua, Taiwan: Shinshin Press.< Retrieved from " Communicative_competence Categories: Sociolinguistics Language acquisition McDowell, Elizabeth D.(1998)New York, Columbia University Murcia, Marianne-Celce (2006) Teaching English as a Second Language or Foreign Language, 3 rd Edition Thomson Asian Edition Osborn, Michael M (1998) Why Communication is Important, University of Memphis, USA. Paterno, Adelaida (2003). Handbook for Oral Readers of English as a Second Language. Manila, Rex Book Store Poja, Djoana P. (2006) Students, oral communication Background and their Difficulties in English; Basis for Remediation, Unpublished Dissertation, Trinity University of Asia, Quezon City Savignon, S.J. (1997). Communicative Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2nd edition. Tacaban, Kathlin B. Public School Teachers Characteristics as determinants of the academic achievements of their pupils: Basis for Faculty enhancement -137-

144 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at The Effects of Teachers Educational Technology Skills on Their Classroom Management Skills. Ilhan Varank* Yildiz Technical University, College of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology Istanbul/Turkey Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: classroom management, educational technology, experience, gender, teacher Savaş Ilhan Master Student Because technology integrations require changes in instructional processes it may require different approaches for classroom management. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether teachers educational technology skills, besides their gender and years of experiences, significantly explain their classroom management skills. The data was gathered from 300 elementary school teachers in a mid-western city of Turkey. It was found that teachers' educational technology skills and their years of experiences were significantly associated with their course management skills, behavior arrangement skills and activity management skills. The finding of non-significant effects of teachers gender on their subordinate classroom management skills are supported by previous research. The finding that experience may be expected to be an important predicting factor for occupational proficiency may be explained by the opportunities teachers may have to develop themselves in occupational skills during their career. Teachers with high perceptions of educational technology self-skills have high perceptions of classroom management skills. This result may be attributed to the experience in the use of educational technology. Introduction Significance of using technology in classroom has been well investigated in numerous research studies (Lemke, Coughlin, & Reifsneider, 2009). Results of those studies have led large scale technology integration projects at schools in different countries. However, because the technology integrations require changes in instructional processes (i.e. from teachercentered instruction to student-centered one) (Mucherah, 2003), it may also require different approaches for classroom management. Classroom management has different dimensions, which may be affected by or may affect technology integration in instruction, such as arrangement of physical environments, arrangement of program activities and behavior management. Arrangement of physical environments deals with organizing and controlling factors in classroom environments including illumination, heating, cleanness, noise, aesthetic, instructional materials and seating * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel: ; Fax:

145 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 arrangements. Physical arrangements of a classroom are made for students comfort to facilitate learning. Arrangement of program activities is effectively planning and implementing instructional processes including determining goals of instruction, selecting an appropriate content and conducting student evaluation. Program activities should correspond to students needs and interests. Behavioral arrangements are related to creating positive classroom climates supporting and reinforcing desired students behaviors and changing the undesired ones. Also, teachers with behavioral arrangements skills direct students to follow classroom rules and prevent undesired behaviors by figuring out potential problems earlier (Gürsel, Sarı and Dilmaç, 2004; Başar, 1997, 1999; Erçetin and Özdemir, 2004). Teacher authority and control are major factors that affect classroom atmosphere when educational technology is used. Reviewing the literature on technology integrations in instruction and factors preventing the integrations, Wang and Reeves (2003) contended that teachers have concerns of losing their authority in the classroom, besides other concerns such as inadequate number of computers available in the classroom and difficulty of using software programs. For instance, it is observed that if teachers conduct their courses with teachercentered methods instead of student-centered ones discipline problems occur in technologyintegrated classrooms where teachers are expected to exhibit different roles and classroom control approaches (Mucherah, 2003). Classroom management approaches may change according to types and ways of using technology. For instance, if educational game software is used in classroom, students may play the game only for entertainment. Moreover, teachers should strictly oversee students playing multiuser games because they may show undesirable behaviors towards each other, which affect classroom management (Green and McNeese, 2007). Utilizing technology in education may contribute to classroom management by motivating students and helping them gain necessary educational goals targeted. Specifically, multimedia provides a significant support for teachers to motivate students towards courses (Özan and Özdemir, 2010). Instructional materials facilitate students perceptions, arouse their interests in instruction, reduce teacher-centered instructional time and stimulate their desires to explore (Aslan and Doğdu, 1993). In another study where a different technology was used, the effects of an electronic meeting system, as an instructional medium in a high school, were investigated. The purpose to use the system was to create an active and collaborative learning environment. It was found that less discipline problems occurred in the classrooms where the system was used compared to the ones where the system was not used (Brandt and Lonsdale, 1996). Importance of in-service teacher training programs in this context is emphasized. Developing an effective expertise in classroom management is essential for effective technology integration. Therefore, teacher technology training programs should provide knowledge and skills to successfully manage classrooms (Sandholtz, Ringstaff and Dwyer, 1990). Vannetta and O Bannon (2002) developed a technology dissemination model. According to this model, training teachers for classroom management is necessary besides other requirements, such as creating a common vision, creating team works among teachers to support each other in technology integrations and articulating long term expectations about technology integrations. As Muir-Herzig (2004) pointed out that such models must include modules for in-service training programs where teachers will be able to gain classroom management skills specifically for technology-integrated classrooms. Also, teachers should be provided with appropriate models that help them better perform environmental arrangements, a dimension of classroom management (Bayram, 2006)

146 The Effects of Teachers Educational Technology Skills I. Varank & S. Ilhan If teachers assume students can complete their classroom work by themselves and do not change their classroom management approaches in technology-integrated classrooms, problems may occur (Ertmer, 1999) because bad classroom management is a factor that prevents teachers from using computers as an instructional tool besides other factors such as curriculum, insufficient technology infrastructure and students test results (Mucherah, 2003). The purpose of this study was to investigate whether teachers educational technology skills significantly explain their classroom management skills particularly in the Turkish context. More specifically, the following research question was investigated in this study: Do teachers gender, years of experiences, and educational technology skills significantly explain their classroom management skills? Method Participants The study was conducted with public school teachers in a mid-western city of Turkey. First, the researchers contacted school principals of 34 elementary schools, which made of all the public elementary schools in the city. With their assistance, a total of 450 elementary school teachers in the 34 elementary schools were invited to participate in the study. Surveys were left to the principals and later collected from them. Among the 450 elementary school teachers, 300 completed and returned the surveys. Table 1: Distributions of teachers by gender. Gender N % Male Female Total As seen in Table 1, 147 (49%) of the participants were males and 153 (51%) were females. Table 2 shows the frequencies and percentages for years of experiences. Approximately, onefourth of the teachers had 1-6 years of experiences, one-fourth had 7-12 years of experiences, one-fourth had years of experiences and the remaining had 19 or more years of experiences. Table 2: Distributions of teachers by years of experiences. Y. of Experience N % More than Instruments A short questionnaire and two surveys were used to gather data for the study. The short questionnaire included questions about socio-demographic characteristics of the teachers including gender, and years of experiences. The surveys were Application-Based -140-

147 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Educational Technology and Material Development Skills Survey and Classroom Management Skills Survey. Application-Based Educational Technology and Material Development Skills (AETMDS) Survey. This survey was developed by Varank and Ergün (2008) and has been used in various studies (Akgül, 2008; Varank, 2011). The survey has a total of 45 items measuring teachers' perceptions of their application-based educational technology and material development skills. Some of the items in the survey are: Being able to prepare simple learning materials that are original and economical, using readily available resources and environmental conditions in instruction, being able to properly use flipcharts in lessons, being able to properly use overhead projectors in instruction, and being able to teach a lesson using instructional techniques appropriate for the skill/subject taught. Using a 4-point Likert scale, teachers respond to each item to indicate to what extent they perceive that they have the skills given in the item, with 1= strongly disagree and 4= strongly agree. Possible scores teachers receive on AETMDS Survey ranged between 45 and 180. Higher score on the survey indicates higher level of perception about their skills. Its alpha reliability coefficient was found to be.94 in a previous study by Varank (2011). Classroom Management Skills Survey. A new survey was developed to measure teachers' perceived classroom management skills. Initially, using the existing literature, three subordinate classroom management skills were determined: course management skills, behavior arrangement skills, and activity management skills. Then, a total of 50 items, 5 of which measuring the course management skills, 19 measuring the behavior management skills, and 26 measuring the activity management skills, were gathered. Some items of the survey were: I can engage all students in instructional activities (activity management), I can plan activity times well (activity management), I can reward positive behaviors appropriately (behavior arrangement), I can prevent noise that disrupts the class (behavior arrangement), I can complete my courses on time (course management) and I can use all of the classroom time for instruction (course management). Teachers rate to what extent they agree with the statements given in the items on a 5-point Likert scale. Scores for the three subordinate classroom management skills were computed. Possible scores on the survey of course management skills range between 5 and 25, behavior arrangement skills range between19 and 95, and activity management skills range between 26 and 130. Higher scores show higher perceptions in the related subordinate classroom management skills. Prior to administering the survey to all the teachers participating in the study, it was administered to 45 elementary school teachers and factor analyses were run in order to determine whether each item measures the construct of the survey of the each subordinate classroom management skill. The factor analysis yielded the three constructs with the expected items. Then, reliability analysis was conducted separately for the survey of the each subordinate classroom management skill. No items were subtracted from the surveys based on the analysis results. The calculated alpha reliability coefficients were.87,.92 and.90 for the surveys of course management skills, behavior arrangement skills and activity management skills, respectively. Although the 50 items were given to the teachers on a single survey sheet, the items were grouped under three different titles representing the three different constructs of the subordinate classroom management skills: course management skills, behavior arrangement skills and activity management skills

148 The Effects of Teachers Educational Technology Skills I. Varank & S. Ilhan Data Analysis The analysis began with describing the means and standard deviations for the AETMDS Survey and the surveys of the subordinate classroom management skills by gender and years of experiences. Then, to examine to what extent teachers perceived applicationbased educational technology and material development skills, gender and years of experiences explain their subordinate classroom management skills, multiple regression analysis was used. Three separate analyses were run for each of the survey of the three subordinate classroom management skills. Results In this study, the calculated alpha reliability coefficient of the AETMDS Survey was found to be.97. The alpha reliability coefficients of the surveys of the subordinate skills (course management, behavior arrangement and activity management) were.87,.92 and.90, respectively. Table 3 shows the means and standard deviations for the survey results. The average scores male teachers received on the AETMDS Survey and the surveys of the subordinate skills were higher than the average scores female teachers received. The teachers with more than 30 and years of experiences received higher average scores on all the surveys than the teachers with less experiences did. The other results for years of experiences were mixed. For instance, the average scores the teachers with 1-6 years of experiences received on the AETMDS Survey and the survey of the activity management skills were higher than the average scores the teachers with 7-12 years of experiences received. However, the results with the same group of teachers were reverse for the average scores received on the surveys of the course management skills and behavior arrangement skills. Table 3: Distributions of the mean scores and standard deviations of the AETMDS survey results and the surveys results of the subordinate classroom management skills by gender and years of experience. Gender N AETMDS M (SD) Activity Management M (SD) Behavior Arrangement M (SD) Course Management M (SD) Male (22.14) (11.39) (8.42) (2.88) Female (19.83) (12.19) (9.12) (3.10) Years of Teaching 1-6 years (21.27) (12.51) (9.90) (3.18) 7-12 years (18.56) (10.92) (7.06) (2.54) years (19.36) (11.13) (8.12) (2.96) years (27.33) (11.24) (9.53) (3.18) years (22.49) (12.43) (8.01) (2.82) More than 30 years (19.29) (12.32) (9.58) (3.20) Total (20.99) (11.79) (8.79) (2.99) Table 4 shows the regression analysis results for the relationship between teachers' subordinate classroom management skills scores and their AETMDS scores, gender and years of experiences. Three different regression models were established for the activity -142-

149 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 management skills scores, the behavior arrangement skills scores and the course management skills scores. All of these models were significant (p <.05). The models explained 27% of the variance in the average score of the teachers' activity management skills (R 2 = 0.27, p <.05), 27% of the variance in the average score of the teachers' behavior arrangement skills (R 2 = 0.27, p <.05) and 16% of the variance in the average score of the teachers' course management skills (R 2 = 0.16, p <.05). The teachers' years of experiences and AETMDS scores were significantly associated with their activity management skills scores, behavior arrangement skills scores and course management skills scores (p <.05) in all of the models. However, gender was not significantly associated with the three subordinate classroom management skills in any of the model (p >.05). The teachers with more years of experiences and higher AETMDS scores had higher scores on the surveys of the subordinate classroom management skills. Table 4: regression analysis table for the effect of the AETMDS, gender and years of experiences on their subordinate classroom management skills. Variable B SE β t p Constant AETMDS* Activity Management Gender Years of Experience R 2 = 0.27 F(3, 296) = p <.05 Constant AETMDS* Behavior Arrangement Gender Years of Experience R 2 = 0.27 F(3, 296) = p <.05 Constant AETMDS* Course Management Gender Years of Experience R 2 = 0.16 F(3, 296) = p <.05 Discussion and Conclusions This research study examined whether elementary school teachers' classroom management skills were explained by their gender, years of experiences and application-based educational technology and material development skills. Finding of non-significant effects of teachers gender on their subordinate classroom management skills are supported by previous research (Akın and Koçak, 2006; Burç, 2006; Çubukçu and Girmen, 2008; Denkdemir, 2007). Particularly, there are research results that in some subordinate classroom management skills, comparable to the ones in this study, such as program activities-physical arrangement skills, student-teacher relations skills, in-class interactions skills and behavior arrangements skills, male and female teachers exhibit similar features (Korkut, 2009). Though, while there are findings indicating significant differences between male and female teachers classroom management skills in favor of both genders (Ayar and Arslan, 2008; İlgar, 2007; Özgan, Yiğit, Aydın, and Küllük, 2011), this may be attributed to the different subordinate skills used in the related studies. Experience may be expected to be an important predicting factor for occupational proficiency. In agreement with this expectation and the previous findings (Çubukçu and Girmen, 2008; Erol, 2006; Korkut, 2009; Yeşilyurt and Çankaya, 2008), this research showed that teachers -143-

150 The Effects of Teachers Educational Technology Skills I. Varank & S. Ilhan who have more years of experiences have better classroom management skills than those who have fewer years of experiences. This finding may be explained by the opportunities teachers may have to develop themselves in occupational skills during their career. Teachers in their advanced career stages, compared to the ones in the early stages, have more opportunities to develop their own classroom management skills, such as having more classroom management experiences, attending in-service training programs, reading books and sharing experiences with their colleagues (Ayar and Arslan, 2008; İlgar, 2007). Finally, the findings of this study showed that teachers with high perceptions of educational technology self-skills had also perceived that they had better classroom management skills. Teachers that have educational technology skills may use the technology to better manage classroom, reduce discipline problems and improve students motivations and attentions (Sandholtz, Ringstaff and Dwyer, 1990; Muir-Herzig, 2004). Teachers who are not experienced in the use of technology in education are anxious and hesitant about the technology. However, as they get experienced they adopt the technology to support their instructions in classroom. In such classrooms, it was observed that classes became studentcentered in which students self-efficacy, motivations, participations and student-teacher relations were improved, and discipline problems were reduced (Adams, 1992; Cohen, 1997). There is an important implication of this research study for practitioners, which is, to prevent discipline problems in the technology-integrated classroom where student-centered instruction is conducted, teachers educational technology skills and perceptions must be improved. This study was conducted in a specific region (city) of Turkey representing a distinctive urban and semi-rural culture. Although the findings were partially supported by the literature, studies similar to this one should be conducted or replicated with similar variables to fine more generalizable results. Especially the role of gender in the classroom management in the context where this study was conducted needs further investigations. Another limitation of the study is that the data collected on the teachers' classroom management skills and educational technology skills was perceptional. Further case studies are needed in which teachers are directly observed in the actual classroom settings to better determine their behaviors related to their classroom management and educational technology skills, and the relationship between those skills. References Adams, S. E. (1992). Teachers attitudes concerning the impact of integrating mastery learning with selected emerging technologies in instruction. (Doctoral dissertation, Kansas State University). Akgül, A. (2008). The relationship between teachers application-based educational technology and material development skills and their students proficiency exam (SBS) results (Master thesis, Afyon Kocatepe University). Akın, U., & Koçak, R. (2007). The relationship between teachers' classroom management skills and job satisfaction. Educational Administration: Theory and Practice, 51, Aslan, Z., & Doğdu, S. (1993). Eğitim teknolojisi uygulamaları ve eğitim araç gereçleri [Educational technologies applications and instructional materials]. Ankara: Tekışık Ofset

151 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Ayar, A. R., & Arslan, R. (2008). Examining the class management performance of teachers working in elementary schools. Kastamonu University Kastamonu Education Journal, 16(2), Başar, H. (1997). Sınıf Yönetimi [Classroom Management]. Ankara: Pegem. Basar, H. (1999). Sınıf Yönetimi [Classroom Management]. İstanbul: Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları. Bayram, S. (2006). İlköğretimde materyal kullanımı [Use of instructional materials in elementary education]. İstanbul: Morpa Kültür Yayınları. Brandt, S., & Lonsdale, M. (1996). Technology-supported cooperative learning in secondary education, In Proceedings of the 29th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS-29), Maui, Hawaii, January 3-6, 1996 (pp ), IEEE Computer Society. Burç, E. D. (2006). The proficiency of the primary school teachers in classroom management in elementary schools. (Master thesis, Abant İzzet Baysal University). Cohen, V. (1997). Learning styles in a technology-rich environment. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 29(4), Çubukçu, Z., & Girmen, P. (2008). Öğretmenlerin sınıf yönetimi becerilerine ilişkin görüşleri [Teachers opinions on their classroom management skills]. Bilig/Türk Dünyası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 44, Denkdemir, E. (2007). The opinions of teachers regarding class management applications. (Master thesis, Beykent University) Erçetin, S.S. and Özdemir, M.C. (2004). Sınıf Yönetimi [Classroom Management]. Ankara: Asil Yayın Dağıtım. Erol, Z. (2006). Primary school teachers views on the application of class management. (Master thesis, Afyon Kocatepe University). Ertmer, P. A. (1999). Addressing first- and second-order barriers to change: Strategies for technology integration. Educational Technology Research and Development, 47(4), Green, M., & McNeese, M. N. (2007). Using edutainment software to enhance online learning. International Journal on E-Learning, 6(1), Gürsel, M., Sarı, H., & Dilmaç, B. (2004). Sınıf yönetimi [Classroom Management]. Konya: Eğitim Kitabevi Yayınları. İlgar, L. (2007). A research study on classroom management skills of primary school teachers (Master thesis, Istanbul University). Korkut, K. (2009). The correlation between level of classroom teachers' self efficacy beliefs and classroom management ability perceptions. (Master thesis, Mehmet Akif Ersoy University). Lemke, C., Coughlin, E., & Reifsneider, D. (2009). Technology in schools: What the research says: An update. Culver City, CA: Commissioned by Cisco. Mucherah, W. M. (2003). The influence of technology on the classroom climate of social studies classrooms: A multidimensional approach. Learning Environments Research 6, Muir-Herzig, R. G. (2004). Technology and its impact in the classroom. Computers & Education, 42, Özan, M. B., & Özdemir, T. Y. (2010). İlköğretimde multimedya kullanımının sınıf yönetimine etkisi [The effect of multimedia use on classroom management]. In the proceedings of the 9. Ulusal Sınıf Öğretmenliği Eğitimi Sempozyumu [9th National Elementary Teacher Education Symposium], Elazığ, Turkey, May 2010, Fırat University

152 The Effects of Teachers Educational Technology Skills I. Varank & S. Ilhan Özgan, H., Yiğit, C., Aydın, Z., & Küllük, M. C. (2011). Analysis and comparison of primary school teachers perceptions about classroom management. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 10(1), Sandholtz, J. H., Ringstaff, C., & Dwyer, D. C. (1990). Teaching in high-tech environment: classroom management revisited first-fourth year findings. Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow Research, 10, 1-8. Vannatta, R., & O Bannon, B.W. (2002). Beginning to put the pieces together: A technology infusion model for teacher education. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 18(4), Varank, I. (2011). Factors affecting in-service teachers` application-based educational technology and material development skills: A causal analysis of a Turkish case. The New Educational Review, 24(2), Varank, I., & Ergün, S. S. (2008). Determining practical educational technologies and material development competencies. In the Proceedings of the International Educational Technology Conference, Eskişehir, Turkey, 6-9 May 2008, (pp ). Anadolu Üniversitesi. Wang, F., & Reeves, T. C. (2003). Why do teachers need to use technology in their classrooms? Issues, problems, and solutions. Computers in the Schools 20(4), Yeşilyurt, E., & Çankaya, İ. (2008). Determining teachers qualities in the aspect of classroom management. Electronic Journal of Social Sciences, 23(7),

153 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at The effect of the classroom activities on classroom management in the teaching- learning process: The case of Uşak City Article history Received: Durdagı AKAN* Ataturk University Kazım Karabekir Faculty of Education, Erzurum, Turkey Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: activity, learning process, constructivist learning model. Murat BASAR Uşak University, Faculty of Education, Uşak, Turkey The study is a qualitative single case design study and the study group is the teachers and students of the three different primary school which are in low, middle and high socio-economic and cultural range. And they are 5th grade teachers and students. According to the findings, especially the teachers working in schools located in high-life standards environment regard the classroom activities as the waste of time. Thus, they seemed reluctant to employ classroom activities. The findings also indicated that the teachers working in mid-life standard school used the classroom activities whereas the low-standard school teachers used out of class activities most. Another finding was that teachers think the activities help the teachers develop themselves. The students think they learn better through the activities and they are more interested in the classes where there are activities. It was also concluded that the students do not head towards to the misbehaviors when there are activities in the teaching and learning process. Introduction The main purpose of schooling is to raise students to be good citizens who will transform the community they live in and contribute to building a more humane society. The most important function of schooling is instruction. Schools focus on all students gaining some basic skills. Among these skills, there are cognitive, emotional and social skills such as oral, written and verbal electronic communication skills, numerical skills, and citizenship skills, and accessing and analyzing information skills (Şişman and Turan, 2004). Classrooms are the places for producing the educational, instructional activities at schools. The structure of the classroom has a big impact on student behaviors. In order for learningteaching activities to reach the determined goal, there is a need for conscious, planned, purposeful and suitable tools as well as activities based on real-life. Such a learning environment inevitably increases an individual s interest in learning and ensures her participation (Demirtaş, 2006; Cohen, 1983). When teachers do not meet students learning needs through suitable learning environments, they try to teach by force. This in return causes the activities to decrease and students to lose interest in school. Just as the information received from school is important, the way of transferring that * Correspondence: [email protected]

154 The effect of the classroom activities on classroom management D. Akan & M. Basar information is important, too (Glasser1999). Research made shows that academic achievements and student behaviors are affected by the quality of the student teacher relationship (Balcı, 2002, Huitt, 1999; Kirk and Jones, 2004; Reagle, 2006). Students studying habits and attitudes are related to their readiness to react in a certain way against school related activities in and out of school and their adopting a certain mode of behavior with regards this issue. In this respect, there are many issues regarding how students feel while listening to the course, their attitudes towards the teacher, their studying methods, their expectations from education, their approach towards homework, their electronic communication skills, their setting up the study environment and their relationships with parents and peers (Küçükahmet,1987). A schools job is to maintain learning. If students cannot learn, this means the school has failed to fulfill its tasks. What is expected from schools is to help students perceive the things that are instructed correctly and sufficiently and create positive learning settings for them (Schlechty, 2006; Höşgörür, 2003). It is a well-known fact that the learning process is different for each individual (Pajak, 2003). Due to this difference, it is quite hard to generate a standard learning model (Açıkalın,1999). Learning is a cognitive process, which occurs when connections are formed between new and previous knowledge. While teachers teach the things they enjoy more, students learn more if it is interesting for them (Glasser, 1999). Interaction of individuals is important during the learning process. Apart from reading and listening activities where the individual actively takes part, learning also occurs in effective participation in the learning process through discussions, forming hypotheses, and sharing opinions. In such a process, learners do not accept information as it is; they either construct it or rediscover (Acat, 2006). Students learn some issues better and have difficulty in learning some others. This is mostly related to learning style. An individual s discovering her learning style facilitates her processing and coding information (Özden, 2005). Active learning settings where students are effective form the basis for this. In active learning: Slow learners and gifted children are given more time. Students methods of self control are developed. Different programs for different learning styles are created. Life-long learning is maintained. Students learn how to reach information through different sources. Students are given the opportunity to arrange and present the information they have. Students take responsibility in individual and group studies and share it. Students collaborate in learning by interacting with each other (Ercan, 2004). A school s reason for existing is students. By creating additional learning support for students, schools protect them against failure and implement their curriculum in a satisfactory way in line with students needs (Danielson, 2002). Today, the most important aspect of the learning approach is that it lets the learner construct, form and develops knowledge (Acat, 2006). In this respect, activities are important in terms of obtaining the benefits foreseen in the new educational programs designed according to the constructivist learning model

155 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Aim The aim of this study is to evaluate the effects of the activities done by 5th grade primary school teachers in the teaching and learning process. For this purpose, the following questions were tried tobe answered. 1- What kind of activities do the teachers of the different socio-economic class schools do in order to construct the classroom management in teaching and learning process. 2- How are the students conceptions about the classroom activities in different socio-economic level schools. 3- What are the teachers arguments on the relation between the activities they do in classes and their classroom management. Methedology In order to investigate what kinds of classroom activities are done for constructing the classroom management and how they are conducted, the qualitataive research method was used in this study. The qualitative method follows a process in which the conceptions and incidents are argued in their nature realistically and holistically (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2006). In this research, the case study is adopted as the qualitative research method. The researchers are usually tend to follow a case study when the target process to be studied on exists in its nature and the researchers focus on the questions like why and how to investigate the target case deeply. The case study is preferable for this study since the current social fact is studied in its nature and there exist more than one evident or data tool (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2006). When the different research designs were reviewed, the most suitable design to achieve the aim of this study was the single case study with embedded units. In the single case study with embedded units design, most of time there exist more than one layer or case within a single case. (Miles and Huberman;Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2006). In the current study, the single case is activities in terms of the construction of the classroom management. The embedded subordinating analysis units are learning-teaching, classroom management and guidance service. The deep examination of these defined subordinating analysis units are supposed to account for the research case in detail. In this context, starting from the separately gathered data from the sub-units, it is tried to produce results concerning to the entire research case. Study Group The study group consists of three different schools in Uşak, in academic year. In order to determine the one high standard, one middle stadard and one low standard schools, a questionnaire were distributed to 50 teachers in the different schools randomly. Based on their responses three schools were chosen. Five teachers and ten students were chosen from each of the schools above, so the study group is fifteen teachers and thirty students in total. Data Collection Data Collection Tools In the current study, primarily there were held nonstructured observations in the schools located in diffrerent socio-economic environments. Then, the observations are structured by categorizing. In line with these observations, the structured interviews were held -149-

156 The effect of the classroom activities on classroom management D. Akan & M. Basar with the teachers and students. There were forms for the interviews and they consist of two sections. In the first section, there were personal information of the students and teachers. How the teachers implement classroom activities for constructing the classroom management and how the students conceptions are about this construction and how the activities affect these conceptions are also in the first section of the interview forms. In the second section, there were data about the frequency of appearance of the activities in classroom management construction. In the prestudy, there were held interviews with 15 5th grade teachers and 30 students from previously chosen schools. After this pilot study, the interview forms were given their final shape by editting or omitting the items including redundant responses or creating a vagueness. Implementation Firstly, a literature review was done by the researchers. In this context, the earlier studies about the effect of the activities on the construction of the classroom management were examined. Upon the examination, a research schema was organized. The observations were made in three different schools in Uşak. The teachers and students of the observed classses were informed about the process. The unstructured observations were structured in the classes. In the direction of these observations, the observation forms were structured. The interviews with the teachers were evaluated through a content analysis. The results of the interviews and observations were examined to see whether they change according to the socio-cultural structure of the schools. Through the analysis of the acquired data, the researchers tried to reach the goals of the study. Data Analysis The qualitative analysis was used in this study. For the qualitative data the content analysis technique was used. The basic procedure in qualitative analysis is to gather the similar data in the frame of certain concepts and themes, arrange and discuss them in a simpler way so that the readers can understand the study (Miles and Huberman;Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2006). For this purpose, the collected data should be conceptualized first and then these concepts should be detected. According to Yıldırım and Şimşek s citation from Strauss and Corbin (1990), science cannot exist without the concepts; the concepts help us to understand the facts and enable us to think about them more effectively. If we name a concept, we can ask questions about it and concepts take us to the themes and thanks to themes we can arrange the facts in a better way and make them more meaningful. The main process within the content analysis is to get the similar data together within the certain conceptions and themes; and arrange and discuss them for the readers better understanding. In the study, the teachers views were tabled and discussed under the titles of code, sub-code, examples and the frequency of expression. The students views were also tabled as the theme, code, sub-code, examples and frequency of expression. Findings and Comments In this part of the study, the teachers and students views on the effect of the activities on the construction of the classroom management are presented

157 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Table1. Teachers Views on Doing Educational Activities Code Sub-Code Samples Frequency Activity Frequency Level Sample Activity The Most Frequently Done Activities The reason for Needing Occasionally According to the course subject On all Occasions Concerning to the subject matters Addressing to the methods and techniques Skill based activities Addressing to out-of-class activities I do it when it is necessary. I do it according to the course subject I do it when it is possible We are doing it less often this year because there is scholarship exam on agenda. At the end of each unit or theme, I do two or three activities per month. I do it according to the state of the subject matter. I do it in every lesson. I usually do it. As I believe the benefit of it, I do it on all occaisons. We taught the solar and earth systems through designing a poster about them. Story completion Dramatizing the reading passage We teach the poligons and schemas through the mind maps in mathematic lessons. We do activities like cutting and pasting Designing a poster The activities oriented in cutting and pasting skills L M H Books I do the activities in the course books In my school, there are very limited facilities. The studenst have no plans for the future and that is why we give more importance to the activities like folk dancing, sports etc through which they can express themselves. Course subjects Methods and techniques Student oriented Out-of-class activities Arousing interest Permanency Discovery of different skills Story completion The activities in Turkish lessons The activities in the course books Designing and presenting a poster for an imaginary ad. Case study, question and answer technique, narrating Visual appealing The group activities that the studets prepare themselves Dance shows and folk dances Group plays in the school yard Puzzles Singing songs As the students are exposed to the subject matters concretly, it provides consolidation and permanency. The activities reveal the different sides and skills of the students and help them improve themselves. As it increases the creativity of the students. It makes all the students active during the classes Active participation Responsibility The students behave with the sense of responsibility It makes the concepts more concrete. I think it consolidates the learning and makes it Increasing permenant. comprehension The students comprehend more. They learn better as they search themselves and involve themselves into the learning process. Insufficiency I don t have enough sources or facilities In the Table-1, the teachers from the low socio-economic standard school noted the frequencies of the activities either according to the course subjects or on all occasions. The teachers of the middle socio-economic standard school noted that they do activities -151-

158 The effect of the classroom activities on classroom management D. Akan & M. Basar according to the course subject. The teachers were asked to give examples of activities they did. All of the teachers of lower socio-economic standard schools gave examples of out of class activities. Besides the skill based activities they also gave examples of other activities. All the teachers of the middle socio-economic standard school gave examples of activites that are based on course subjects, methods and techniques. They didn t suggest any out-of-class activity. the teachers of high socio-economic standard school suggested activities addressing to course subjects, methods and techniques. They did not suggest activities addressing to the other sub-codes. When the most frequently used activities were examined, there seemed differences among the schools. All of the teachers of the low socio-economic standard school mentioned activities either out-of-class or arousing interest. The teachers of the low and middle socio-economic standard schools noted activities addressing to course subjects and methods and techniques. When the sub-codes, expressing the the codes of the need for the mentioned activities, were examined, all the teachers from the low socio-economic standard schools noted the insufficiency. All the teachers from the middle socio-economic standard school noted the contribution of the activities to boost the comprehension and responsibility level of the students. Başar (2011), Schimmel (2003) and Wojcikievicz (2007) support this finding. In these researches, it is concluded that the activities contribute the comprehension level in positive way. The teachers feel the need for doing activities as they provide permanency, improve different sides of the students and keep the students active. Table 2. The Teachers Views On The Activities Effects On The Classroom Management Frequency Code Sub-code Examples L M H Number of It is more effective when there are fewer studentsin the students in the class class The way that the activities affect the classroom management Preventing quarrels Integration Codetermination The activities prevent the quarrels or troubles among the pupils as the pupils are occupied with the activities. They keep more silent as they are occupied with something. They are affected in positive way, their interest increases, they listen to each other respectfully, there arises curiosity thus there occurs no quarrels among the students. The activities are integrative as the different students get together. The activities enhance cooperation, harmony and selfexpression. I don t feel obliged to intervene the class since they direct themselves. During the activities, cooperation between pupils is prominent. Sometimes a pupil s classmate gets him to do something that I couldn t get him to do so Impact on the personality The students self-confidence is imroving Negative effect I wish the number of the students were fewer so that we could do more activities. their being so crowded is the only problem and it is very difficult to keep the control of the entire classroom

159 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Sample Activity Addressing to the Classroom Management Participation Based on threatening Responsibility The class rules are determined by the students. The tasks are planned with the students I give plus and minus; I threaten them with grades. Giving various responsibilities to the student. I involve students to the process and I give them responsibilities. They appropriate the activities in which they are involved In the Table-2, the classroom activities effects on the classroom management are reflected. The activities impact on classroom management, preventing quarrels, integration, codetermination, effect on students personality and negative effects are the sub-codes. The teachers of the high socio-economic standard school mentioned the crowded classrooms and lack of classroom discipline. All the teachers form the middle and low socio-economic standard schools argued that the activities prevent quarrels among students and provide integration throughout the classroom. This finding is also supported by Türnüklü (2006) and Chmelynski s (2005) researches. The activities prevents the classroom quarrels as they provide a corrective discipline throughout the class. Mages (2008) examined the effect of drama activity on the early childhood period. Mages reached that throught the drama activities the kids gain the disciplinary fundamentals. Since a student focuses on the activity, he/she will not head for the undesirable behaviours. There also happens an integration of students within the classes during the activites. All of the teachers from the middle socio economic standard schools noted that the activities improve the personality and boost self-confidence. Also the students participate into the managemnt process through the activities. When the teachers of the low socio economic standard school were asked to give examples of the activities that would help construct classroom management, none of them could give an example of activity. These teachers do not have any activity that will help classroom management. A teacher from the middle socio-economic standard school gave an example of threatening like giving plus or minus and another teacher gave example of giving resposibility. A teacher from the high socio-economic standard school noted that they do activities motivating students for participating into the classroom management and another teacher gave the example of giving responsibility. The way of affecting Table 3. Teachers Views on the Lesson Teaching Code Sub-Code Examples Frequencies Simplifying Participation Mingling Permanance Rise of interest L M H It makes the learning easier. Kavramları somutlaştırdığı için öğrenmeyi kolaylaştırıyor They participate more as they learn by doing and experiencing. It affects positively, the student participate all the activities. The activities help different parents mingle with each other as they prepare the activities together with students They understand more and it becomes more permanent. The students make a research about the activity they are supposed to be involved. Thus, they attend the classes more preparedly. The lesson becomes more meaningful and efficient. The interst of the students increases and the learning occurs more easily

160 The effect of the classroom activities on classroom management D. Akan & M. Basar The way of the activities affecting the teachers The way of the activities affecting the students Disadvantage Professional development Process Disadvantage Pleasure Consolidation Success Permanence Self-confidence Responsibility As the classrooms are crowded, we are usually behind our syllabus. It motivates me to find new things. It affects us positively, we used to give lactures in all classes before; but this time the activities push us to learn new things as we are acting guides for the students. I learn new things that I have never knew before. I teach more relax and effectively. I feel more comfort as I have time for rest during the activities. Planning and implementing the activities are exhausting. We are usually behind our syllabus. Sometimes it gets challenging to keep the classroom under control. The noise affect us in negative way. As the activities are interesting and entertaining, the students attend the classes more enthusiastically. The students feel the joy of achieving something. Bir şeyler başarmanın hazzını duyuyor. They learn to do things enthusiastically. The activities consolidate the things covered in the class. The learning becomes more permanent as they are revised through the activities. The students success increases as the activities help comprehension. Their success increases as they are more interested in the courses. The activities provides permanency as they visualize and make concrete the learned things. Hatırlamada kolaylık sağlıyor As the students can achieve something, their self-esteem increases. They believe that they can do more with the pleasure they get from the activities. They gain responsibility as they take part in the activities Awarenes They become aware of themselves and their potential Empathy They respect their friends that are in the activity process as they think that will be themselves taking part in the upcoming activities When the table-3 is examined, there are subcodes (simplifying, participation, mingling etc.) originated from the activities affecting the teaching process of the lessons. Almost all the teachers of the middle standard school mentioned the positive effects of the activities. Also, the teachers of the low standard school talked about the positive effects of the activites. When it comes to the high standard school teachers, most of them complained about the huge numbers of students in the classrooms and lack of time and they said they cannot keep their preparations for the exams properly, so they mentioned the negative effects of the activities About the activities effects to teachers, all the teachers of the middle standard school said that the activities help them improve themselves. They emphasized that they are motivated to learn more in order to execute the activities in the classroom. The low and middle standard schools teachers noted that the activities help them to teach more easily. Nevertheless, the high standard school teachers noted that the activites affect them in a negative way

161 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Table 4. Teachers Recommendations on Constructing Classroom Management Frequency Code Subcode Examples L M H On the The settings should be well-prepared. teaching The number of the students shouldn t be so much environment The classroom environments should be prepared Recommendations On the coursebooks On teachers On timing On colobration and cooperation On responsibility accordingly. There should be more activities in the coursebooks. Our school facilities are limited and that s why the coursebooks should include more activities. Usually, the teachers use prepared activities, however they should improve themselves and prepare original activities. The timing of the activity should be well organized. The activities shouldn t take long. Time is not enough for most activities The teacher should be in cooperation with eachother. They should share the activities with eachother The students should be given responsibility to provide participation of the them. Each student should take part in the activities. If possible, teaching should include activities and the students should be given responsibility When the table 4 is examined, it is seen that there are six codes concerning to teachers recommendations on the activities constructing the classroom management. It was seen that the high standard school teachers did not recommend anything on the teaching environmentcode as the classrooms are too crowded. The middle and low standard teachers recommended that the environment should be prepared before the activity. Two of the low Standard teachers had recommendations about the course books. Two of The middle Standard school teachers had recommendations on teachers (themselves). Four of the high Standard school teachers and three of the middle staandard school teachers had recommendations on timing. It can be said that the recommendations on timing are originating from the worry of catching up with the schedule. Three teachers from the low and middle standard schools recommended colobration and cooperation among teachers. Two teachers from the low standard school and two teachers from middle Standard school had recommendations concerning to responsibility. When the teacher recommendations were examined, it was seen that high standard school teachers had recommendations solely on time and place. Middle and low standard school teachers had no recommendations either on time or place. It is observed that the high standard school teachers give priority to dealing with the challanges like crowded classrooms, catching up with the syllabus and preparation for the year-end exams. Thereby, it can be said that they do not instructional activities

162 The effect of the classroom activities on classroom management D. Akan & M. Basar Table 5. Students Views on Activities Code Sub-code Examples Frequency of activity Sample activity The most frequently done activities Rarely Sometimes sufficiently Subject matter oriented Comprehension oriented Motor skills Interest arousing and entertainment oriented Extracurricular Subject matters Methodology oriented Student oriented Our teacher says we do two more exercises. We rarely go to laboratory. We do activities when necessary for a particular lesson. We take tests more often(not doing activities) as we are preparing for the scholarship examination. We do activites till we fully understand the subject. We tried to pass a ball through a hole. We tried it with both heated and unheated ball. We couldn t pass the heated one. We were presented slides related to the subject in the laboratory. We are watching TV for some topics. We dramatized the text we had read in Turkish language class all together. We personify the topics in the course book and we read them. We do word puzzles in order to understand the vocabularies. Drama We do handiwork and painting. We sing songs. One of our friends sings and we listen when we are bored. Riddles One day, we played a game when we couldn t go to the football match 20 students are training theatre and 20 others are training folk dance in our class. We are preparing a dance show the seven region, the seven climate Maths We usually do activities on maths. Story completing. We do experiements in the laboratory. Frequency L M H We discuss a person s behvşous in Turkish language classes. Word puzzles discussion, the impact of the revolution in the political life of Turkey. Drama Viewing slides. I like it because it is more fun and I understand better Interest oriented Singing Theatre Extra curricular Theatre and folk dance Course book activities We do activities in the course books

163 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Favorite activites Extra curricular activities Entertaining Learning oriented Anticipatory Theatre and folk dance Football Singing Riddles. I lke them because they are entertaining. Playing games is entertaining. Everyone likes it and it is relaxing. Our teacher let us sing in the last hour and we become happy. Viewing slide Doing experiment. It is very good because even if you do something wrong, there is still a way to find the correct way through trials.. Watching English movies/videos I am considering drama as my prospective job in the future. My favorite activity is folk dance. I am inspired by my father When the Table 5 is examined, there seems differences among the schools. The low standard school students said that they do activities sufficiently and sometimes; the middle standard school students say they do activities sometimes and the high standard school students noted that they do activities rarely. The students, parents and the teachers of the high standard school paid less importance to the activities as they focused more on preparation tests for the exams at the end of the term. The current finding showed consistency within the rationale of the study. The teachers of the high standard school also noted the similar things in their interviews. They said that the students are supposed to succeed the scholarship exam at the end of the academic year. Thus, they need to take more and more tests in order to be prepared enough. However, in the low standard school, the teachers employed more classroom activities aiming to arouse students interest. When the sample activity codes are examined, there seems not much difference among the schools. The middle standard school students ignored the skill oriented activities. All the students of the low standard school gave examples of extra-curricular activities. When the most frequently done activities are examined, there appeared a difference among the schools. The activities were not employed as the contingency plans in the low standard schools. Nevertheless, all the students of the high standard school said that their teacher employed the activities just in order to complete the lesson hour. There was a significant difference among the schools in the extra-curricular activities. The participant students from the low and high standard schools noted that they participated the activities, whereas the students from the middle standard school did not report that they participated into extra-curricular activities. Another varying code is the activities in the course books. 6 students from the low and 6 students from the middle standard school reported that the activities in the coursebooks are the most frequently used ones. However, the students from the high standard school did not mention the coursebook activities. There was not a significant difference among schools in the entertaining activities. Also, 3 students from the high standard school noted that they consider theatre and folk dance as their prospective job

164 The effect of the classroom activities on classroom management D. Akan & M. Basar Table 6. Students Views on Feelings and Emotions Code Sub-Code Examples Feeling The Reason for the Feeling Contributiof the Activities Recommendations to the Teachers Frequency L M H Happiness I am happy. I enjoy it Negative I get nerveous Socialazition I feel my self more social one through the activities They are enjoyable. I learn new things We pay more to our self development It provides variations. Development I will be able to make my dreams come true through the activities. Because I gain experience I like learning new things I understand better as the performers and the audience are tangibly visible. Socialization I take part in the society Cooperation We do things together with my friends during the activities Anxiety I am afraid of going to the blackborad. I feel anxious in front of it We have fun at the same time while we are having lesson. Interest and We get rid of boredom, it becomes more interesting. Entertainment When we are bored, we do something interesting and we get relaxed.. I enjoy experiments. They are interesting. I understand better. Success I learn more with enthusiasm. Our success increases as we do activities Our knowledge and skills develop. A New Perspective I can make connections between the lessons and real life. We gain different points of view Consolidation The activities consolidate what we have learnt and it becomes more permanent Relaxing The activities kill boredom and we learn better Our peers are usually shy. Through the activities they develop their inter-personal skills. Development Socialization; I become more productive as i attend into activities I adapt my self to the social life and I, for example, respect to toher people s rights. About the environment Games About Learning About the Skills Development Development There should be a more silent environment. There should also be activities that are out of classroom. It should be enjoyable. The activities should be based on competition. The activities should be both informing and enjoyable. Our teacher should employ drama activities about the Maths problems. There should be much more activities so that we learn better. The activities should be based on puzzle solving. The activities should be thought provoking. The activities should be based on mental training It can be seen from the data in Table 6 that the students feel happiness and sense of belonging to the society. Only one student gave a negative response. There was no difference among the schools. Based on the students views, it can be said that they agree that they feel the similar things during the activities, the activities help them develop themselves and the activities arouse interest and they are enjoyable. They also think that the activities provides socialization and -158-

165 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 cooperation. One of the students noted his/her anxiety infront of the blackboard as the reason for his/her negative response. This finding is in agreement with Başar s (2011) findings. According to the that study, the activities promote students commiting to the teacher and the lesson besides being effective in their success. Another important finding was that similar to the students, the teachers mentioned the activities contributions to their classes. This fact showed the consistency of the current study. In all three schools, the students are in agreement with eachother in activities contribution to their success, self development, permanency of the learnings and their relaxation. This finding is in agreement with Wojcikievicz s (2007) findings.according to his study, when the lessons are reinforced by the appropriate activities, the success comes itself and the problem behaviours diminish, as well. Likewise, it is found that the activities help teachers teach respect to other people and their rights. It can therefore be assumed that such kind of empathic gains might have a remarkable role in constructing classroom management. Concerning the activities there were some differences among the schools. the differences were about the environment and learning. While the middle standart school students had suggestions for the environment of the activities, the students from the other schools did not suggest any thing on that. Also, while the students from low and middle standart schools had suggestions for learning, the high standart school students did not suggest anyhting on that. The recommendations for the other sub-codes are parallel to eachother. Table 7. Students Views on Monotony Code Sub-Code Examples Frequencies L M H Level of Monoton y What They Do When Feeling Monotony What They Wish To Do Rarely I rarely feel bored Sometimes Sometimes I am bored, especially during the verbal and narrativekind of lessons Usually I am usually bored in social sciences Anxiety I play with my hair Communication Changing the Atmosphre Leaving the Environment Engaging in the Objects Around I talk to my desk mate I try to change the mood of the lesson by asking questions I open the window and take fresh air I go to school yard and come back later. I play with my bag and keys I do pen spinning Doing Harm to Iscratch on the desk I scratch on books and notebooks I wrinkle paper sheets Classroom I draw on books or notebooks Materials Classroom Activity Entertainment Extra Curricular Activity There should be classroom activities because they are entertaining We should sing songs We should play games We should do dramas Playing in school yard Playing football

166 The effect of the classroom activities on classroom management D. Akan & M. Basar It can be seen from the data in Table 7 that there is no significant difference among schools at the levels of monotony. The students sometimes felt bored. When the code What They Do When Feeling Bored is examined, again, there is no significant difference among schools. Nevertheless, it is interesting to note that the low standart school students did not attemp to change the atmosphere and the high standart school students did not attempt to leave the environment. Concerning to the code of What They Wish To Do, all the students gave priority to the classroom activities. Also, it is interesting that the low and middle standart school students wished the entertaining activities less. There is no difference among the schools in wishing the extracurricular activities. Table 8. Students Views on the Changes in Weekly Schedule Code Sub-Code Examples Frequency L M H Sometimes Sometimes we fall behind the schedule, so there are some changes then We have lots of changes. Even in Social Activity Most of Time courses. We study Maths in the classes without the teacher Exams are more important for us, that is why we always sudy Maths regardless of the name of the Always course. There are always changes in our schedule. We enjoy studying Maths. Our teacher made us believe the importance of Maths. Never We don t have changes in schedule Change The Courses Most Frequently Reflections Maths We study Maths. We study Maths because we have year-end exams Turkish Our teacher teaches Turkish lesson too much Turkish&Mat. Turkish and Maths are important fort he exams Disappointed I am always looking forward to having those (entertaining&relaxing) courses; but I am always disappointed when our teacher change those courses with Turkish or Maths. Sad I am sad because those entertaining&relaxing courses are our rights Happy We are happy about Maths. Maths will surrender our lives in the future Developmental I feel myself more sufficient as I learn Maths It can be seen from the data in Table 8 that according to the students from the low standart school the teachers do not change a course to another. They do not teach Turkish or Maths instead of Music or Physical Education. Students views are consistent with the teachers ideas. The teachers emphasized that they need to employ activities through which the students can show their potential in different areas as their school cannot provide sufficient facilities. According to the students from the middle standart school some teachers do course switching while some others do not so. In high standard school, the teachers do course switching very often. What is interesting in this data is that the students believed the necessity of those course switches. This finding provides some support for the conceptual premise that students regard Maths as the most important course and ignore the others as their parents and teachers always innfuse that they are in a competition

167 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Of all the course switches, the most frequently preferred course was Maths. In middle standard school, Turkish was also preferred besides Maths. Concerning to the feelings (reflections) about course switching, the middle standard school students reported negative feelings while the high standard school students reported positive feelings on the same issue. Conclusion According toteachers Views on Doing Educational Activities: educational activities are always done in the low standard school and the middle standard school. Yet, such kind of activities are not used in the high stadard school. It can be concluded from this data that the lower the school facilities and student profiles, the more important the activities are. When the teachers were asked to give examples for the activities they do at school, all of the middle standard school teachers gave examples of the curricular activities including lessons, methods and techniques while the low school teachers gave examples of extracurricular activities. The high standard school teachers did not give examples appropriate enough to overlap the codes in the study. Also, the high standard school teachers gave limited examples as they do not employ activities very often. When the kinds of the activities were analyzed according to their frequency in use, the activities addressing to the instructional side were observed to be the most frequent ones in the high and low standard schools. In the low standard school, the activities were employed basically for arousing students interest. These findings suggest that as the school facilities and students socioeconomic profiles get higher, the expectations and objectives ascend. The hight standard school teachers reported that they use activities to helpstudents gain resposibility and comprehend more whereas the low standard school teachers use activities basically because of the lack of the facility and sources. These findings suggest that the rationale for the activities differs according to the school facilities. The Teachers Views On The Activities Effects On The Classroom Management: All of the middle and low standard school teachers reported that activities provides integration and colobration among students. Also the middle standard school teachers noted that the activities contribute to students character development. The high standard school teachers reported negative comments about the activities; they alleged the crowded classrooms. The results indicated that once the instructional activities are held effectively, they might help construct classroom management. When the teachers were asked to list the activities they employ for constructing the classroom management, most of them said that they had no such planned activities. These data showed that the teachers do not know much about the philosphy of constructivism; they are still stcik to traditional methods and trying to manage classroom by old-fashioned techniques. Teachers Views on the Effect of the Acitivites on the Lesson Teaching: The low and middle standrd school teachers agreed on the fact that the activities make the instruction easier, increase participation, provide collobration among the parents, provide permanency of the comprehension and arouse interest for the lesson. The high standard school -161-

168 The effect of the classroom activities on classroom management D. Akan & M. Basar teachers mentioned the negative aspects. These findings showed that the activities make the teaching easier and more effective. For the code The way of the activities affecting the teachers, the middle and low standard school teachers reported that the activites help them develop themselves professionally and make teaching easier for them. This finding is in agreement with Yates s (2007) finding. Yates states that instructional activities develop both teachers and students in the process of professionalization. The high standard school teachers reported that it was difficult to plan the activities especially in crowded classrooms. Thus, they are not in agreement with the other teachers. Nonetheless, it is still possible to say that the activities develop teachers as much as they do for the students. The findings confirmed that the activities are useful for students in providing awareness, learning permanency and reinforcement besides increasing success and self-confidence. Also, the activities have positive contribution to development of empathy. Teachers recommendations on Activities constructing Classroom Management: The high standart school teachers had some recommendations basically empahsizing the problems in the educational setting (crowded classrooms and limited time). However, the other teachers reported recommendations on collaboration and responsibility development. These findings confirm that the teachers are greatly affected by the school environment they are teaching. Students Views on Activities: The activities are most frequently done in the low standard school and second highest frequency belongs to middle standard school. The activities are done at he least frequent level in high standard school. This scale showed that the the better the life quality of the school, the less frequently are the activites employed. This rarity is thought to be the consequence of exam preparation. All of the low standard school students gave examples of extracurricular activities. The middle school students gave examples of activities addressing to subject matters and comprehension. When it comes to the high standard school students, they could not give examples of any sub-code dominantly. It is concluded that there is an effort to to have classes as the constructivist approach projected in the middle standard school. Based on the findings in the code of the most frequently done activities, all of the high standard school students gave the examples of lesson topics and extracurricular activities. The low standard school students reported that they do extracurricular activites most of the time. All kinds of activities were done in the high standard school. The examples that were reported by the high standard school are interesting. They regarded solving Mathematics problems as an activity. This finding indicated that they over-focused on subject matters. Of all kinds of the schools, the most enjoyable activities were the entertaining ones. The entertaining activities were found to be both instructional and interesting. This finding is in agreement with Ritter and others (2009) study. Their study showed that the academic level of the students increased through an activity based schedule. Almost all of the students expressed happiness and sense of sociality. when they were asked the reason for their feeling, they noted that the activites develop their academic side and -162-

169 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 entertain them at the same time. It was concluded that the activities bring the lesson to the center of students interest. Geijsel and others (2009) also found that the activities contribute to the development of the students and make them more social. All the students reported that the activities increase their success, consolidate what they learned, provide a rexing atmosphere and help them develop themselves. It was found that when the constructivist approach is applied properly, it provides important attainments for students. Brown (2002) found that the activities boost the success level of the students as they turn theoretical knowledge into practice. The students suggestions were mostly around the games and self-development. It can be concluded that the students want to have fun while they are learning. The majority of the students felt bored sometimes and the most common thing they do in order to deal with their boredom was talking to deskmates. The majority of them, again, wished their teacher to do classroom activities when they felt bored. It was concluded that the activities prevent students problem behaviours in the class. About the teachers doing course switching, all the low standard school students reported that their teacher do not do course switching at all whereas all the high standard school students reported that they always have such switches among courses. The most common course the teachers prefer instead of some other courses was Mathematics. As they do Mathematic exercises, the students felt stronger. These findings suggest that the higher the standard of the school, the more frequently do the teachers switch courses. Suggestion According to the findings of the study, it is possible to suggest that; Teachers should be motivated to develop and implement instructional activities. Activities contribution to teaching and learning should be well infused. Activities contribution to the classroom management should be highlighted. The exams after the middle school should be abolished as soon as possible. Suggestions for Further Studies: This study can be conducted by adding the parents opinions as well. Activities effects to other areas can also be researched. The schools located in a village and a province can also be added to current sampling. Acknowledgement The first phase of this study were presented as an abstract to2nd International Conference on New Trends in Education and their Implication on April2011 References Acat, B (2006). Renewed primary curriculum School Boards, Lecture Notes Development Program, Ministry of Education General Directorate of Primary Education, Ankara Açıkalın, A (1998). School management, Ankara: Pegem Akınoğlu, O. (2003). Group interaction in the classroom, (Classroom management Editor: Zeki Kaya), Ankara: Pegem -163-

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171 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Ritter, G. W., Barnett, J. H., Denny, G. S, Albin, G. R. (2009). The effectiveness of volunteer tutoring programs for elementary and middle school students: A Meta-Analysis Review of Educational Research March (3) Rosmiller, R. (1983). Resource allocation and achievement- a classroom analyze (School Finance And School improvement Ed:OddenA;Weeb D.L.),Ballinger Publishing Company, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Schimmel, D. M. (2003). Collaborative rule-making and ctizenship education: An antidote to the undemocratic hidden curriculum, Amerikan Secondary Education 31 (3) Summer 2003 Schlechty, C. P. (2006). Shaking Up the School House,Trans: Yüksel ÖZDEN), Ankara: Nobel, Number: 948 Şişman, M., Turan, S. (2004). Education and school management (Education and School Management, Editor: YükselÖzden), Ankara: Pegem Töremen, F.(2001). Learning school, Ankara: Pegem Turan, S.(2006). "Educational Leadership", school boards, Development Program Lecture Notes, Ministry of Education General Directorate of Primary Education, Ankara Türnüklü, A. (2006). Contemporary approach to classroom and school discipline: Restorative justice, Ankara: Ekinoks Wojkiewicz, S. K. (2007). The good students: A study of high- achiever culture in a high school history class, department of consoling, educational pyshology, and education, Michigan State University UMI number: Yates, M. S. (2007). Teachers perceptions of their Professional learning activities, International Education Journal 8 (2) Yıldırım, A. Şimşek, H.( 2006). The Qualitative Research Methods in Social Sciences, Ankara: Seçkin -165-

172 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at Application of the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER Techniques on the 7 th Grade Course Unit "Human and Environment": An Exemplary Case Study Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: The Six Thinking Hats Technique, SCAMPER (Directed Brainstorming) Technique, Science Education Sinem Toraman* Education Faculty, Yıldız Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey Sertel Altun Education Faculty, Yıldız Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey This study aims at revealing the efficiency of the application of the instructional design prepared via the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER techniques. The question "How do 7th grade students associate the course unit Human and Environment which is taught via the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER techniques?" constitutes the problem of the study. For this purpose, the case study method, which is a method of qualitative research, was used in the second semester of the academic year The study group consists of 20 students in total, including 10 girls and 10 boys studying at the 7th grade at a full time secondary school in Beykoz district of Istanbul province. The primary source of data in the study included observation, open-ended question form and document while interviews were employed as the secondary source of data. The data acquired upon the study were analyzed through content analysis. This study provides awareness to the students with the instructional design prepared via The Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER techniques. As a result of the study shows that students were seen to have performed improvement in comparing ecosystems in terms of diversity of living creatures and climatic features. It was revealed that majority of the students have a negative/ pessimistic approach regarding the world and the environment in future both before and after the application; and they possessed the main point of view that the "world will be a dirty place" in future. Introduction Educational practices in today's world vary in parallel to development of technology. Accordingly, countries embark on new quests to enhance quality of education, acting from the principle that scientific and technological development is possible only by means of education. As the main purpose in education is to teach individuals the paths to access available information rather than directly conveying the information and to guide such individuals and ensure them to adopt ways to generate solutions by using their scientific process skills against new situations they encounter, the mentioned purpose involves, among other courses, teaching of science so as to enable individuals to acquire such qualifications (Güneş, Dilek, Hoplan and Güneş, 2011). As a consequence, science and science teaching has been gradually gaining importance and all nations place a particular importance to improving science education. In line with this purpose, countries endeavour to develop their science * Correspondence: Education Faculty, Yıldız Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey [email protected]

173 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 teaching programs, enhance qualifications of their teachers and provide educational institutions with dedicated devices and equipment (Ayas, Çepni and Akdeniz, 1993). The same situation in Turkey manifests itself through arrangements in educational programs. Science and technology education program, which has been in practice since 2005 and is based upon Theory of Constructivism, has enabled implementation of science education practices by means of a variety of methods and techniques. When the studies carried out in the field are examined, it is observed that application and functionality of learning and teaching especially aim at highlighting student ideas and improving such ideas through various discussion environments and finally emphasizing the process of introducing an original product on basis of creative thinking (Kaptan and Korkmaz, 2002; İşman et al., 2002; Koray, 2003; Yaman, 2003; Koray, 2004; Aksoy, 2005; Aktamış and Ergin, 2006; Demirci, 2007). These teaching methods are role plays, excursion - observation, projects, discussions and problem - solving method. Moreover, there are also researches studying how frequently these teaching methods and techniques are used and applied. Upon the study performed by Aktepe and Aktepe (2009), student opinions regarding techniques used by science and technology teachers in teaching were acquired and it was found out that the method of "discussion by the entire class on the subject of course" is used on every occasion but ranks fourth among teaching methods. Whereas, Aydede, Çağlayan, Matyar, and Gülnaz (2006) reported that they mainly use the lecture method, not the techniques such as brainstorming and group work, which should actually be used as they emphasized. Nevertheless, results of the research revealed statements by teachers that they do not have adequate knowledge about these techniques. This refers to the requirement that teachers should have competence in fields of efficient teaching methods and technologies (Kılıç, 2001). Moreover, the study performed by Aydede et al., (2006) yielded the result that teachers do not use these techniques as they find them highly time-consuming, class hours are inadequate and course loads are high. However, researches carried out in the field manifested that such methods and techniques are feasible and that they play an efficient role in development of individuals' creativity (Atkıncı, 2001; Dinç, 2000). In this context, the Six Thinking Hats and the SCAMPER (directed brainstorming) techniques were discussed as the teaching techniques, along with the technique described. The Six Thinking Hats Technique The Six Thinking Hats technique is a method created by Edward de Bono (1985) and use for presenting thoughts and suggestions in a specific order and systematizing them. The main theme of this method is that it offers "role play" feature. As the self-defence instinct of the individual is the primary obstacle restricting thinking, hats expressly enable consideration and expression of ideas which would otherwise not be thought and stated. In addition, the Six Thinking Hats allows the individual to handle a specific issue from the Six different points by directing attention in order from one point to another (De Bono, 2002; Erginer, 2000). This technique may require the person to think positive or negative, become creative or give an emotional reaction (Erginer, 2000). The Six Thinking Hats technique prevent people from remaining within a frame in their thinking and seeing events from a unidirectional perspective. As the technique allows thinking from different perspectives, it enables analysis of the issue from every aspect and a correct decision making process. The hats available in the technique cover a large number of ways of thinking. And as the technique is easy and enjoyable to apply, it is quickly adopted by people (Can, 2005, p. 43). During their study, Altıkulaç and Akhan (2010) pointed out that the Six Thinking Hats technique has applicability and this technique assures a more -167-

174 Application of the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER Techniques S. Toraman & S. Altun permanent education and enhanced creativity for students. Moreover, Can and Semerci (2007) reported that this technique provided a higher increase in success, and that students were insistent especially on wearing the white hat. Also, the study performed by Kaya (2013) revealed that the Six Thinking Hats technique has a more positive impact in sustainable development of children compared to other techniques in the teaching program. A literature review on the Six Thinking Hats technique proves that this is an important technique for science education which requires individuals to apply the information they learned on facts of daily life as the technique enhances creative thinking. SCAMPER (Directed Brainstorming) SCAMPER is defined as "a sort of practical and entertaining brainstorming technique which is inherent in the discussion method, ensuring implementation of the method by putting in into practice" (Yağcı, 2012, s. 486). This originated as a technique initially used by Eberle (1971) to enhance creativity of students. For this technique, an object or a person is chosen and then changed and developed through brainstorming. Common stories well known by everyone can as well be used. To do so, questions are directed to the child. The questions encourage the child to think in such a way that he/she has not been familiar with before. Such questions are, in a sense, a driving force to allow them acquire different thinking skills. They improve thinking in children, encouraging them to discover. The technique also teaches how to think in a flexible fashion and to break patterns (Yıldız and İsrael, 2001). According to Michalko (2000), the basic philosophy of this technique suggests that "Every idea is born out of another existing idea" (as cited in Yıldız and İsrael, 2001). Nevertheless, Serrat (2009) mentioned that SCAMPER technique allows differentiation in thinking ways of students, improving their problem solving skills and creativity. Buser at al., (2011) observed in their study that three themes come in sight. These three themes emerged: SCAMPER model as a method to stretch our thinking; value of structured creativity; and shifting from right or wrong; application to flexibility and flow. Similarly, Gladding (2011) reported that this technique influenced the life of students and ensured them to be better by enhancing their intellectual skills. Science Education Science education is a domain which aims at identifying and describing the physical and biological world and is not only a total of facts about the world but is also a field in which students have to develop their power of thinking as it contains in itself a way of thinking requiring logical thinking and continuous questioning. Additionally, it is stated that science education is employed in the individual's decision-making on scientific processes and principles and it allows the individual to participate in discussions on scientific matters and to develop skills to produce ideas on the matters (Akçay and Yager, 2010). Consequently, science education ensure individuals to endeavour to understand the nature, natural phenomena, science, technology and the nature of science; to understand fundamental concepts, principles, laws and theories of science and to use them in a consistent manner; to comprehend the interaction between science, technology, society and environment, to improve their scientific and technical psychomotor skills, to have scientific attitude and values, and to become active individuals generating solutions for problems of daily life through scientific ways of thinking by realizing facts of life and making inferences (Toraman, 2013). This approach indicates the requirement that individuals must learn science and acquire the skills referred to above. 168

175 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 It is considered that the efficient use of an instructional design prepared with SCAMPER and the Six Thinking Hats techniques will guarantee development in students' thinking and problem solving skills and creativity and will enable them to create an original, new, consistent and process-supporting product after creative activities. In this frame, efficiency of the application of "Human and Environment" unit in scope of science and technology class was assessed by using the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER (Directed Brainstorming Technique) in the study. The question "How do 7 th grade students associate the course unit Human and Environment which is taught via the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER techniques?" constitutes the problem of the study. The study is expected to reveal results regarding efficiency of the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER techniques in field of science. Moreover, it is considered that the study will contribute to the domain as no application via SCAMPER technique could be found in respect of science education. Method Research Model This research is a case study designed in conformity with the qualitative research paradigm. A case study is defined as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real- life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident, and that relies on multiple sources of evidence and multiple data collection methods (Yin, 1994, p. 23). An instructional design related to 'Human and Environment' unit was developed for 7 th grade students and applied via the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER techniques in the study. The instructional design implemented in line with the findings obtained upon the application was assessed in terms of efficiency. In this context, the study comprising an assessment on the teaching process in the view of a number of factors (environment, individuals, cases, processes, etc.) has been ascertained as a case study of inherently qualitative research patterns. Participants The study was performed at a public school in Beykoz district of Istanbul province, providing full time mobile education. The application was realized with 7 th grade students by their science and technology teacher at the mentioned public school. The researchers acted as observers during the study. Criterion sampling, which is used in qualitative researches, was used in the study. The purpose and the fundamental approach here is to study all circumstances meeting a series of predefined criteria (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2011, p. 112). The criterion in this study is that the teacher applying the technique is in the first year of teaching in his professional life. The 7 th grade students subject to the study are 20 students in total, including 10 girls and 10 boys. 10 out of the students in the study group go to school on foot and the other 10 via transportation system. The average age of the students is 13; the other details about the students are provided in Table 1 below. Table 1. Descriptive statistics regarding the students Father's Educational Status Frequency Primary School 12 Secondary School 2 High School 4 Associate's degree 1 Undergraduate 1 Total 20 Mother's Educational Status Frequency -169-

176 Application of the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER Techniques S. Toraman & S. Altun Illiterate 5 Primary School 11 Secondary School 2 High School 2 Total 20 Father's Occupation Frequency Worker 8 Self Employed 8 Retired 2 Other 2 Total 20 Mother's Occupation Frequency Housewife 15 Worker 3 Self Employed 2 Total 20 Number of Siblings Frequency Only child 2 Two siblings 10 Three siblings 4 Four siblings 3 Five siblings 1 Total 20 Data Collection Tools Having regard to the research questions ascertained in the study, the researchers collected data in the related domain with a view to identify the problem in further detail and to obtain suggestions as to solution of the problem. As mentioned, data triangulation (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2011, p. 267) was performed in consistence with the nature of the study in order to strengthen the validity of data and enrich the significance of results, as qualitative research model was employed in the study. The researchers used observations, open-ended question form and document as the primary source of data and interviews as the secondary source of data. Data collection tools are described below. Participant Observation Participant observation is referred to as the circumstance where the researcher enters the research environment, collects samples at first hand and contributes to source of data. Trying to understand the actual life in the environment in this process, the researcher also records the behaviours displayed in the environment. The researcher listens to conversations of the study group and observes their behaviours during the process of data collection. When required, the researcher builds a communication with the sample and asks questions about the subject in an effort to understand meanings and reasons of the behaviours (Çepni, 2010). In this study, the researcher attended the class throughout the implementation of instructional designs and recorded the observations made. Open-Ended Question Form Open- ended question forms were applied in conformity with learning outcomes of the 7 th grade students so as to identify their situations before and after the application. The questions were prepared for the 7 th grade students by having regard to their learning outcomes and the explanations in 'Human and Environment' unit. The questions prepared by the 170

177 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 researchers were assessed by the experts of the domain and found appropriate. The openended question form contains 7 questions. Document Review Document review comprises an analysis of written materials containing information about the phenomenon / phenomena subject to research. Yıldırım and Şimşek (2011, p.188) referred to documents as important sources of information which have to be efficiently used in qualitative researches, and they laid stress on the importance of documents in the aspect that they provide the data needed by the researcher without requirement for observations or interviews. Social researchers have various opinions about documents which can be used as documents. Punch (2005) states that documents include diaries, letters, essays, personal notes, biographies and autobiographies, notes and reports, while Böke (2009) states that video and audio records, photographs and drawings can also be used in document review in addition to the mentioned items. Whereas May (1996) and Robson (2001) indicated that letters, compositions, maps, pictures, photographs and diaries collected from students are documents which can be used in document review. In this study, field notes/ researcher's log, products created by students in scope of the research (cardboard activities, banners, posters), letters written by students to their teachers at the end of the period were all considered as documents. Interviewing Interviewing is a data collection technique by means of verbal communication (Karasar, 2002, p. 165). Briggs (1986) suggests that interviewing is the most widely applied technique for conducting systematic social inquiry. Semi-structured interviews were held in this study where researchers were participant observers. During the researches held with students, the researchers adopted the principle of "moving with the current" as indicated by Patton (1987, p. 110). The researcher kept notes and voice records during the interviews. Voice records were transcribed and converted into text. Empiric Process First, the learning outcomes in the science and technology education program of the Turkish Ministry of Education (MEB) were examined for formation of instructional designs for the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER techniques prepared for the 'Human and Environment' unit of Science and Technology class for 7 th grade students. Basic concepts regarding the learning outcomes which students were supposed to achieve at the end of the period were focused on acting from the learning outcomes in the science and technology education program of MEB; designs and the open- ended question form were prepared by the researchers by having regard to preparedness and pre-learning of students. The open-ended question form prepared was directed to students before and after the application. In order to find out which of the two techniques in the design affect the associated educational learning outcomes, a table was prepared to show that techniques and associated educational learning outcomes would be included in the instructional design. The details about the techniques, learning outcomes and the associated teaching outcome are submitted in Table-2 below: -171-

178 Application of the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER Techniques S. Toraman & S. Altun Table 2. Technique applied, learning outcome and associated instructional design Technique Applied SCAMPE R SCAMPER Learning Outcomes 1. With regard to areas in which organisms live and the human impact on such areas, students: 1.1. Explain the concepts of species, habitat, population and ecosystem with examples Explain relationship of living organisms in an ecosystem both with each other and non-living factors Make predictions on living creatures which may be existent in different ecosystems. (SPS-9) Associated Instructional Design Instructional Design 1 SCAMPER THE SİX THINKING HATS TECHNIQUE THE SİX THINKING HATS TECHNIQUE THE SİX THINKING HATS TECHNIQ UE THE SİX THINKING HATS TECHNIQU E 1.4. Compare ecosystems in terms of diversity of living creatures and climatic features. (SPS 5, 6) Realize the biological diversity in the ecosystem and emphasize its importance Give examples to plants and animals facing the danger of extinction both in our country and worldwide. (SPS -25; STSE 22, 23, 26) 1.7. Make suggestions as to how plants and animals which face the danger of extinction in our country and worldwide. (SPS 32; STSE 21, 22, 23, 24, 27) 1.9. Collect and submit information about one of the environmental problems in our country and worldwide, and discuss on its results. (SPS 25, 32; STSE 18, 20, 21, 26, 27, 29) Make inferences of how an environmental problem in the world may affect our country. (SPS, 8; STSE 18, 20, 21, 28) Suggest solutions and attend activities aiming at collaboration against environmental problems in our country and worldwide. (STSE 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27; AV 4) Instructional Design 2 Instructional Design 3 Instructional Design 4 Instructional Design 5 The content of the instructional design was prepared by means of the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER techniques in conformity with the learning outcomes addressed on unit basis. Students in scope of the designs prepared through the Six Thinking Hats technique were divided into groups by the teacher in such a way that they would have hats which are opposite of their own personal features. As the study group consisted of twenty students, three groups were obtained in the designs prepared through the Six Thinking Hats technique. The remaining two students observed each group in the development stages in the implementation of designs took notes of their discussions and gave feedbacks to the groups in the discussion 172

179 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 processes. The same practice was applied in every teaching design implemented through the Six Thinking Hats technique; it was ensured that there were different students observing the groups and taking notes in each design. All materials to be used in the courses (worksheets, cardboards, etc.) were prepared by the researcher. Visual materials were supplied to support group studies; additionally, newspaper reports, documentaries, journals and photographs containing examples of daily life were also provided to attract higher interest of the students. Such tools were used as the introduction activities. During the development activities, students were asked to choose a situation on the visual tool employed, and to assess that situation in conformity with the Six Thinking Hats method. For the evaluation dimension of design, students were expected to create a variety of products to confirm their learning outcome in conformity with each design. Those products formed documents such as banners, posters, etc.. Tools such as cardboard, craft papers, etc. were supplied by the researchers for the materials/ products which are planned for assessment as documents in scope of designs in courses. Moreover, students were asked to provide their teachers with projection regarding the process of learning and education after completion of the unit for the evaluation dimension of design. Students were assessed in their groups and provided with orientation during the process. Ideas produced after the lessons provided via the Six Thinking Hats technique were evaluated in the class and recorded during the course period. In addition to the records kept in the courses, products created by students were also assessed in terms of whether the educational learning outcome ascertained was achieved. Additionally, interviews were held with students and teachers; field notes of the teacher and observations of the researcher were evaluated as data. Unlike the Six Thinking Hats technique, courses in the designs prepared through SCAMPER technique were provided for individual students without grouping them. However, the practices are alike in terms of the content, process and evaluation. Process Steps of the Research The following steps were pursued in implementation of the instructional design practice prepared via the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER methods: (1) Prior to application of the instructional design, demographic information were obtained regarding the individuals receiving education in the class subject to the application and observation was made in the classroom. Inquiries were made for the teacher's practices in scope of science and technology courses. (2) Prior to application of the instructional design, an open-ended question form prepared by the researchers and consisting of seven questions was applied to determine preparedness of all students in the classroom. (3) Application of the open-ended question form was followed by application of the instructional designs. (4) The application took 3 weeks (12 course hours). During the period of application, one of the researchers made an observation and an evaluation in terms of the conformity of the applied program with principles of the instructional design. As mentioned earlier, the application was not performed by researchers but by the science and technology teacher performing duty at the school subject to the application. Nevertheless, the practice teacher who took an active role in the period of application was ensured to take field notes. (5) At the end of the practice, the open- ended question form applied before the application of instructional design was re-applied and students were interviewed

180 Application of the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER Techniques S. Toraman & S. Altun Data Analysis In their natural course, qualitative researches incorporate different perspectives towards social life, types of analysis and a variety of perspectives and practices in analysis of qualitative data. Yıldırım and Şimşek (2011) indicate that each researcher is expected to develop a data analysis plan for their own research by acting not only from properties of research but also from properties of data collected and reviewing existing methods of analysis. At the end of the research, the data to be obtained under the light of the open-ended question form, documents, observations and interviews was interpreted through a content analysis. The main purpose is to have access to concepts and relationships that will be capable of explaining the data collected. Data are subject to a more thorough process in content analysis; concepts and themes which cannot be realized with a descriptive approach may be revealed upon such analysis. In this context, the content analysis of the data obtained upon the research was examined by three science education experts of the domain, and the data were inspected in terms of relevancy. Findings Findings Regarding the Instructional Design-1 In the first instructional design prepared via SCAMPER technique, the aim was to provide students with the following learning outcome: Explain the concepts of species, habitat, population and ecosystem with examples., Explain relationship of living organisms in an ecosystem both with each other and non-living factors. and Make predictions on living creatures which may be existent in different ecosystems. (SPS 9) In this frame, two questions were directed to the students. The analysis of the answers given to these questions by the students is presented below. In conformity with the learning outcome: Explain the concepts of species, habitat, population and ecosystem with examples., students were asked to give examples to these concepts and explain them. Prior to the application, it was observed that 14 students gave unsuitable/ wrong answers regarding the concepts. The expression "Habitat: Van cat, because it exists only in Van" by E 5 constitutes an example to unsuitable answers. It was observed that two students knew only the concept of habitat but did not give examples to that concept. The expression Habitat is a place where living creatures can survive and reproduce. by E 3 was submitted as an example to this concept. One student knew only ecosystem but could not give examples. The answer Ecosystem is a community in which living and non-living creatures exist. K 1 is an example to this situation. It was observed that (K 5 ) knew all the concepts but did not give examples. However, after the application, it was seen that all students knew the concepts in response to the questions directed and gave suitable examples to the concepts. In conformity with the following learning outcomes: "Explain relationship of living organisms in an ecosystem both with each other and non-living factors." and "Make predictions on living creatures which may be existent in different ecosystems.", students were asked the following question. "Select one of the ecosystems such as lake, sea, forest, etc. and explain the relationship of living and non-living creatures in these ecosystems with each other." When the answers obtained before the application were examined, it was found out that 5 students gave unsuitable answers. The answer "Sea: It is actually transparent but it is seen in blue colour as the colour of the sky is reflected on the sea." by the student with code E 4 constitutes an example to unsuitable answers. On the other hand, it was found out that 1 174

181 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 student selected one of the ecosystems and gave only one example which was for relationship of living creatures with each other; and 14 students selected one of the ecosystems and mentioned only the living creatures in that ecosystem but did not comment on the relationship between them. After the application, it was found out that 19 of the students answered to the same question and only 1 student did not. All of the 19 students who gave answers to the question were seen to have selected an ecosystem to explain and properly described relationships of living and non-living creatures with each other. The expression by K 1 is an example to this situation after the application: In a forest ecosystem, grass is fed by the energy that it receives from the sun. Grass is eaten by grasshopper. Snake preys on grasshopper and owl preys on snake. These creatures live in such a relationship. With regard to the three learning outcomes referred to in the instructional plan implemented via SCAMPER technique, the music of a forest ecosystem was played in the classroom. By asking them to know which ecosystem the music they heard belongs to, students were ensured to have access to the concept of "ecosystem"; they were also asked to choose a creature during Substitute stage, and were ensured to acquire the knowledge during the Combine stage that the mentioned concept is "species"; that the community formed by creatures coexisting in a specific area with selected the creature (species) is "population"; and during the Adapt stage, they were ensured to acquire the knowledge that that the environment in which the selected creature (species) exists is "habitat" and they were enabled to build the relationships between living creatures. The results obtained upon the application revealed the efficiency of the instructional design prepared and applied through scamper technique. Additionally, it was observed in paintings drawn by students which form the evaluation stage of the instructional design that students drew paintings of the forest ecosystem that they discussed upon; and they properly showed the relationships between living and non-living creatures. During interviews with the students, 4 themes emerged in respect of this instructional design and the technique applied. These are: a different application (frequency rate of 18), learning by having fun and discussing (frequency rate of 15), imagination and creativity (frequency rate of 8) and empathy (frequency rate of 3). The expression by E 5, which contains multiple themes, is as follows: We had too much fun. We have never taken such a different science class before. We learned by discussing. Stating that taking a course accompanied by music has a positive influence on his imagination and creativity and a discussion environment contributed to his attitude, K 3 reported: We stated our opinions, I closed my eyes while the music was playing, and I dreamt of being there. It worked a lot. I felt as if all creatures were with me. And we also learned to respect each other while discussing the matter". Whereas, the practice teacher İ.P. reported: I had never applied this technique before.. First I hesitated as I feared to experience any problem in application. But I received very good feedbacks from my students. They enjoyed the lesson very much. They realized that this is the only way for them to learn that they have to listen to each other even when the tension of debate is increased. Finally their attitude towards the lesson changed; their effort to express themselves as individuals improved their self -confidence and decision- making abilities." Findings Regarding the Instructional Design-2 The aim in the second instructional design prepared via SCAMPER technique was to ensure students to acquire the following learning outcomes in relation to areas in which organisms survive, and human impact on such areas; Compare ecosystems in terms of diversity of living creatures and climatic features (SPS-5,6). and Realize the biological diversity in the ecosystem and emphasize its importance.. In this frame, one question was directed to the students. The analysis of the answers given to this question by the students is presented below

182 Application of the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER Techniques S. Toraman & S. Altun It was found out that the question Write about the biological diversity in ecosystems by comparing them in terms of diversity of organisms and climatic features. was answered as "I don't know" by 14 students. Also, three students gave unsuitable answers. The statement by E 10 For instance, fish is consumed in high amounts as it is abundant in Black Sea climate. Whereas, tourism is more feasible in Mediterranean climate. is an example to unsuitable answers. Moreover, three students gave their example in response to this question only on basis of the survival condition of a single species. This was exemplified by K 7 s statement: Penguins can't survive in a desert. Likewise, camels can't survive. Students were handed out worksheets in relation to the two learning outcomes indicated in the instructional plan subject to SCAMPER technique. Worksheets contain a list in which there are three different ecosystems and different groups of species. Students were asked to match the species in the worksheets with the ecosystem which is suitable for the respective species. Later, each student was ensured to select one ecosystem and one species. Accordingly, each student was ensured to answer the questions arranged according to the stages: substitute, combine, adapt, modify, magnify, put to other uses, eliminate, reverse or rearrange. When answers given by the students during and after the application were examined, it was found out that 9 out of the students often mentioned about forest ecosystem, 9 often mentioned about desert ecosystem and 2 often mentioned about tundra ecosystem. All of the students were seen to have included land ecosystems in their paintings which they drew for evaluation at the end of the instructional design, and to have also prepared cartoons and acrostic about land ecosystems. Materials prepared by the students were exhibited in the science and technology corner at the school. During interviews held with the students, they reported that they enjoyed drawing cartoons and painting (frequency rate of 18), that the lesson is much more fun and enjoyable for them (frequency rate of 20), and presentation of the materials produced by themselves at the science and technology corner to the entire school made them very proud of themselves (frequency rate of 11). Findings Regarding the Instructional Design-3 The aim in the third instructional design prepared via the Six Thinking Hats technique was to ensure students to acquire the following learning outcomes in relation to areas in which organisms survive, and human impact on such areas; Give examples to plants and animals facing the danger of extinction both in our country and worldwide. and Make suggestions as to how plants and animals which face the danger of extinction in our country and worldwide.. In this frame, one question was directed to the students and the analysis of answers to the question is presented below. It was found out that one student gave an unsuitable answer to the question Give examples to plants and animals facing the danger of extinction both in our country and worldwide and write what can be done for conservation of these species which was directed to the students before the application. The answer by E 2 Results can be achieved by planting more trees and organizing a campaign to prevent environmental pollution. exemplifies this situation as it is rather related to solution of environmental pollution than creatures in danger of extinction. Also, seven students answered I don't know to this question. Frequencies of the examples given by twelve students in relation to creatures in danger of extinction and frequencies related to encodings including solution offers are submitted in Table

183 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Table 3. Analysis of answers regarding species in danger of extinction and their conservation Species in Danger of Extinction Solution Offers for Conservation of Species Encodings Application Before Frequency Encodings Application Before Seal 7 Preserving habitats 8 Penguin 2 Hunting ban 6 Polar bear 2 Making them breed 1 Hermit ibis 1 Van cat 1 Kangaroo 1 Panda 1 Ostrich 1 Frequency K 1 gave the following answer as an example to the answers received prior to the application: Seals are creatures that live in the sea and that face the danger of extinction. We should keep habitats of seals clean and create healthy living spaces for them so that they will survive and be conserved. The student with code E 10 answered: Hermit ibis is in danger of extinction. So hunting must not be uncontrolled and it must be banned. News reports, journals and photographs were handed out to the students with regard to the two learning outcomes mentioned in the instructional plan subject to the Six Thinking Hats technique. Later, the students were let to watch a documentary about the life story of penguins in danger of extinction, which they had seen in the photographs. Once the students completed the discussion process regarding protection of species in danger of extinction through the Six Thinking Hats technique, they were asked to prepare materials reflecting their solution offers and ideas, such as posters, banners, etc. After the application, frequency rates of the examples given by students for species in danger of extinction and frequency rates of encodings containing solution offers under the light of the students' materials, open-ended question form and interviews are submitted in Table 4 below. Table 4. Analysis of answers regarding species in danger of extinction and their conservation Species in Danger of Extinction Solution Offers for Conservation of Species Encodings After Application Frequency Encodings After Application Frequency Penguin 13 Preserving habitats 15 Seal 6 Hunting ban 9 Polar bear 6 Making them breed 3 Hermit ibis 5 Anatolian leopard 2 Short-beaked common dolphin 1 Panda 1 It was found out at the end of the application that all students gave suitable answers to the question. Unlike before the application, it was seen that the codes Anatolian leopard and short- beaked common dolphin appeared after the application; whereas, frequency rates of other encodings were seen to have increased. Moreover, it was found out that encodings -177-

184 Application of the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER Techniques S. Toraman & S. Altun regarding solution offers for conservation of the species did not change but increased in terms of frequency. The practice teacher İ.P. evaluated the instructional design and reported his observations of the students as follows: I had already used the Six Thinking Hats technique before. However, this instructional design impressed the children in a very different way probably as it contained many attractive visual elements. I closely examined their facial expressions while they were watching the documentary. They seemed to have a great wonder and interest. I think this proves that the instructional design is good and qualified. Another point that attracted my attention about the children was that this made a great contribution to improvement of their empathy skills. Also I am happy to see the positive change in their attitude towards the lesson. Findings Regarding the Instructional Design-4 The aim in the fourth instructional design prepared via the Six Thinking Hats technique was to ensure students to acquire the following learning outcome in relation to areas in which organisms survive, and human impact on such areas; Collect and submit information about one of the environmental problems in our country and worldwide, and discuss on its results.. In this frame, the question: "What are the environmental problems in our country and in the world? Explain with examples" was directed to the students and the analysis of answers to the question is presented below. Table 5. Analysis of answers regarding environmental problems in our country and in the world Environmental Problems Encodings Application Before Frequency Encodings After Application Frequency Environmental pollution 12 Air pollution 9 Destruction of forests 4 Stream pollution 8 Air pollution 3 Natural disasters 5 Global warming 1 Acid rains 5 Soil pollution 1 Global warming 5 Noise pollution 1 Nuclear pollution 4 Water pollution 1 Soil pollution 4 Unanswered 1 Water pollution 3 Noise pollution 2 Affective approach 3 As it is seen in Table 5, the codes observed in relation to the environmental problems in our country and in the world include "environmental pollution" with a frequency rate of 12, "destruction of forests" with a frequency rate of 4, "air pollution" with a frequency rate of 3, "global warming" with a frequency rate of 1, "soil pollution" with a frequency rate of 1, "noise pollution" with a frequency rate of 1 and "water pollution" with a frequency rate of 1. Also, 1 student left the question unanswered. When the student answers exemplifying the code "Environmental pollution" was examined, it was seen that all answers given by the students were the same and similar to the statement by the student with code E 1 People pollute the environment by dropping litter. I think this is the biggest problem both in our country and in the world." 178

185 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 A news report was handed out to the students with regard to the learning outcome mentioned in the instructional plan subject to the Six Thinking Hats technique and they were asked to think and discuss on the subject. Later, the students were asked to write a composition containing their suggestions regarding environmental problems in line with the opinions they infer. As is seen in Table 5, it was observed that a number of differences emerged in the encodings achieved regarding environmental problems in our country and in the world and their frequency. Unlike before the application, the codes Natural disasters, Nuclear pollution, Acid rains and Stream pollution were also observed after the application. Additionally, an increase was observed in frequency of the codes achieved after the application. The statements by three students at the end of the application were encoded as "Affective approach". The following answer by K 2 containing multiple codes exemplifies the situation: Air pollution, sea pollution, natural disasters and partly negligence of people are examples to environmental problems. For example, air pollution is caused by fumes emitted from factories. Sea pollution is also caused by our negligence. Pouring waste vegetable oil from kitchen basins causes sea pollution.. During the interviews held, the students reported that the Six Thinking Hats technique had also been used in courses before but the current applications were different from the former ones. Moreover, students indicated that their observation, research and questioning skills developed, reporting: We started to think and question a lot more. For example, we observe the environment more often since we first experienced these applications. We examine more. The practice teacher İ.P. supported such statements of the students, indicating that their awareness was raised. Findings Regarding the Instructional Design-5 The aim in the fifth instructional design prepared via the Six Thinking Hats technique was to ensure students to acquire the following learning outcomes in relation to areas in which organisms survive, and human impact on such areas; Make inferences of how an environmental problem in the world may affect our country. and Suggest solutions and attend activities aiming at collaboration against environmental problems in our country and worldwide. In this frame, two questions were directed to the students and the analysis of answers to the question is presented below. The students were asked: What kind of a world (environment) will be waiting for us and the next generations in the next 2 decades? Why? Themes obtained from answers before and after answers and their frequencies are submitted in Table 6 below. Table 6. Analysis of answers regarding the future of the world (environment) for the next generations in the next 2 decades World in the Next 2 Decades (Environment) Themes Before Application Frequency Themes After Application Frequency Negative/ Pessimistic approach 16 Negative/ Pessimistic approach 15 Positive/ Optimistic approach 1 Positive/ Optimistic approach 3 Measure 1 Measure 2 Unanswered

186 Application of the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER Techniques S. Toraman & S. Altun As is seen in Table 6, three themes emerged out of the data obtained from students' answers before the application. Theme negative/ pessimistic approach was observed with a frequency rate of 16; while theme positive/ optimistic approach was observed with a frequency rate of 1 and theme measure with a frequency rate of 1. Two students did not answer this question. E 2 's following answer exemplified theme negative/ pessimistic approach : I think that a more technological but a more heavily polluted world will be waiting for us. ; whereas E9 answered: Everything will change for the good and the world will be a clean place.. The answer by E 3 exemplifying theme Measure is as follows: A clean environment will be waiting for us if we take measures already. When answers by the students after the application were examined, theme negative/ pessimistic approach was observed with a frequency rate of 15; while theme positive/ optimistic approach was observed with a frequency rate of 3 and theme measure with a frequency rate of 2. Also, all students were observed to have answered to this question. K 3 stated: A world lack of green environment will be waiting for us. This is because more buildings are constructed as the population grows, and people cut the trees to find more space for buildings., which exemplified theme negative/ pessimistic approach. The answer by K 7 exemplifies the same theme: What will be waiting for us is a world which is heavily polluted, and under the greenhouse effect, which is more easily exposed to harmful sun beams and acid rains. This is because we cause great damage on the environment by using things causing environmental pollution. Another question directed to the students was: What kinds of activities are being performed to address environmental problems in our country and in the world (ozone layer depletion, nuclear pollution)? What kind of activities do you additionally suggest?. Themes obtained before and after answers and their frequencies are submitted in Table 7 below. Table 7. Analysis of answers regarding activities addressing environmental problems Activities Regarding Environmental Problems Themes Before Application Frequency Themes After Application Frequency Ozone- friendly products 3 Ozone- friendly products 11 Use of perfumes 1 Planting trees 10 Planting trees 1 Recycling 9 I don't know 16 Renewable sources of energy 6 Before the application, three themes emerged in answers given by the students regarding activities to address environmental problems. Theme ozone - friendly products was observed with a frequency rate of 3; while theme use of perfumes was observed with a frequency rate of 1 and theme planting trees with a frequency rate of 1. Also, 16 students stated that they don't know the answer. Exemplifying themes Ozone friendly products and planting trees E 8 answered: Ozone friendly products are used. One shouldn't use perfumes which have any warning about ozone layer damage on their bottles. Whereas, the student K 2 stated: trees are the source of life, this is way trees are planted, exemplifying theme "planting trees". A worksheet about environmental problems encountered worldwide was handed out to the students with regard to a learning outcome mentioned in the instructional plan subject to the Six Thinking Hats technique. Accordingly, students were asked to select an environmental 180

187 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 problem, think on it and discuss on the subject after performing research through tools provided for them. They were asked to write compositions reflecting the ideas they inferred after the design. When the answers were examined, all students were seen to have answered the question. Also, themes recycling and renewable sources of energy were seen to have emerged. Theme Ozone friendly products was observed with a frequency rate of 11; theme planting trees was observed with a frequency rate of 10, theme recycling was observed with a frequency rate of 9 and theme renewable sources of energy with a frequency rate of 6. When the compositions reflecting ideas inferred by the students after their discussion were examined, it was found out that their sensitivity towards the environment increased and their comments reflected their observations. As an example to this situation, K 5 wrote the following text which contained multiple themes: We human beings are being too selfish. We think only about ourselves. We should leave next generations a beautiful environment which is worth to live. On the contrary, we are using products that will harm ozone layer. People are causing more exhaust gas emission to the air and harming the environment by going to work by their own cars. We should give importance to using renewable sources of energy and use recycle bins in conformity with their purposes. After the application, materials prepared by the students were exhibited at the school at an event organized in scope of "June 5 World Environment Day". Students were proud of the materials they prepared; and they said they were also happy to raise awareness of other people around them. Interviews held with the students, field notes of the teacher and observations of the researcher revealed that the instructional design prepared via the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER techniques ensured the student to develop a positive attitude towards the lesson and to show empathy and also improved their research and questioning skills. Additionally, the teacher reported that the designs prepared via these techniques raised awareness of the students regarding "Human and Environment" unit. Discussion and Conclusion Conclusions based on research findings can be summarized as follows; As a result of the practices in frame of the instructional designs prepared via SCAMPER technique, improvements were observed in the students' opinions as to what the habitats in which organisms live are and what the concepts related to these areas are; the relationship of living organisms in an ecosystem with each other and with non-living factors and also creatures which may exist in different ecosystems. It can be suggested that the SCAMPER technique can ensure cognitive development of the students in the related subjects by providing them with the opportunity to act beyond mental patterns, and encouraging them to think creatively by motivating them to change or combine their opinions. Also, they were seen to have performed improvement in comparing ecosystems in terms of diversity of living creatures and climatic features. As also mentioned by Serrat (2009), it can be said that this situation arises from the fact that SCAMPER technique ensures an individual to question a situation, produce solutions for the problem, and enable the individual to carry out individual work, group work and exchange of ideas during the process of producing solutions. As a result of the application of instruction designs prepared via the Six Thinking Hats technique, it was revealed that students could give examples to plants and animals facing the danger of extinction in our country and in the world; their awareness on environmental problems in our country and in the world were raised and they could make different suggestions regarding these problems. As also stated by De Bono (2002), it can be argued that -181-

188 Application of the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER Techniques S. Toraman & S. Altun this situation is due to the fact that the Six Thinking Hats technique prevents ego from being active during thinking activities of individuals so that creative brains which are thus set free find an opportunity to examine and evaluate the subject completely. Moreover, it can be considered that diversity emerged in solution offers of individuals at the end of the process owing to the fact that this technique prevents different opinions from coalescing into one. On the other hand, it was revealed that majority of the students have a negative/ pessimistic approach regarding the world and the environment in future both before and after the application; and they possessed the main point of view that the "world will be a dirty place" in future. It can be argued that opinions related to the world and the environment vary as the Six Thinking Hats technique allows the thinker to experience different ways of thinking rather than a single one. In this study, the students developed not only their psycho-motor skills by using colored cardboards, scissors, craft papers, crepe papers, modeling clay, pastels, dry paints, adhesives, cardboard, markers, colored pencils etc., but also their cognitive skills by preparing acrostic, pictures, poems and cartoons. It was found out that some students with low rate of success and low attendance rate actively attended this process and had an increased interest in the lesson, displaying their creativity especially in events such as writing acrostic, drawing cartoons and paintings. Works performed by Thomas (2000), Coşkun (2004), Aladağ (2005), Çıbık (2006), Yılmaz (2006), Görecek (2007), Uzun (2007) and Feyzioğlu et al., (2012) support this result. It was found out that the students who actively implemented the activity of achieving and sharing the knowledge made a progress in their skills to share their opinions through group works, to discuss, to make presentations, to defend their opinions, to express their ideas, to respect their friends' opinions and to ask questions. It can be said that both techniques provided students with these skills through different ways. The study by Arslan and Şahin (2004) supports this result. The students with interest in studying reported that their sensitivity increased and their points of view changed. Therefore, it can be argued that contribution was also made to affective development of the students. Suggestions These applications realized through instructional designs prepared through the Six Thinking Hats and Scamper techniques can as well be performed at different learning steps and in different units. Nevertheless, when the period in the instructional program for the "Human and environment" unit is considered, it can be said that the applications remain limited and action plans regarding the environment and the nature cannot be adequately implemented. For this reason, it can be suggested that future studies should cover such applications whereby individuals can focus on the solution of environmental problems and put them into action. References Akçay, H. and Yager R.E. (2010). The Impact of Science/Technology/Society/Teaching Approach on Student Learning in Five Domains. Journal of Science Education Technology (JSET), 19: DOI: /s Aktamış, H. & Ergin, Ö. (2006). Science education and creativity. Journal of Buca Faculty of Educational Sciences, Dokuz Eylül University. 20: Aktepe, V. & Aktepe, L. (2009). Teaching method using science and technology education on students aspects: the example of Kırşehir BİLSEM. Journal of Kırşehir Faculty of Educational Sciences, Ahi Evran University (KEFAD) Volume 10, Issue 1, (69-80). 182

189 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Aksoy, G. (2005). The effect of scientific method process, which is based on creative thinking, on the learning outcomes in science instruction. (Unpublished Master's Thesis). Zonguldak: Institute of Social Sciences, Zonguldak Karaelmas University. Aladağ, S. (2005), The effect of project based learning approach in teaching mathematics to the academic achievements and attitudes in primary education. (Unpublished Master's Thesis). Institute of Educational Sciences, Gazi University: Ankara. Altıkulaç, A. & Akhan, E.N. (2010). The effects of using the creative drama method and six thinking hat technique on student success and attitudes in eighth grade revolution history and kemalism lesson. Journal of the Faculty of Educational Sciences, Ahi Evran University, Volume 11, Issue 3, P Arslan, A. and Şahin, Y.T. (July, 2004). Effects of cooperative learning based on constructivist approach to students emotional learning. VIIIth National Congress of Educational Sciences. Faculty of Educational Sciences, Inönü University, Malatya. Atkıncı, H. (2001). Effect of first stage primary curriculum on creative thinking. (Unpublished Master's Thesis) Department of Educational Sciences, 18 Mart University, Çanakkale. Ayas, A., Çepni, S. & Akdeniz, A. R. (1993). Development of the Turkish secondary science curriculum. Science Education, 77(4), Aydede, M.N., Çağlayan, Ç., Matyar, F., and Gülnaz, O. (2006). Science and technology teachers opinions on used teaching methods and techniques. Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences, Çukurova University, 3 (32), Böke, K., (2009). Sosyal Bilimlerde Araştırma Yöntemleri [Research Methods in Social Science]. Istanbul: Melisa Publ. Briggs, C. (1986). Learning how to ask: A sociolinguistic appraisal of the role of the interview in social science research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Buser, K.J., Buser, J.T., Gladding, T.S. & Wilkerson, J. (2011). The Creative Counselor: Using the SCAMPER Model in Counselor Training. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 6:4, Can, A.H. & Semerci, N. (2007). The effect of The six thinking hats technique on students academic achievement in social studies at primary school. Education and Science Journal. Volume 32, Issue 145. PP The Effect of The Six Thinking Hats Technique on the Students Academic Achievement in Social Studies at Primary School Coşkun, M. (2004). Project based learning approach in geography education. (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Institute of Educational Sciences, Gazi University: Ankara. Çepni S. (2010). Araştırma ve Proje Çalışmalarına Giriş [Introduction to Research and Project Studies]. Trabzon. Çıbık Sert A. (2006 ). The effects of project based learning approach to the logical thinking ability and attitude of students in science lesson. (Unpublished Master's Thesis). Institute of Social Sciences, Çukurova University: Adana. De Bono, Edward (2002). Altı Şapkalı Düşünme Tekniği [Six Thinking Hats Technique]. İstanbul: Remzi Publ. Demirci, C. (2007). The effect of creativity on achievement and attitudes in teaching science. Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences, Hacettepe University. 32: Erginer, E. (2000). Öğretimi Planlama Uygulama ve Değerlendirme [Planning Implementation and evaluation of teaching]. Anı Publ, Ankara

190 Application of the Six Thinking Hats and SCAMPER Techniques S. Toraman & S. Altun Feyzioğlu, B., Kiremit, Ö. H., Samur, Ö. A. and Aladağ, E. (2012). Yibo s are thinking scientifically in natural environment. Journal of Research in Education and Teaching, Volume:1, Issue: 4. Gladding, S.T. (2011). Using creativity and the creative arts in counseling: An International approach, Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 4 (35), s Görecek, M. (2007). Investigation of the effects of using project works to teach the unit getting to know and protecting our planet, we share with all the other creatures in science course on student success and attitude. (Unpublished Master's Thesis). Institute of Educational Sciences, Muğla University: Muğla. Güneş, T., Dilek, N. Ş., Hoplan, and M., Güneş, O. (April, 2011). A Research on Application of Science and Technology Course by Teachers. International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their Implications, Antalya-Turkey İşman, A., Baytekin, Ç., Balkan, F., Horzum, B. & Kıyıcı, M. (2002). Science education and structuralist approach. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, Volume:1, Issue: 1. Kaptan, F. and Korkmaz, H. (2002). The effects of project based learning on elementary school students academic achievement, academic self concepts and study time in science education. Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences, Hacettepe University, 22, Karasar, N. (2002). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi [Scientific Research Method], Ankara: Nobel Publ. Kaya, M.F. (2013). The Effect of the Six Thinking Hats on Student Success in Teaching Subjects Related to Sustainable Development in Geography Classes. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice - 13(2) Spring Koray, Ö. (2003). The influence of science education based on creative thinking on learning products. (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Institute of Social Sciences. Gazi University: Ankara. Koray, Ö. (July, 2004). Students opinions on the implementation of techniques for creative thinking techniques by Six Thinking Hats and Qualification Techniques in science lessons. XIIIth National Conference of Educational Sciences, Faculty of Education, Inonu University, Malatya May T. (1996). Social Research: Issues, Methods and Process. Fourth Edition. Open University Press: USA. MEB (Turkish Ministry of Education) (2005). Science and Technology Class (Grades 6,7 and 8) Instruction Schedule for Primary Education. Ankara. Patton, M.Q. (1987). How to Use Qualitative Methods in evaluation. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Punch, F.K., (2005). Sosyal Araştırmalara Giriş Nitel ve Nicel Yaklaşımlar [Social Research Methods Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches]. Ankara: Siyasal Publ. Robson, C. (2001). Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and Practitioner Researchers. Eighth Edition. Black Well: Oxford UK&Cambridge USA. Serrat, O. (2009). The SCAMPER Technique. (Retrieved on from ) Thomas, J. W. (2000). A Review Of Research On Project-Based Learning. Buck Institute For Education. Retrieved October 1, 2004, From Toraman, S. (2013). An action research to develop 6 th and 7 th grade students 184

191 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 associations of science, technology, society, environment: I educate my environment. (Unpublished Master's Thesis). Institute of Educational Sciences, Sakarya University: Sakarya. Uzun, Ç. (2007). At primary school 4 and 5 classes, in the unit of, Let s wonder and recognize world of living beings science and technology subject, the effect of project based learning to academic achievement and retention level. (Unpublished Master's Thesis). Institute of Social Sciences, Afyon Kocatepe University: Afyonkarahisar Yağcı, E. (2012). A study on parents opinions on directed brain storming technique: SCAMPER.. Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences, Hacettepe University. Issue 43. PP Yaman, S. (2003). The effects on the learning outputs of problem based learning in science education. (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation).Institute of Educational Sciences, Gazi University: Ankara. Yıldırım A. & Şimşek H. (2011). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri [Qualitative Research Methods in Social Sciences]. (8th Edition). Ankara: Seçkin Publ. Yıldız, V. & Israel, E. (2001). A way to develop creativity: SCAMPER. Yaşadıkça Eğitim, 74-75, Yılmaz, O. (2006). The effects of project based learning on the learners academic achievement, creativity and attitude at social studies in the 7 th grade of primary school. (Unpublished Master's Thesis). Institute of Social Sciences, Zonguldak Karaelmas University: Zonguldak. Yin, R. (1994). Case study research: design and methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publ

192 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at School Policies and Practices at Upper Secondary Schools in Turkey According to PISA 2009 Data Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: PISA, school policy and practices, upper secondary school Mustafa OZMUSUL* Faculty of Education, Harran University, Sanliurfa, Turkey Gulsun ATANUR BASKAN Faculty of Education, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey In this study, the question According to PISA 2009 data, what is the situation of the school policies and practices at upper secondary schools in Turkey? was answered. Study group included 150 principals at upper secondary schools, which were taken into PISA 2009 Turkey sample. The data related to school policies and practices used in this study were derived from OECD database of which were the responses of school principals to the questions placed in the part F of the PISA 2009 school questionnaire. The dimensions of study are as follows: The considered factors in admitting students to school; grouping students; the reasons for transferring students; using assessment of student data in declaration/transparency and monitoring-developing; the methods for monitoring the practice of teachers; using assessment of student data in evaluation of teachers and principal s performance. Using data from the PISA 2009, the findings suggest that equity is not taken sufficiently into account for school policies and practices, and administrative accountability is used predominantly rather than professional accountability. Introduction PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) is a study in which countries presenting 90% of world economy participate to monitor the situation of basic education systems, and presents considerable data to monitor the learning outcomes and to establish an effective education system in terms of determining the needed policies and practices. Additionally, PISA provides policy makers and practitioners with useful tools to improve the quality, equity and effectiveness in education through determining the common characteristics of successful students, schools, and education systems. Without such a consideration, it seems impossible to determine the strong and week aspects of basic education systems, and to reveal the points which should be improved and supported (Schleicher, 2007, s. 350). In turn, the data derived from PISA are vital in terms of monitoring and improving the basic education systems. In the PISA 2009, one of the dimensions in the school questionnaire applied for the school principals has been school policies and practices. The variables placed in this dimension can be given as follows (OECD, 2011): student admission and placement policies; transferring students to other schools, accountability policies, using achievement data, monitoring teacher * Correspondence: Faculty of Education, Harran University, Sanliurfa, Turkey [email protected]

193 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 practices, schools autonomy, and school principals leadership. Educational policy is determining the principles and actions related to educational issues designed for achieving the aims which should be requested and followed (Trowler, 2003, s. 95). In this regard, the core policies in education are shaped through the relations between education process and aims. The policy in education has a considerable impact on what happens and the experiences gained at the school. Also it should be a dialectic process because the developing policy displays continuity. During this process, all the situations which may be affected by policies should be taken into account. Besides, in the policy making process, many steps such as producing, investigating, discussing and debating, legitimating and implementing the alternatives are followed (Bell & Stevenson, 2006, p. 2-23). A great majority of the practitioners of policies in the education are administrators and related staff at the rank level, school principals, and teachers. Nevertheless the teachers are not robots implement the commands given by the rank levels, but they decide in a social and cultural context. Thus, all policies can be changed scarcely or majorly during the implementation process (Fowler, 2000, s. 11; Mazmanian & Sabatier, 1989). For instance, when the policies established gorgeously and expansively in a capital city arrive in a rural area, they can be contravened. For that, the policies should be designed with the practices (Adams, 2008, s. 111). School leaders can not be far from the determining policy and adapting process. Also a considerable part of their responsibilities as public employees is to seek to provide most suitable policies for the school. After deciding the policy, it should be considered that how the policy is to be implemented. Because, following the rules and new arrangements do not indicate that polices are implemented automatically. Achieving the practices depends on motivating teachers and providing them with needed resources. Since the school principals have a considerable role in developing and implementing the policies, they are expected to develop the action plans of policies, motivate teachers and other staff for collaboration, determine the needed resources, and give feedback. Consequently, today s school leaders have a different role rather than in the past; and this requires to qualify in the public leadership (Fowler, 2000, s ). The studies regarding PISA in Turkey in the literature can be divided into four group as follows: The studies evaluating generally the PISA (Özmusul, 2012; Ural, 2011; Köseleci Blanchy & Şaşmaz, 2011; Yalçın, 2011; Çelen et. al, 2011; MEB, 2010; ERG, 2010; TEPAV, 2010; Uysal-Kolaşin & Güner, 2010; Ovayolu, 2010; Cinoğlu, 2009; Dinçer & Uysal Kolaşin, 2009; Akkuş, 2008; Acar, 2008; MEB, 2007; MEB, 2005) the studies investigating the factors affecting reading, mathematics, and science achievement (Yılmaz Fındık, 2012; Gürsakal, 2012; Yalçın vd., 2012; Yıldırım, 2012; Acar & Öğretmen, 2012; Azapağası İlbağı, 2012; Anıl, 2011; Özer & Anıl, 2011; Anagün, 2011; Şengül, 2011; İş Güzel & Berberoğlu, 2010; MEB, 2010; Boztunç, 2010; Çelebi, 2010; Akyüz & Pala, 2010; Demir & Kılıç, 2010; Albayrak, 2009; Anıl, 2009; Anıl, 2008; Çalışkan, 2008; Çiftçi, 2006; Erbaş, 2006; Şaşmazel, 2006; Yılmaz, 2006; Aşkar & Olkun, 2005), the comparative studies (Eraslan, 2009; Akarsu, 2009; Aydın, vd. 2012) and technical studies (Asil & Gelbal, 2012; Güzeller, 2011; Uyar, 2011; Tepehan, 2011; Ayan, 2011; Seis, 2011; Aydoğdu İskenderoğlu & Baki, 2011; Asil, 2010; Demir, 2010; Atalay, 2010; Çetin, 2010; Çirci, 2009; Çet, 2006; Savran, 2004). When considering these studies, it can be said that the PISA studies in Turkey have been predominantly in the limelight of the researchers in the division of measurement and evaluation, and curriculum and instruction

194 School Policies and Practices at Upper Secondary Schools in Turkey M. Ozmusul & G. Atanur Baskan In Turkey, it can be said that the PISA data have not been sufficiently and deeply investigated in terms of educational administration. In this sense, the question According to PISA 2009 data, what is the situation of the school policies and practices at upper secondary schools in Turkey? was answered. The sub questions are as follows: What is the situation of the upper secondary schools policies and practices related to: (1) the considered factors in admitting students to school? (2) grouping students? (3) the reasons for transferring students? (4) using assessment of student data in declaration/transparency? (5) using assessment of student data in monitoring-developing? (6) the methods for monitoring the practice of teachers? (7) using assessment of student data in evaluation of teachers and principal s performance? Method This study was performed as a descriptive research in terms of investigating the situation of upper secondary schools school policies and practices. In this study, a study group consisted of 150 school principals at upper secondary school was established in consequence of removing primary schools from total 170 schools taken into PISA 2009 Turkey sample. The sampling design, and procedures concerning reliability, validity, and usability of questionnaires are given explained in detail in the technical report (OECD, 2012). Table 1 shows the distribution of school principals in the study group according to school/programme types. As can be seen in the table, among the 150 school principals; 37,4 percent works at vocational schools (including Anatolian vocational schools), 38,7 percent works at general high schools, 5,3 percent works at multi programme high schools, 14,7 percent works at Anatolian high schools, 1,3 percent works at Anatolian teacher training high schools, 2 percent works at science high schools, and 0,7 percent works at Anatolian fine arts high school. Table 1: Distribution of school principals in the study group according to school/programme types School/Programme Types f % Anatolian Vocational High School; Technical High School; Anatolian Technical High School 1 0,7 Anatolian Vocational High School 1 0,7 Multi Programme High School 8 5,3 General High School 58 38,7 Anatolian High School 22 14,7 Science High School 3 2,0 Anatolian Teacher Training High School 2 1,3 Anatolian Fine Arts High School 1 0,7 Vocational High School; Anatolian Vocational High School; Technical High School; Anatolian 9 Technical High School 6,0 Vocational High School; Anatolian Vocational High School; Technical High School 2 1,3 Vocational High School; Anatolian Vocational High School 19 12,7 Vocational High School; Technical High School; Anatolian Technical High School 7 4,7 Vocational High School; Anatolian Technical High School 5 3,3 Vocational High School 12 8,0 Total

195 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 The data related to school policies and practices used in this study were derived from OECD database of which were the responses of school principals to the questions placed in the part F of the PISA 2009 school questionnaire (OECD, 2011, p ). Additionally, the questions related to grouping students and using student achievement data were taken into the study because they associated to the policies and practices. In order to elicit the research questions, the frequency and percentage values of the responses of school principals to the school questionnaire were used. Findings and Discussion Table 2 shows the considered factors when students are admitted to the school. As the table indicates, when students are admitted to the school, the most considered factor (sometimes or always) is student s academic achievement. It is followed by recommendation of feeder schools, whether the student requires or is interested in a special programme, residence in a particular area, other reasons, and finally, preference given to family members of current or former students. Furthermore, when students are admitted, the percentage of school principals reporting that other reasons are considered (sometimes or always) is Consequently, it may argue that many unclear factors (others=?) are considered in addition to the factors given above when admitting students to the school. Table 2: The considered factors when students are admitted to the school Factors Never Sometimes Always f % f % f % Residence in a particular area 66 44, , ,7 Student s record of academic performance (including placement tests) 50 33, , ,7 Recommendation of feeder schools 48 32, , ,0 Whether the student requires or is interested in a special programme 52 34, , ,3 Preference given to family members of current or former students 97 64, ,0 12 8,0 Other 62 41, ,0 14 9,3 Table 3 shows grouping students by ability. As can be seen in the table, 55 percent of school principals reports that students are grouped by ability into different classes for all subjects or some subjects. In parallel, 26,8 percent of upper secondary schools groups students by ability for all subjects. In turn, a considerable part of schools tend to have the policy of grouping students by ability. Nevertheless, this policy seems controversial in terms of equity dimension when considering that some classrooms may consist of high achievers while some classrooms may consist of low achievers Table 3: Grouping students by ability For all For some Not for any Item subjects subjects subject f % f % f % Students are grouped by ability into different classes 40 26, , ,0 Table 4 shows using assessments of students for grouping for instructional purposes. As can be seen in the table, 73,3 percent of school principals report that assessments of students are used for grouping students for instructional purposes. This high percentage can be explained by a wide variety of types of upper secondary schools and programmes in Turkey. In addition to selecting students by central exams, on the other hand, tendency of schools to admit students according to academic performance; grouping students for instructional purposes -189-

196 School Policies and Practices at Upper Secondary Schools in Turkey M. Ozmusul & G. Atanur Baskan may indicate a strict selection-elimination policy at upper secondary school system. A finding by OECD (2010, p. 37) suggests that there is a negative relation between the policy of selecting and grouping students and achievement. Thus, the comments made above are explicitly important. Item Table 4: Using assessments of students for grouping for instructional purposes In your school, are assessments of students in <national modal grade for instructional for 15-year-olds> used for grouping for instructional purposes Yes No f % f % , ,7 Table 5 shows the reasons for transferring students to another school. As can be seen in the table, the most likely (likely or very likely) reason for transferring students to another school is behavioural problems, and the less likely reason is low academic achievement. The most likely reason which is behavioural problems may indicate that schools tend to transfer the students with behavioural problems to another school. Only 10 percent of school principals responded not likely to the regarding question. In parallel, it seems remarkable that a considerable part of the school principals, 53,3 percent of study group, tends to report that the behavioural problems is the reason of transferring students to another school. Consequently, this situation may create serious pressures on the upper secondary school system and social system in terms of both the students sense of the school belonging and the potentially risky behaviours of students transferred to another school. Moreover, the high percentage of (64,7 % of) the school principals, who tends to report transferring students to another school because of special learning needs, may suggest that schools are unable to meet such students learning needs sufficiently. Table 5: The reasons for transferring students to another school Reasons Not likely Likely Very likely f % f % f % Low academic achievement 57 38, ,3 12 8,0 Behavioural problems 15 10, , ,0 Special learning needs 39 26, , ,0 Other 19 12, ,0 10 6,7 Additionally, as Table 5 indicates, the another high percentage of (62,7 % of) school principals, who tends to report transferring students to another school because of the other reasons, may indicate that there are many unclear factors in transferring students to another school. The reasons for transferring students to another school arise predominantly from changing the residence; however, many reasons can be adduced as follows: over-crowded schools, decreasing class size, suspension or expulsion policies, school selection, general academic achievement, and social climate etc. (Rumberger, 2003, s. 6). Table 6 shows the purposes of using assessment of student data and achievement data in terms of declaration/transparency. As can be seen in the table, the assessment and achievement data are mostly used to provide information to parents of students on their child s academic performance relative to other students (89,3 % of school principals reported); are least used to post publicly in terms of declaration/transparency (48 % of school principals reported). Since the high percentage of (89,3 % of) school principals, who reports the achievement data are used to provide to parents on comparatively information on students academic performance, may create serious pressure on both parents and students, it can be said that the upper secondary school system encounters a high cost. Moreover, since the percentage (approximately 70 %) of school principals, who reports that the information is

197 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 provided to parents on their child s academic performance relative to out of school benchmarks, may indicate a competition among the schools, it can increase the pressure on the teachers, administrators, and other stakeholders as well as the parents and students. On the other hand, Table 6 displays almost half (48 %) of the school principals report that achievement data are posted publicly. Because the schools have no obligation to post publicly the achievement data, it can argue that the schools which post publicly these data have good student achievement data. In turn, it can be said that the schools adopt this policy provoke competition among the schools against to the schools with low performance, and increase the pressure on the stakeholders. Table 6: The purposes of using assessment of student data and achievement data in terms of declaration/transparency The items Yes No f % f % to provide information to parents of students on their child s academic performance relative to other students ,3 13 8,7 to provide information to parents of students on their child s academic performance relative to students in the same grade in other schools , ,3 to provide information to parents of students on their child s academic performance relative to national or regional <benchmarks> , ,0 To compare the school with other schools , ,3 Achievement data are posted publicly (e.g. in the media) 72 48, ,3 To compare the school to <district or national> performance , ,3 Table 7 shows the purposes of using assessment of student data and achievement data in terms of monitoring-developing. The assessment and achievement data are mostly used to inform parents about their child s progress (93,3 % of school principals reported); are least used to identify aspects of instruction or the curriculum that could be improved (54 % of school principals reported) in terms of monitoring-developing. It can be said that a considerable part of the schools provide information to parents on the progress of their student. It seems that schools show a positive approach in terms of monitoring the achievement data. Additionally, when considering the percentage of school principals, who reports that achievement data are tracked over time by an administrative authority (76 %), and are used to monitor the school s progress from year to year (82,7 %); it can be said that most of schools adopt a good policy in terms of monitoring the assessment of student data. Table 7: The purposes of using assessment of student data and achievement data in terms of monitoring-developing The items Yes No F % F To inform parents about their child s progress ,3 10 6,7 To monitor the school s progress from year to year , ,3 Achievement data are tracked over time by an administrative authority , ,7 To identify aspects of instruction or the curriculum that could be improved 81 54, ,0 Nevertheless, Table 7 suggests that almost half of the schools (46 % of school principals) reports that assessments of students are not used to identify aspects of instruction or the curriculum. For that, it seems that the schools do not fulfill sufficiently the duty expected from them in terms of investigating and improving the weak aspects of instruction, and implementing the principle of student centered curriculum. Also disusing the assessments of students for improving the instruction or curriculum in a considerable part of the schools may fail to consider the learning needs of some students. For that, this situation can be accepted as a reason of student failure. When investigating the literature, there is limited research on the -191-

198 School Policies and Practices at Upper Secondary Schools in Turkey M. Ozmusul & G. Atanur Baskan data usage at the schools in Turkey. The study conducted by Demir (2009, p. 393) at the primary schools concluded that the data, except perceptual data, were collected inclusively, but the collected data, except central exam and pilot tests, were not used mostly by school administrators in the decisions for improving student achievement or developing school. Development of schools, fulfillment of the duties expected from them, and overcoming the problems depend on making an applicable strategic plan and implementing it effectively (Çalık, 2003, p ). However, the results of the studies indicate that schools in Turkey fail in strategic planning owing to the problems related to the knowledge, motivation, support, duration, budget, legal issues, and human resources etc (Çalık, 2003, s. 265; Işık & Aypay, 2004, s. 349; Memduhoğlu, & Uçar, 2012, s. 246; Yelken, Üredi & Kılıç, 2012, s ; Soydan, 2009, s ). On the other hand, the study conducted by Çalık (2003, s. 265) in Ankara revealed that high schools were more week in the strategic planning than the primary schools. The reasons for this situation, following obstacles were cited: more discipline problems, physical inadequacies, excessive student numbers, insufficient budget, and less parent support. In Turn, these obstacles seem considerable clue to reveal the reasons of inability of schools in developing/improving dimension. Table 8 shows the methods used to monitor the practice of teachers at the school. As can be seen in the table, the most preferred method for monitoring the practice of teachers is principal or senior staff observations of lessons (86,7 % of school principals reported); the least preferred method is teacher peer review (45,3 % school principals reported). The high percentage of school principals, who reports that the observations of lessons is used mostly for monitoring the practice of teachers, may attribute to the existence of administrative accountability approaches, which determine and reward the good teachers, good schools, and good districts obtain good student achievement data, but to sanction the others obtain bad data. However, it is clear that the teacher peer review should be given predominantly at the schools when considering that teachers attend more actively to the teaching-learning process than school principals do, and they can evaluate effectively each other s practices. Consequently, it can be said that there are mainly administrative approaches in monitoring the practices of teachers at the school, rather than professional accountability (supporting the school staff and requests of public, instead of adjusting what should be done, and how should be done). Table 8: The methods used to monitor the practice of teachers at the school The methods Yes No F % f % Tests or assessments of student achievement , ,0 Teacher peer review (of lesson plans, assessment instruments, lessons) 68 45, ,3 Principal or senior staff observations of lessons , ,0 Also, as Table 8 indicates, 83,3 % of school principals report that the tests or assessments of student achievement are used to monitor the practice of teachers. When considering that there are many factors affect student achievement, and the socio-economic background of student is a considerable variable among them; using test scores or similar assessments of students in monitoring the practices of teachers, may cause pressure on the teachers particularly who work at the schools having low socio-economic background, and may cause that the schools encounter the problems aroused by administrative accountability. Table 9 shows using achievement data in evaluation of the principal s and teachers -192-

199 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 performance. As can be seen in the table, the percentage of school principals (72 %) who reports that the achievement data are used in evaluation of teachers performance is considerably higher than the percentage of school principals (46 %) who reports the data are used in evaluation of principals performance. This finding may indicate that the teachers are held more responsible for student achievement rather than school principals. Additionally, it may indicate that school principals display insufficient instructional leadership in using achievement data in evaluation. Table 9: Using achievement data in evaluation of the principal s and teachers performance Items Yes No f % f % Achievement data are used in evaluation of the principal's performance 69 46, ,0 Achievement data are used in evaluation of teachers' performance , ,0 Conclusions When students are admitted to the school, the most considered factor is student s academic achievement (including placement tests). It is followed by - recommendation of feeder schools, - whether the student requires or is interested in a special programme, - residence in a particular area, - other reasons, and finally, - preference given to family members of current or former students More than half (55 percent) of schools place the students to the different classes in all subjects or some subjects; and a great majority (73.3 %) of them use the assessments of students to group students for instructional purposes. The most likely reason for transferring students to another school is behavioral problems. It is followed by - other reasons, - special learning needs, and - low academic achievement. The assessment of student data is mostly used to provide information to parents of students on their child s academic performance relative to other students in terms of declaration/transparency. It is followed by - to compare the school with other schools, - to compare the school to <district or national> performance, - to provide information to parents of students on their child s academic performance relative to national or regional <benchmarks>, - to provide information to parents of students on their child s academic performance relative to students in the same grade in other schools, and to post publicly. The assessment of student data is mostly used to inform parents about their child s progress in terms of monitoring-developing. It is followed by - to monitor the school s progress from year to year, - to track achievement data over time by an administrative authority, and - to identify aspects of instruction or the curriculum that could be improved. The most preferred method for monitoring the practice of teachers is principal or senior staff observations of lessons. It is followed by - tests or assessments of student achievement, and - teacher peer review (of lesson plans, assessment instruments, lessons). The assessment of student data is mostly used in evaluation of teachers performance rather than principal s performance

200 School Policies and Practices at Upper Secondary Schools in Turkey M. Ozmusul & G. Atanur Baskan Suggestions When students are admitted to the school, a policy, that the students are distributed equally to schools according to their achievement situations, distribution of students with high achievement to certain schools can be prevented, and heterogeneous groups regarding achievement can be established, should be followed. Ministry of education decided in the year 2010 through a change on the Regulation on Secondary Schools, to admit the students to the upper secondary schools, which admit students without central exam, via electronic environment. Through this electronic environment, students can be placed equally to the school according to academic achievement situations in accordance with their choices. In this regard, electronic environment can be used to place equally students in the classes in accordance with normal distribution. Instead of placing students by ability or according to the instructional purposes at the school to the classes, through establishing heterogonous classes, additional support programme should be offered to the students with low achievement To prevent that the students with special needs or behavioral problems are transferred to another school in the unnecessary conditions, and to keep them at the school: additional support programmes after school or lesson can be prepared; the criteria for each education grade can be determined in terms of increasing learning equity, and it can ensure that students pass the grades through these criteria, this process can be approached as a strategic issue under the leadership of guiding service at the school, and action plans can be prepared and implemented in accordance the strategy; the upper secondary school system can be removed from an eliminative structure, and be transformed into a structure of preparatory to the life with regard to decreasing the ratio of early leavers. The steps preventing the transparency policy that schools compare the assessment of student data with both intra-school and extra-school indicators should be taken, because it may cause a strict accountability approach, and also may increase existing pressure on the stakeholders. Instead of this, the assessment of student data can be shared directly with related parent without any comparisons. And a parent collaboration policy based on the individual development of students in terms of achievement should be followed. In monitoring the practice of teachers, a policy that concentrates on the professional development and self-evaluation of teachers. In this regard, the steps promote a teacher peer review culture at the school which means reviewing and developing of lesson plans, assessment instruments, lessons, teaching methods etc. Acknowledgement This study was produced from first author s doctoral thesis entitled According to PISA 2009 data, the Upper Secondary Schools School Policies and Practices, and Their Effects on Learning Outcomes at Hacettepe University, Institute of Social Sciences. References Acar, O. (2008). PISA sonuçları ışığında Türkiye nin rekabet gücünün değerlendirilmesi. TEPAV Report. Acar, T. & Öğretmen, T. (2012). Çok düzeyli istatistiksel yöntemler ile 2006 PISA fen bilimleri performansının incelenmesi. [Analysis of 2006 PISA science performance via multilevel statistical methods]. Education and Science, 37 (163),

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206 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at Stress Coping Approaches in Terms of Sociotropic and Autonomous Personalities: A cross-sectional study among Turkish university students Bahadir Bozoglan* Department of Psychological Counseling and Guidance, Faculty of Education, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: coping, sociotropy, autonomy, personality This study aims to discover if there is any associations between sociotropic/autonomous people in terms of the coping approaches they use, and if gender is effective covariate between sociotropic and autonomous personalities and stress coping approaches. Sociotropy- Autonomy Scale and Scale of Coping with Stress Styles were used to collect the data in this study. The scales were delivered to 400 university students in Turkey. Seventy four percent of the university students filled survey forms completely (n=298: female: 240, male: 58). It was found there was a significant association between sociotropic and autonomous people and stress coping approaches. However, gender was not a significant covariate between sociotropic and autonomous personalities and stress coping approaches. It was also found that people with higher level of sociotropy used helpless and obedient approaches more often and people with higher level of autonomy used optimistic, self-reliance and obedient, social support search stress coping approaches more often. Introduction Personality has an important role on how people cope with stressful situations (Carver & Connor-Smith, 2010; Aydın, 2007). Individuals perform different behaviors when they are in a stressful situation. In this study, the relationship between coping and personality is investigated with an aim to find out if the sociotropic and autonomous personality have any connection with coping styles the participants use in a stressful situation. Coping and personality Coping is a complex process (Beutler & Moos, 2003) that explains the results of stress (Bolger, 1990). Knoll and his colleagues (2005) theorize coping as something changing and formed by environmental conditions and also by how people view these conditions. In stressful conditions, some people become distressed and others remain calm. Coping theorists suggests that people s coping style they use change the stressful situations or regulate their emotional responses (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Many researchers believe and show in their studies that there is a strong connection between coping and personality (Bakhshani, 2007; Aydın, 2007; Knoll, Rieckmann & Schwarzer, 2005; Beutler & Moos, 2003). In other words, personality appears to affect both coping and coping effectiveness. Considerable research (Connor-Smith & Compas, 2002; Knoll et al., 2005; DeLongis & Holtzman, 2005) that has been done so far establish a relationship between * Correspondence: [email protected],

207 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 stressful events and personality. They focus on coping techniques (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) and personality that increase susceptibility to stress (DeLongis & Holtzman, 2005; Carver & Connor-Smith, 2010); in other words, the reason why some people are more vulnerable to stress than others (Knoll et al., 2005). There are some studies showing the relationship between stress coping styles and personality (Carver & Connor-Smith, 2010). It was found that personality and personality process has significant effect on the stress and coping process (Carver & Connor-Smith, 2010; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Sociotropy and Autonomy Beck (1983) divided the personality as Sociotropy and Autonomy. Beck argued that highly sociotropic individuals are greatly invested in having close relationships with others. On the contrary, highly autonomous individuals are characterized as constantly motivated toward success and independence. Sociotropic and autonomous people can experience life events differently (Frewen and Dozois, 2006). Several studies (Dasch, Cohen, Sahl & Gunther, 2008; Smith & Compass, 2002) have so far focused on the relationship between Sociotropy Autonomy and stress. Dasch et al. (2008) suggest that sociotropy has link with daily stressors while autonomy s role is unclear. Nelson, Hammen, Daley, Burge, & Davila (2001) note that sociotropic and autonomous individuals create chronic stressors. These personalities in other words have ongoing effect on creation of stressors. Smith and Compass (2002) also found that sociotropy has a clear effect on stress. Personality also affects the choice of coping techniques and they may interact with each other (Carver & Connor-Smith, 2010; Watson & Hubbard, 1996). However, research on Sociotropy-Autonomy and coping approaches that are used under stress has not been addressed adequately in Turkey. Many studies explain a link between personality and coping and suppose that coping can clarify the association between personality and stress outcomes (Carver & Connor-Smith, 2010; Beutler & Moos, 2003; Watson & Hubbard, 1996). However, what kind of people use what kind of specific coping styles in a stressful situation still remains to be elucidated. This study aims to investigate the relationship between specific stress coping approaches (self-reliance approach, obedient approach, optimistic approach, asking for social support, helpless approach) and sociotropic and autonomous personalities. It was aimed to find out which coping approaches are used by sociotropic and autonomous people in Turkey. The final aim of the study is to discover whether the gender has a covariate effect between sociotropy/autonomy and coping styles used by the participants in a stressful situation. Method In the study, a population based cross-sectional survey method was used to discover the relationship between personality and coping styles. The participants were chosen among the university students in Turkey. Participants and Procedure Research sampling of the study consists of university students in Konya, Turkey. The data instruments were delivered to 400 university students. The students who were volunteers to participate in the study were informed about the study and were give some chocolates to motivate them. The participants were not required to write their names in the form and personal information were not included in the paper to guarantee the anonymity. Almost %

208 Stress Coping Approaches in Terms of Sociotropic B. Bozoglan of the university students filled out the survey forms completely (n=298: female: 240, male: 58). Instruments Sociotropy-autonomy scale. Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale (SAS) was developed by Beck and his colleagues (1983). It was adapted to Turkish by Savaşır and Şahin (1997). The scale consists of 60 items, 30 of which are related with sociotropy while the rest is concerned with autonomy. The scale is a five-point likert type scale, ranging between it doesn t describe me, and it describes me very well with a maximum score of 120 (4 x 30) and a minimum score of 30. In this study, Alpha values were.86 for the autonomy and.83 for the sociotropy. The original scale had close values; total Scales have high internal reliability as indicated by coefficient alphas of.90 and.83, respectively in (Beck et al., 1983). The sociotropy scale has also been discovered to have moderate to good convergent validity with other measures of interpersonal dependency and affiliation, as well as with measures of psychopathology (Barnett & Gotlib, 1988; Bieling, Olshan, Beck, & Brown, 1998). However, the SAS autonomy scale displays inconsistent convergence with measures of achievement, independence, sychopathology, and vulnerability (Bieling, Olshan, Beck, & Brown, 1998; Clark & Beck, 1991). Ways of coping questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed by Folkman and Lazarus (1988) and The Turkish translation of WCQ and adaptation study was performed by Siva (cited in Şahin & Durak, 1995). Siva added eight new items that were thought to be relevant to the Turkish culture and tapping at fatalism and superstition. This new instrument consists of 74 items. Şahin and Durak (1995) conducted a study with university students and derived Coping Style Scale. They found that the scale with 5-factor structure is a reliable and valid instrument to measure coping styles. The modified scale consisted of 30 items under five factors; self confident, optimistic, submissive, helpless styles and asking for social support adapted to Turkish by Şahin and Durak (1995). This latest form of the scale consists of 30 items which has 5 sub-dimensions: optimistic approach (items 2, 4, 6, 12 and 18), selfreliance approach (items 8, 10, 14, 16, 20, 23 and 26), helpless approach (items 3,7, 19, 22, 25, 27 and 28), obedient approach (items 5, 13, 15, 17, 21 and 24) and asking for social support (items 1, 9, 29 and 30). In this study, Cronbach Alpha values were.66 for optimistic,.77 for self-reliance,.73 for helpless and.73 for obedient.61 for asking for social support. The research data were analysed by using SPSS In the original scale, the reliability values ranged between.47 and.80 (Şahin and Durak, 1995). Results Statistical analyzes were also applied to find out the association between sociotropic/autonomous personalities and the coping approach they use when they are in a stressful situation. And, it was found that there was a significant association between personalities and the stress copping approaches that the participants use in a stressful situation. It was found that sociotropic participants used helpless and obedient stress coping approaches more often than autonomous participants (Table 1). However, there was no significant association between coping approaches and sociotropic personality considering the gender variable

209 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Table 1: The Participants Stress Coping Styles in terms of Sociotropy Personality Variable and Covariate Gender Source Dependent Variable Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Sociotropy Optimistic Approach 18, ,018 1,853,175 Self-reliance Approach 47, ,427 3,173,078 Helpless Approach 649, ,190 29,901,000* Obedient Approach 76, ,631 7,285,008* Social support search,014 1,014,003,961 Gender Optimistic Approach 7, ,611,783,378 Self-reliance Approach,264 1,264,018,895 Helpless Approach 68, ,045 3,134,076 Obedient Approach 1, ,040,099,755 Social support search 15, ,852 2,854,094 It is seen in the table 2 that there is a significant association between autonomous personality and optimistic, self-reliance and obedient, asking for social support stress coping approaches. It is in the table seen that the autonomous participants are more optimistic, self-reliant, and obedient and are asking for social support more often than sociotropic participants. On the other hand, no significant association is observed between autonomous participants and helpless stress coping approach. The corrected performance test means results also yield that there is no significant association between coping approaches and autonomous personality taking the gender into account. Table 2: The Participants Stress Coping Styles in terms of Autonomous Personality Variable and Covariate Gender Source Dependent Variable Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Autonomy Optimistic Approach 166, ,799 18,102,000* Self-reliance Approach 530, ,665 40,029,000* Helpless Approach 10, ,227,424,513 Obedient Approach 74, ,418 7,089,009* Social support search 74, ,114 13,883,000* Gender Optimistic Approach 10, ,636 1,155,282 Self-reliance Approach,118 1,118,009,923 Helpless Approach 87, ,621 3,668,054 Obedient Approach 2, ,649,252,618 Social support search 14, ,284 2,691,103 Discussion As the study of stress and coping has increased and matured, it has been plausible to explore the relationship of stress coping approaches and personality differences. In previous studies (Carver & Connor-Smith, 2010; Aydın, 2007; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), it was suggested that there was a relationship between these personalities and stress coping approaches. However, the relationship between Sociotropy-Autonomy personality types and the coping approaches used under stress has not been addressed adequately in Turkey. This study investigated the relationship between stress coping approaches (self-reliance approach, obedient approach, optimistic approach, asking for social support and helpless approach) and sociotropic and autonomous personalities. It was found that sociotropic participants were more helpless in a stressful situation than those participants who were autonomous. Dasch et al. (2008) also found that sociotropic people had -203-

210 Stress Coping Approaches in Terms of Sociotropic B. Bozoglan decreased self-esteem in a stressful situation and Nelson et al. (2001) suggested that sociotropic people were more sensitive to stress. It was also in this study discovered that sociotropic participants were more obedient in a stressful situation than the participants who were autonomous which is supported by Beck s (1983) definition of sociotropic personality that sociotropic individuals are greatly invested in having close relationship with others. Other significant findings of the study were that those who were autonomous were more optimistic, self-reliant and obedient than those are sociotropic. In addition, those participants who were autonomous asked for social support more often than those who were sociotropic. Although Dasch et al. (2008) noted that the relationship between autonomous personality and stressors were unclear, the findings of the present study, suggest a clear relationship between autonomous personality and stress coping, which is also supported by Nelson et al. (2001). It is seen in the present study that personality is an important factor that affects the type of coping approach people use in a stressful situation in line with numerous studies (Knoll et al., 2005; Nelson et al., 2001), in which it is suggested that personality is an important element affecting the choice of coping approach. However, it was also found out that gender was not a significant factor affecting stress coping approaches in terms of sociotropic and autonomous personalities. Ortega, Brenner & Leather (2007) also found that there was not a significant relationship between gender and stress and personality. On the contrary, Vingerhoets, Van den Berg, Kortekaas, Van Heck, & Croon, (2002) in their research suggested that the gender was a significant factor that affects the relationship between personality, stress and coping approach. From the point of me, further researches should be made to make the association between gender, sociotropy/autonomy and coping clear. One of the limitations of this study was its cross-sectional design. Cross-sectional designs provide information about the current condition of the population. However, this crosssectional comparison of sociotropic/autonomous personalities in terms of coping does not allow cause-effect relationships to be established. In addition, several other limitations of this study should be noted. One of the limitations of the study is that the sample size being limited to the university students studying in the city of Konya, Turkey, which may cause problems in generalizing the results. Moreover, it was difficult to identify the reasons for the choice of the participants stress coping approaches other than the personality types. A further limitation of the present study was that the stress coping approaches investigated were limited with the content of the scales used. However, despite these limitations, the findings of this important contributions to the research on association between coping styles and personality types and that there is no association between gender and sociotropy and autonomy in terms of coping style preferred at the stressful situation. Despite the importance of the interplay between stress and personality types, the role of personality types in stress coping approaches will be crucial in developing intervention and prevention techniques for sensitive individuals. As the one first studies to underline the relationship between stress coping approaches and personality types in Turkey, this study paves the way for further studies. In future research, other factors such as family control, sibling order, family income and parent education level can be accounted as covariates as they may be significant factors that could affect coping approaches in terms of personality

211 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Reference Aydın, H. (2007). Psikiyatri Kliniklerinde Çalışan Hemşirelerin Kişilik Özellikleri ve Stresle Baş Etme Durumları [Personality Characteristics and Coping Styles of Nurses Who Work at Psychiatric Clinics]. Halic University, Institute of Sedical Sciences, Unpublished Dissertation of Master, Istanbul. Bakhshani, N. M. (2007). Role of Personality Styles (Sociotropy/Autonomy) and Moderating Effects of Social Support in Clinically Depressed Patients. Journal of Medical Sciences, 7: doi: /jms Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H (1988). Psychosocial functioning and depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 104, Beck, A. T. (1983). Cognitive therapy of depression: New perspectives. In P. J. Clayton & J. E. Barrett (Eds.), Treatment of depression: Old controversies and new approaches (pp ). New York: Raven Press. Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Harrison, R. P., & Emergy, G. (1983). Development of the sociotropy-autonomy scale: A measure of personality factors in psychopathology.philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. Beutler, L. E. & Moos, R. H. (2003). Coping and Coping Styles in Personality and Treatment Planning: Introduction to the Special Series. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59, doi: /jclp Bieling, P. J., Olshan, S., Beck, A. T., & Brown, G. K. (1998). The Sociotropy Autonomy Scale: A review of the extant literature. Unpublished Manuscript, University Pennsylvania, Philedelphia. Bolger, N. (1990). Coping as a Personality Process: A Prospective Study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, doi: / Clark, D. A.,& Beck, A. T. (1991). Personality factors in dysphoria: A psychometric refinement of Beck s Sociotropy Autonomy Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 13, Carver, C.S., & Connor-Smith, J. (2010). Personality and coping. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, doi: /annurev.psych Connor-Smith, J. K. & Compas, B. E. (2002). Vulnerabity to social stress: Coping as a mediator or moderator of sociotophy and symptoms of anxiety and depression. Cognitive Theraphy and Rsearch, 26(1), doi: /02/ /0 Dasch, B. K., Cohen, H. L., Sahl, C. J. & Gunthert, K. C. (2008). Moderating effects of sociotropy and autonomy on affective and self-esteem reactivity to daily stressors. Cognitive Therapy Research, 32, doi: /s DeLongis, A., & Holtzman, S. (2005). Coping in context: The role of stress, social support, and personality in coping. Journal of Personality, 73,6. doi: /j x Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1988). Ways of coping questionnaire. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Frewen, P. A., & Dozois, D. J. A. (2006). Self worth appraisal of life events Beck congruency model of depressional vulnerability. Journal of Cognitive Psychoterapy, 20, doi: / Knoll, N., Rieckman, N., & Schwarzer, R. (2005). Coping as a mediator between personality and stress outcomes: A longitudinal study with cataract surgery patients. European Journal of Personality, 19, doi: /per.546 Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.ISBN-13:

212 Stress Coping Approaches in Terms of Sociotropic B. Bozoglan Lazarus, R. S., & Delongis, A. (1983). Psychological stress and coping in aging.american Psychologist, 38, doi: /// X Nelson, R. D., Hammen, C., Daley, S. E., Burge, D. & J. Davila, (2001). Sociotropic and autonomous personality styles: Contributions to chronic life stress. Cognitive Theraphy and Research, 25(1), doi: /j.cpr Ortega, A., Brenner, S. O. & Leather, P. (2007). Occupational stress, coping and personality in the police: An SEM study. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 9(1), doi: /ijps Sahin, N., H. & Durak, A. ( 1995) Stresle başaçıkma tarzları ölçeği: üniversite öğrencileri için Uyarlanması [Ways of coping questionnaire: adaptation of the scale for Turkish university students],turkish Journal of Psychology, 10 (34), doi: Savaşır, I., & Şahin H. N., (1997). Bilişsel Davranışçı Terapilerde Değerlendirme: Sık Kullanılan Ölçekler [Evaluation in Cognitive Behavioural Therapies: Frequently Used Scales] Ankara: Türk Psikologlar Derneği Yayınları, (9). doi: / Vingerhoets, J. M., Van den Berg, M. P., Kortekaas, R., Van Heck, G. L. & Croon, M. A. (2002). Weeping: Associations with personality, coping, and subjective health status. Personality and Individual Differences,14 (1), doi: / (93) Watson, D., & Hubbard, B. (1996). Adaptational style and dispositional structure: Coping in the Context of the five-factor model. Journal of Personality, 64, doi: /j tb00943.x -206-

213 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at Validity and Reliability Study of the Internet Addiction Test Hafize Keser The Department of Comp. of Inst. Technologies Education, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey Necmi Eşgi* The Department of Comp. of Inst. Technologies Education, GaziOsmanPaşa University, Tokat, Turkey Tuğba Kocadağ The Department of Comp. of Inst. Technologies Education, GaziOsmanPaşa University, Tokat, Turkey Şanser Bulu The Department of Comp. of Inst. Technologies Education, GaziOsmanPaşa University, Tokat, Turkey Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Factor analysis, internet addiction, scale adoption Introduction This study aimed to identify the construct validity and internal reliability coefficients of the Internet Addiction Test, which developed by Young to determine how children perceive themselves about internet addiction. Sample for the adoption study was composed of children ages between 12 and 17 living in the city of Tokat/Turkey (N=480). For the adopted scale, reliability coefficient Cronbach alpha was calculated as 0.90 and Spearman Brown value was calculated as Exploratory factor analysis was used to confirm the construct validity; and confirmatory factor analysis used to determine whether the factor model was correct. As a result of this analysis, it was determined that 20 items were grouped under 4 factors. Cronbach α, internal consistency coefficient for the first factor was 0.91; second factor was 0.87; third factor was 0.89; fourth factor was 0.90; and for the whole scale was Spearman Brown value for the scale was Guttmann Split-Half value for the scale was These calculated coefficients were all in the acceptable range, and these suggested that the test and the each factor had internal reliability. Validity and reliability analysis were reviewed about the adoption of Internet Addiction Test and it was concluded that the results that were found was in the acceptable ranges. Internet addiction reveals itself with symptoms such as, not able to limit internet use, keep using internet although it has social and academic harm, and feeling anxiety when internet access is limited (Shapira, Goldsmith, Keck Jr. etc., 2003). Most of the studies in the * Correspondence: Faculty o Education, The Department of Comp. of Inst. Technologies Education, GaziOsmanPaşa University, Tokat, Turkey, 60150, [email protected].

214 Validity and Reliability Study H. Keser, N. Eşgi, T. Kocadağ & Ş. BULU literature about the internet addiction was conducted on college students and adults (Bakken, Wenzel, Götestam, Johansson et al., 2009; Beard and Wolf, 2001; Ferraro, Caci, D Amico et al., 2007; Leung, 2004). However since teenagers became the group using the internet most (Subrahmanyan and Lin, 2007; TÜİK, 2007) studies that investigate factors related to internet addiction on teenagers was conducted in recent years (DiNicola, 2004; Kim, Ryu, Chon, Yeun et al., 2006; Jang, Hwang, and Choi, 2008). On one hand, it is believed that the internet as a resource enables teenager to access information and conduct research; and this way, support skills such as problem solving, creativity, and critical thinking (Berson and Berson, 2003); on the other hand it is believed that since, it is used abusively and for other purposes than learning, it diminishes development of individual s skills (Colwell and Kato, 2003; Kerber, 2005). For this reason, when individuals use the internet in a balanced fashion, it would support the intended learning and high cognitive development. The Internet became part of our life, it opened the doors of a brand new world to us, and it provided variety of opportunities and experiences. Millions of people around the world uses internet to access information, to communicate with their friends, to work, to play games, and other purposes. The internet should be neither viewed as harmful nor disparaged. In addition internet is an alternate environment that became part of our daily life. We need to be informed about the potential results of using the internet excessively and understand the people who use internet pathologically (Davis, 2001). By being informed about the results of using internet pathologically, and with appropriate sensitivity, it would be easier to benefit from the useful functions of the internet. Healthy internet use means using internet for a legitimate purpose, for a reasonable time period, without any cognitive or behavioral issues. Healthy internet users can distinguish internet communication and real life communication (Davis, 2001). However, not everybody uses internet for their needs and purposes for a reasonable time without any problems. Individuals face with problems and negatively affected by unhealthy internet use. Internet addiction term was first suggested by Goldberg in However, scientific discussions started with Young. Young is one of the pioneer scientists who brought the Internet Addiction Disorder concept in to daylight. Some scientist argued that there is a relationship between individuals internet use and psychosocial health, home and work problems (Caplan, 2002; Morahan and Schumacher, 2000; Young, 1996; Young, 1997). Similarly, some studies show us individual experience problems because of pathological internet use (Morahan and Schumacher, 2000; Pratarelli et al., 1999). In addition, there were evidence suggesting there is a relationship between pathological internet use and psychosocial variables (depression, social isolation etc.) and home/work problems (Kraut and Paterson, 1998; Young and Rogers, 1998). Generally, pathological internet use is defined as internet use that creates psychological, social, school or work related difficulties in individual s life (Beard and Wolf, 2001; as cited in Caplan, 2002). Symptoms such as obsessive ideas about internet, tolerance, reduction of impulse control, not being able to stop internet use, and deprivation indicators can be seen as unhealthy internet use symptoms (Young, 1999; as cited in Davis, 2001). According to Song, Larose, Eastin and Lin (2004) Internet Addiction (IA) or pathological internet use (PIU) is a form of impulse control disorder and is similar to mass communication tool addictions such as television however potentially more dangerous. Because, while television fills the spare time at home excessive and intrusive internet use at work, school and play can affect personal, family, and work relationships

215 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 As such described by Griffiths (1997, 1999), Stein (1997), Young (1996, 1997), Young and Rogers (1998), unhealthy internet use because of a coercion or a clinical disorder was described in the literature, based on the drug abuse and gambling addiction descriptions in the DSM IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders), as internet addiction or pathological internet use (Shapira; Goldsmith; Keck Jr. et al., 2000). Similarly Goldberg described internet addiction as a coping mechanism as a behavioral disorder based on DSM IV drug addiction diagnostic measures (Goldberg, 1996; as cited in Yang and Tung, 2004). In addition, Young devised another definition named as Unhealthy Internet Use based on the pathological gambling addiction measures in DSM IV and developed a diagnostic form composed of 8 items (yes/no) (Young, 1996; Young, 1997; Young and Rogers, 1998). Davis (1999), by enhancing Young s definition proposed a cognitive behavioral model (as cited in Yang and Tung, 2004). Cognition plays a role in developing and continuation of pathological internet use. Cognitive disorders broken cycle and reinforcement, creates and enhances symptoms of pathological internet use and problematic behaviors related to spending too much time on internet (Davis, 2001). For some people internet is only a mere tool that brings up some addictions for various stimulants (selective pathological internet use) (Davis, 1999; as cited in Davis, 2001). Cognitive behavioral model of pathological internet use separates pathological internet use into two categories as selective pathological internet use and general pathological internet use. While selective pathological internet use mentions internet use for specific purpose such as online sexual behavior or online gambling, general pathological internet use mentions global behaviors such as spending time on internet without any specific purpose. Selective pathological internet use can be taught as selective content addiction and can appear without internet. General pathological internet use generally related to internet chat and addiction. This can be considered related to the social aspect of the internet. Need for a social contact and reinforcement of online behavior increases desire for staying on virtual online environment (Davis, 2001). Kandell (1998) described internet addiction as "requires psychological dependence. This psychology included phenomena can be described with this items (as cited in Caplan, 2002): 1. Attributing importance to internet related activities 2. Feeling negative feelings (anxiety, depression, emptiness etc.) while offline. 3. Increased tolerance to online situations. 4. Ignoring problematic behaviors. Griffiths (1999) defined internet addiction as a form of technology addiction (such as computer addiction) and sub category of behavioral addictions (such as obsessive gambling addiction). In contrast to Young (1997), Griffiths (1999) argued that most of the people using internet excessively was not internet addict; internet was just a tool exacerbating their other addictions. Opposed to Griffiths definition, Kandell (1998) defined internet addiction as once addicted, without considering what have been done, it is a psychological addiction (as cited in Yang and Tung, 2004). According to Grohol (1999) it is not possible to define internet addiction. Although there were consensus on some simple points related to internet addiction there haven t been a common internet addiction definition. A person can experience problems because s/he spent so much time on internet similar to, avoiding social interaction or family time because of spending too much time on reading or watching television. Like, not putting the book addiction or workaholism in the same category as schizophrenia, we cannot put internet addiction too. Very few people experience problems because of spending too much time on internet when they do not have other issues. As these issues are not because of the technology, -209-

216 Validity and Reliability Study H. Keser, N. Eşgi, T. Kocadağ & Ş. BULU but related to behaviors of the people. In another words there is no inherent feature that creates problems in the internet (Bölükbaş, 2003). Researchers such as Ceyhan (2008) and Gününç (2009) developed data collection instruments to measure internet addiction in Turkey. Researchers such as Esen (2007) and Öztürk et al. (2007) conducted research to treat and reduce internet addiction. The test that was developed by Young in 1998 and used again in this study to conduct validity and reliability study was implemented on 250 college students, studying at Ankara University College of Education Computer Education and Instructional Technologies Department, by Balta and Horzum (2008) in spring items test was reduced to 19 items and three factors were determined by the researchers. Three factor model explained the 52.83% of the variation. Items in the test had weights ranging between.81 and.39. Internal reliability coefficient, calculated by Cronbach α for the data from the implementation of the test, was.89. Since, there were a considerable time gap and significant difference of the size and properties of the sample, repetition of the study was needed. Method Diagnostic Survey developed by Young (1996) by adopting Pathological Gambling measures in DSM IV further improved and Young (1998) created a 20 item Internet Addiction Test (IAT). Internet addiction Test is a self-report type test that people can use to assess themselves that can be accessed from the internet addiction center web site ( founded by Young. In the provided web site children can selfevaluate themselves; first test items are presented, then after answering all items and pressing the calculate button at the bottom of the page, presented with the result. Internet addiction test is a Likert type survey and participants are needed to choose from not appropriate, rarely, occasionally, frequently, often, and always choices. These choices are given points 0,1,2,3,4, and 5 in the same order. If subjects receive a score of 80 or over they are described as internet addicted, if they receive scores between 50 and 79 defined as showing partial symptoms, if received less than scores of 50 points defined as not showing symptoms. This study aimed to adopt the Internet Addiction Test, which developed by Young, into Turkish and determine the construct validity and internal reliability coefficients of this test. Internet Addiction Test has 20 items categorized in the four factors by Principle-Component Analysis method. 20 items original English test was translated into Turkish by 5 translators and translations were analyzed in terms of semantic, conceptual, expressional, experiential measures. Five translations were consistent based on these measures, however simplest versions were chosen for easier understanding. After Turkish translation was completed 20 items were given to 4 scholars and 11 students and intelligibility of the items were confirmed. The study group was 480 children between the ages of 12 and 17 living in Tokat City. Data Analysis and Results As a method, exploratory factor analysis was determined to ensure construct validity, and confirmatory factor analysis was determined to ensure the validity of factor model. In exploratory factor analysis principle components method, in confirmatory factor analysis -210-

217 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 maximum probability method was chosen. Cronbach alpha value was determined for the reliability of the test since it is an internal reliability coefficient. SPSS 15.0 statistical analysis software was used to analyze data for the validity and reliability study. For construct validity, factor analysis operation was run. After the factor analysis was conducted, reliability tests were conducted for the whole test, sub factors, and each of the items separately. Principal Component Analysis was conducted to test for construct validity. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) coefficient and Barlett Sphericity test was conducted to assess if data fits to assumptions of Principal Component Analysis (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007). Varimax rotation was used to interpret factors better since this rotation gives the most sensitive distinction between factors and one of the most often used rotations (Ho, 2006). Eigenvalue was selected as 1.00 while determining the number of factors (Aşkar and Dönmez, 2005). To determine the items that will be in the test item-total correlation was used. Cronbach alpha was used to test the reliability of the test. According to Erkuş (2009) validity and reliability tests should be conducted after the item analysis. For this reason, before the validity and reliability analysis was conducted item properties were described. Items mean values, standard deviations, item-total correlation coefficients, minimum maximum t values are provided in Table 2. for the Test s draft format. Table 2. Descriptive statistics for the items in the Internet Addiction Test s draft format Item N Mean Standard Item-Total Discriminant t value p No Deviation Correlation 1 (Min %27-Max%27) ,780 0,1 0,567 11,231 0, ,793 0,1 0,387 09,774 0, ,971 0,1 0,570 10,696 0, ,965 0,2 0,398 10,897 0, ,974 0,2 0,592 11,967 0, ,871 0,2 0,561 09,871 0, ,605 0,1 0,590 09,983 0, ,873 0,2 0,573 13,758 0, ,091 0,2 0,508 13,745 0, ,701 0,0 0,483 11,487 0, ,897 0,3 0,436 13,923 0, ,734 0,0 0,447 12,692 0, ,043 0,3 0,561 13,743 0, ,892 0,5 0,532 09,891 0, ,049 0,3 0,698 14,702 0, ,734 0,1 0,429 09,793 0, ,796 0,2 0,456 14,567 0, ,634 0,1 0,576 11,916 0, ,736 0,2 0,579 13,093 0, ,971 0,1 0,581 11,970 0,00 1 n=480 2 n 1 =n 2= 130 As it can be seen from the Table 2, mean values for the items range between and Standard deviations for the items range between.1 and.5. Correlation coefficients between the item scores and total test scores composed of the sum of all item scores were provided in Table 2. Item-total correlations range between.387 and.698. All of these values were statistically significant at the p level of.01. These findings can be interpreted as each item in the test measures the same property as the whole test. Participant scores calculated by summing up the corresponding points to given answers are ordered from the smallest to biggest value, and among the 480 participants 130 with the -211-

218 Validity and Reliability Study H. Keser, N. Eşgi, T. Kocadağ & Ş. BULU smallest scores were described as bottom 27% group and 130 participants with the highest scores as top 27% group. Independent group t-test was used to determine the difference between the top group and bottom group mean scores for each item in the test. Analysis results are provided in Table 2. There was a statistically significant difference at the.01 level between the top and bottom group mean scores for each item in the test. This shows us each item discriminate between the individuals with the property intended to be measured and individuals without this property. Mean value was , median was 28.00, mode was 37.00, standard deviation was 1.3, variance was , and range was for the draft test total descriptive statistics. The smallest score for the group was and the highest score was Skewness coefficient was.068 and kurtosis coefficient was.037. Based on these findings it could be argued that the collected data s distribution is close to normal distribution. Findings Related to Validity of the Internet Addiction Test Two steps were completed to confirm validity of the test. In the first step, Exploratory Factor Analysis was conducted to the data collected from 480 participants. After completing the changes based on the findings of the Exploratory Factor Analysis, Confirmatory Factor Analysis was conducted for each factor. Sample size of 200 or participant/item proportion of 10/1 or 2/1 is enough for the factor analysis (Kline, 2005). Data collected was found to be sufficient for this reason. Construct validity shows the degree of correct measurement of an abstract concept in relation to intended behavior (Büyüköztürk, 2007; Fraenkel and Wallen, 2008; Büyüköztürk, Çakmak, Akgün and et al., 2010). Factor analysis (Principal Component Analysis) was conducted to test construct validity of the adopted test (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007). Exploratory Factor Analysis was conducted to determine factor model. To determine whether the data was meeting the assumptions of the Principal Component Analysis, Kaiser-Meyer- Olkin (KMO) and Barlett test results were checked before the factor analysis was conducted. KMO coefficient and Barlett test results were statistically significant (p<0.001), and this shows us data was appropriate for the Principal Component Analysis, factors can be determined, and sample size was sufficient (Field, 2005; Büyüköztürk, 2007). Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Barlett sphericity test for the data gathered from the pilot implementation of the test shows the sample size was sufficient. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin value was.920 and this can be interpreted as ideal (Tabachknick and Fidell, 2001). Bartlett Sphericity Test result for the same data was X 2 480= , p<.001. This indicates that data came from multivariate normal distribution (Tabachknick and Fidell, 2001). This findings shows that factor analysis can be used on the data from the pilot data collection. Findings Related to Exploratory Factor Analysis Data from the draft version of the adopted Internet Addiction Test was analyzed using Factor Analysis method and varimax rotation, one of the orthogonal rotation methods, was used. Explained variance of over 1 was determined for four factors as a result of this analysis. Also Scree-plot graphic was interpreted to determine factors

219 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Figure 1. Scree-plot graphic for the draft version of the Internet Addiction Test When Figure 1 was reviewed it could be seen that after the fourth factor the line plateaus. The contribution of the factor five and following factors to the variance is similar to each other. 20 items in the adopted draft internet addiction test are grouped under four factors. Once the items in each factor were reviewed it was seen that items were measuring similar characteristics. After deciding on the four factors exploratory factor analysis was conducted on four factors; results of this analysis is provided in Table 3. Table 3, includes the explained variances and total values for the factors with eigenvalues greater than 1. Table 3. Eigenvalues and explained variances of internet addiction test factors Initial Eigenvalues Rotation Sum of Squared Loadings Factor Eigenvalu es Explained Variance Explained Variance Eigenval ues Explained Variance Explained Variance (%) (%) (%) (%) 1 5,499 24,413 24,413 3,411 18,103 18, ,460 8,602 33,015 2,406 13,201 31, ,205 9,136 42,151 2,271 11,987 43, ,078 9,194 51,345 1,155 8,054 51,345 Each item s loadings in each factor were given in Table 3. for under each factor. According to Kline (2005) loadings are coefficients explaining the relationship of that item to the factors. According Tabachknick and Fidell (2001) loadings of an item belonging to a factor should be greater than.32. Also when an item has a loading greater than.32 for more than one factor and the difference between these loadings are less than.10 these items should be removed from the test because they show overlap (Tabachknick and Fidell, 2001). When item loadings were reviewed there were not any items with loadings below the acceptable level of.32. When items were reviewed for overlap there were not any overlapped items. Loadings of 20 items in the Internet Addiction Test for four factors are provided in Table

220 Validity and Reliability Study H. Keser, N. Eşgi, T. Kocadağ & Ş. BULU Table 4. Loadings of items in the Internet Addiction Test Item No Factor ,631,015,132,208 5,583,203,288,293 6,571,216,238,062 16,544,248,154,198 17,523,252,224,273 2,134,636,023,040 7,111,621,012,240 8,176,598,137,191 9,121,573,256,282 18,079,547,230,219 3,287,299,399,071 4,128,134,392,156 12,212,104,387,029 19,178,147,375,154 10,223,218,234,546 11,215,243,212,484 13,124,139,107,469 14,268,223,127,429 15,101,134,153,392 20,105,158,216,354 As a result of the factor analysis, items in the test are grouped under four factors; and factor loadings for these items are provided in Table 5. Also item-total correlations and discriminant values are in this table too. Table 5. Exploratory factor analysis results for pilot version of the Internet Addiction Test Factor 1: Difficulty to Control Explained Variance: %18,103 Item No Items Item-Total Correlation 1 How often do you find that you stay on-line longer than 0,443* you intended? 5 How often do others in your life complain to you about 0,572* the amount of time you spend on-line? 6 How often do your grades or school work suffer because 0,461* of the amount of time you spend on-line? 16 How often do you find yourself saying just a few more 0,406* minutes when on-line? 17 How often do you try to cut down the amount of time 0,589* you spend on-line and fail? Factor 2: Avoidance Explained Variance : %13,201 Item No Items Item-Total Correlation 2 How often do you neglect household chores to spend 0,352* more time on-line? 7 How often do you check your before something 0,510* else that you need to do? 8 How often does your job performance or productivity 0,529* suffer because of the Internet? 9 How often do you become defensive or secretive when anyone asks you what you do on-line? 0,627* -214-

221 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, How often do you try to hide how long you ve been online? 0,585* Factor 3: Social Isolation Explained Variance : %11,987 Item No Items Item-Total Correlation 3 How often do you prefer the excitement of the Internet to 0,487* intimacy with your partner? 4 How often do you form new relationships with fellow 0,498* on-line users? 12 How often do you fear that life without the Internet 0,595* would be boring, empty, and joyless? 19 How often do you choose to spend more time on-line 0,659* over going out with others? Factor 4: Deprivation Explained Variance : %8,054 Item No Items Item-Total Correlation 10 How often do you block out disturbing thoughts about 0,631* your life with soothing thoughts of the Internet? 11 How often do you find yourself anticipating when you 0,477* will go on-line again? 13 How often do you snap, yell, or act annoyed if someone 0,480* bothers you while you are on-line? 14 How often do you lose sleep due to late-night log-ins? 0,453* 15 How often do you feel preoccupied with the Internet 0,691* when off-line, or fantasize about being on-line? 20 How often do you feel depressed, moody, or nervous 0,523* when you are off-line, which goes away once you are back on-line? Total Explained Variance : % 51,345 *p<0,001 When Table 4 and Table 5 were reviewed it could be seen that the first factor was composed of items 1, 5, 6, 16, and 17. When items in the first factor were studied it was discovered that all of these items were related to difficulty to control, for this reason this factor was named Difficulty to Control. Difficulty to Control factor was composed of five items with loadings ranging from.456 and.589. This factor explains % of the variance. When Table 4 and Table 5 were reviewed it could be seen that the second factor was composed of items 2, 7, 8, 9, and 18. When items in the second factor were studied it was discovered that all of these items were related to avoidance, for this reason this factor was named Avoidance. Avoidance factor was composed of five items with loadings ranging from.456 and.589. This factor explains % of the variance. When Table 4 and Table 5 were reviewed it could be seen that the third factor was composed of items 3, 4, 12, and 19. When items in the third factor were studied it was discovered that all of these items were related to social isolation, for this reason this factor was named Social Isolation. Social Isolation factor was composed of four items with loadings ranging from.456 and.589. This factor explains % of the variance. When Table 4 and Table 5 were reviewed it could be seen that the fourth factor was composed of items 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, and 20. When items in the fourth factor were studied it was discovered that all of these items were related to deprivation, for this reason this factor was named Deprivation. Deprivation factor was composed of six items with loadings ranging from.456 and.589. This factor explains % of the variance

222 Validity and Reliability Study H. Keser, N. Eşgi, T. Kocadağ & Ş. BULU It is necessary to conduct an item analysis after conducting a reliability and validity analysis for the test scores when the test are trying to measure the same construct or concept (Büyüköztürk, Çakmak, Akgün et. al, 2010). Properties of the items in the test are provided in Table 5. Correlation coefficients between the items in the final version of the test and total item points of factors of each items range from.352 and.691 based on the factor analysis conducted. These coefficients were statistically significant at.01 levels. These can be interpreted as the items in the tests and the factors they belong to measure the same constructs. Correlations between the factors are presented at Table 6. Table 6. Correlations between the factors in the Internet Addiction Test 1. Factor 2. Factor 3. Factor 4. Factor 1. Factor 2. Factor, Factor,472, Factor,454,523,839 As it can be seen in Table 6, correlations between the factors are.367 and.839. Since the correlations between the factors were at medium level it can be interpreted that each factor measures different dimensions of the construct. Findings Related to Confirmatory Factor Analysis Principle factors related to Internet Addiction Test were found with the exploratory factor analysis. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to assess whether there was enough relationship between the found factors and the items belonging to that factor and how effective the factor model to explain the original construct. Path diagram for the conducted confirmatory factor analysis was provided in Figure 2 and the match index was provided in Table 7. Figure 2. Path diagram for confirmatory factor analysis of Internet Addiction Test When beta values were reviewed for all items it was found that latent variables represented the observed variables in.01 level. Also t values calculated for all items were greater than the -216-

223 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 critical value of 2.56 at.01 significance level. As a result each item represents its latent variable effectively and could be included in the test. After parametric estimates were done to ensure model fit, fit indexes that enables for the model to be assessed as a whole were reviewed. Fit indexes for the internet addiction test were provided in Table 7. Table 7. Fit indexes as a result of Internet Addiction Test confirmatory factor analysis Fit Indexes Values Degree of fredom (df) 521 Chi-Square (X 2 ) 1340,32 (P = 0.0) X 2 /df 2,572 Root mean square of error approximation (RMSEA) 0,031 Comparative Fit Index (CFI) 0,98 Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) 0,81 Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) 0,79 Root Mean Square Residual (RMR) 0,037 Normed Fit Index (NFI) 0,96 Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI) 0,97 Chi-square is a type of fit index that tests whether the covariance matrix of the original variable is different than proposed matrix. Ratio of calculated Chi-square value to degree of freedom is very important. When this ratio is smaller than 3 it indicates perfect fit, when it is smaller than 5 it indicates moderate fit (Kline, 2005). As it can be seen on Table 7. the calculated Chi-square value on this study was and the degree of freedom was 521. Ration of calculated Chi-square value to the degree of freedom was / 521 = and this indicates a perfect fit between the covariance matrix of the original variable and proposed matrix. In a non-central X 2 distribution, Root Mean Square of Error Approximation (RMSEA) is used to show population covariance and when it is between.00 and.05 it shows a perfect fit and when it is between.05 and.08 it shows a good fit (Brown, 2006; Sümer, 2000). As it can be seen on Table 7, the error mean square calculated on this study was.037 and it indicates a perfect fit. Root Mean Square Residual (RMR) is mean of residual covariance between the approximation of population covariance matrix and sample covariance matrix. RMR has values between 0 and 1 and when it is smaller than.05 it indicates perfect fit, and when it is smaller than.08 it indicates good fit (Brown, 2006). As it can be seen on Table 7, the calculated RMR value for this study was.037 and it indicates a perfect fit. Comparative Fit Index (CFI) compares freedom model s (model showing there is no relationship between hidden variables) covariance matrix and proposed structural equation model s covariance matrix. If the critical values for this index range between.97 and 1.00 it indicates a good fit and if it ranges between.05 and.97 it indicates an acceptable fit (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001). As it can be seen in Table 7, Comparative Fit Index for this study was.98. This value indicates a good fit. Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) index shows how the model measures the covariance matrix in the sample and accepted as explained variance of the sample (Çokluk, Şekercioğlu and Büyüköztürk, 2010). Goodness of Fit Index have values ranging from 0 to 1 and 1 represent the perfect fit and 0 represents the no fit. GFI values between.95 and 1.00 indicates perfect -217-

224 Validity and Reliability Study H. Keser, N. Eşgi, T. Kocadağ & Ş. BULU fit, values between.90 and.95 indicates acceptable fit (Sümer, 2000). As it can be seen from the Table 7, GFI value for this study was.81 and this indicates a weak fit. This can be related to sensitivity of GFI index to sample size (Sümer, 2000; Tabachnick ve Fidell, 2001). Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) is a Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) value adjusted according to the degrees of freedom. If the critical values defined for this index ranges between.95 and 1.00, this indicates a perfect fit, if the critical values ranges between.90 and.95 this indicates an acceptable fit. As it can be seen on Table 7. AGFI value for this study was.79 and this indicates a weak fit. This can be related to high sensitivity of AGFI to sample size (Sümer, 2000; Tabachnick ve Fidell, 2001). Normed Fit Index (NFI) evaluates the model prediction by comparing freedom model X 2 value and models X 2 value. However, NFI can give a smaller fit for the model than actual when the sample size is small. In this situation NFI can be calculated by including the degrees of freedom and this index is calle Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI) (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001). When the critical values for these indexes range from.90 and 1 it indicates a good fit. As it can be seen on Table 7 NIF and NNFI values for this study are.96 and.97. These values show there was a good fit. When calculated values and expected critical values are compared, most of the values on this study seemed to be acceptable. The lower values of Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) and Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) than the critical values can be related to these indexes sensitivity to sample size (Sümer, 2000; Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001). Studies with bigger samples would hopefully yield better fit indexes. However, these circumstances have not created a concern for the study. When the results as a whole were reviewed model had fit indexes and principle parameter predictions were parallel with the data. As a result each factor was representing the items it was composed of appropriately. Findings Related to Reliability of the Adopted Internet Addiction Test According to Green and Salkind (2005) a value greater than.85 could be considered a good value for test s internal reliability coefficient. Similarly, according to Tezbaşaran (1997) reliability coefficient of equal or greater than.70 is needed. Also, according to Büyüköztürk (2007)items with item correlations greater than.30 should be included in the tests as a result of item analysis. Cronbach Alpha internal reliability coefficients that provide information whether the test measures the intended construct as a whole or whether the items included in each factors measures the related construct were calculated (Arıcak and Ilgaz, 2007). Cronbach Alpha internal reliability coefficients that provide information whether the test as a whole measures the intended construct or whether each factor in the test or each item in each factor measures the related construct were calculated. Cronbach α internal reliability coefficient for first factor was.91; for the second facor.87; for the third factor.89; for the fourth factor.90; and for the whole test it was.90. Spearman Brown value for the test was calculated as.86. Guttmann Split-Half value for the test was calculated as.85. These coefficients were at acceptable level for each factor and for the whole test and it can be concluded that test had internal reliability

225 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Discussion As the most important information resource and communication tool, the internet secured a place in people s life as an unavoidable tool because it provides many advantages. Advances in Personal Computers and mobile phones (cell phones) forces internet into our daily life. Besides its many advantages, the internet brings many disadvantages and limitations with it. Parents, whom are responsible from the safety of their children, are required to protect and inform their children from the dangers that can come via the internet. Internet, besides being an information resource and communication tool, became an addiction for many people. Internet addiction numbers are increasing rapidly all over the world. Environmental factors play an important role in children s informed and appropriate internet use. For these reasons, parents ideas and attitudes toward internet is very important for elementary school students appropriate internet use. As a matter of fact children should be informed about the internet use at an early age and encouraged for appropriate usage. Internet addiction can affect schooling and daily life at immense levels and it should be taken seriously. Both educators and clinicians take internet addiction s presence and level of addiction very seriously because of these immense effects. As a result, in addition to psychological test and surveys other measurement instruments were developed to study internet addiction. For this reason, this study aimed to improve national literature and fulfill the need for an internet addiction measurement instrument. Reliability and validity analysis for the Turkish adopted version of Internet Addiction Test was reviewed by referencing the related studies in the literature and results found to be in the expected boundaries. Appropriateness of the sample group for the adaptation study was checked fit KMO and Barlett statistics (KMO = 0.92, X2480= , p<0.001). Exploratory Factor Analysis was conducted for construct validity and scaling. Internal reliability analysis, which has an important relationship with validity (Arıcak and Ilgaz, 2007), was conducted and calculated alpha value (α=0.90) indicated a high internal reliability. Acording to Green and Salkind (2005) internal reliability coefficient equal or higher than.85 indicates a good internal reliability. Similarly, according to Tezbaşaran (1997) reliability coefficients higher than.70 and according to Büyüköztürk (2007) items with item total correlations of.30 or higher as a result of item analysis is necessary. 20 items in the test were grouped under 4 factors. Named as Difficulty to Control, Avoidance, Social Isolation, and Deprivation, these four factors are composed of in order, 5, 5, 4, and 6 items. Social Isolation shows increased desire to stay online and time spent on internet; it shows compared to start of the internet use excessive tendencies toward internet usage. Social Isolation also indicates problems of social relationships, socialization problems, issues with other people because of excessive internet use. Avoidance indicates distancing from daily chores, and academic work and other duties. Individual does not do, could not cope, forgets, or does not care about, their duties; only thinks about the internet, connecting to internet, or being online. Difficulty to Control indicates excessive use of internet and experiencing problems as a result of not being able to stop this behavior. Deprivation indicates the feelings when individual could not be online, when there is a lack of internet service or in similarly internet free circumstances. If a person planned to be online and restricted to get online s/he can get angry, behave hateful; these feelings occur because of deprivation property. The test scoring was done by assigning, 0 point to not appropriate choice, 1 point to rarely choice 2 points to, occasionally choice, 3 points to frequently choice, 4 points to often choice, and 5 points to always choice

226 Validity and Reliability Study H. Keser, N. Eşgi, T. Kocadağ & Ş. BULU It was mentioned previously that test had four factors as a result of exploratory factor analysis. When considered the item loadings in each factor, factor eigenvalues and explained variances it can be claimed that the test had construct validity. As a matter of fact, higher than.30 loadings of items in the test, and higher than 40 % of variance being explained considered being enough for behavioral sciences (Kline, 1994; Scherer et al. 1988). Confirmatory Factor analysis was done after concluding the four factor model with Exploratory Factor Analysis. As a result of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis, test model was approved by observed values, the model had a good fit values, in another words the data confirms the model. Item factor correlations were calculated to assess the level of representation of each item of the factor it belonged to. The calculation of correlation between the scores of each item and the factor scores is very important for understanding the representation degree of each item of the whole factor (Balcı, 2007). Correlations that were calculated for this reason, between each item and the factor it belonged to range between.35 and.69. As a result of this, it can be claimed that each item and each factor significantly represents the purposes of the test as a whole and intended properties. When observed statistics were compared with the critical values suggested by previous researchers, test found to be very reliable and in terms of internal reliability choices were homogeneous and related to the construct of the Internet Addiction Test. Exploratory Factor Analysis results were checked with Confirmatory Factor Analysis scores. X2, RMSEA, CFI and GFI are defined as measure for the Confirmatory Factor Analysis in the literature (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001; Brown, 2006; Westorn and Gore, 2006). These measures were considered for fit analysis in this study. Based on these measures it can be said that the test measures reliably. Cronbach α internal reliability coefficient for the first factor was.91, for the second factor was.87, for the third factor was.89, for the fourth factor was.905 and for tge test as a whole.90. Spearman Brown value for the test was.86. Guttmann Split-Half value was.85. All these coefficients for each factor and the test as a whole were at acceptable levels and it can be concluded that the test had an internal reliability. It was concluded that Adopted Internet Addiction Test was valid and reliable to measure individuals internet addiction or tendencies toward internet addiction in Turkish Culture too. It would be easier to identify people with internet addiction or showing symptoms of internet addiction with this test that is highly reliable and valid based on the study findings. It should always be considered that developed tests cannot be reliable and valid for a long time because individuals attitudes and behaviors can change. For this reason it is suggested that reliability and validity analysis for the Internet Addiction Test should be repeated with different samples in the future. References Arıcak, O.T., Ilgaz, G. (2007). Açımlayıcı ve Doğrulayıcı Faktör Analizi ile Biyoloji Dersi Tutum Ölçeğinin Yapı Geçerliliğinin İncelenmesi [Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Validity Analysis of Structural Biology Attitude Scale]. Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi [Journal of Educational Research,], 28, 1-8. Aşkar, P., Dönmez, O. (2004). Eğitim Yazılımı Geliştirme Öz-Yeterlik Algısı Ölçeği [Educational Software Development Self-Efficacy Scale.]. Eğitim Bilimleri ve Uygulama [Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice], 6(3), Bakken, I. J., Wenzel, H. G., Götestam, K. G., Johansson, A., Oren, A. (2009). Internet Addiction Among Norwegian Adults: A Stratified Probability Sample Study. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 50,

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229 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at Assessing Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategy Use for Students from the Faculty of Education at the University of King Abdulaziz Ahmad Mousa Al Dawaideh* King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Education, Department of Special Education, Jeddah, KSA Ibrahim Abdu Al-Saadi King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Education, Department of Psychology, Jeddah, KSA Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Reading strategies, Metacognitive awareness, King Abdulaziz University students In this study, we aimed to investigate the metacognitive awareness reading strategies used by students from the Faculty of Education at the King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. We also aimed to determine whether the strategies varied with gender, area of specialization, and academic achievement variables. To achieve the objectives of the study, the metacognitive awareness reading strategies inventory (MARSI) was used. The inventory consisted of 30 items distributed into 3 subscale categories, namely problem-solving strategies, global-reading strategies, and support-reading strategies. The sample of the study consisted of 550 randomly selected undergraduate students, comprising 269 male and 281 female participants, aged 19 to 22 years. The results of the study revealed that the study sample practicing degree of the strategic reader behaviors was high, where the problem-solving strategies scale came firstly with high degree, followed by global-reading strategies with moderate degree, followed by support-reading strategies with moderate degree too. The results demonstrated that female participants read more, and performed better academically, and these results were statistically significant. No significant statistical difference existed for reading performance linked to area of specialization, except on the global subscale where variance was visible between junior students and students with learning disabilities. The reading performance of students with learning disabilities was superior. In addition, statistical variance was observed regarding the interaction between variables. Introduction Students with reading difficulties are often characterized as disorganized and passive readers. These difficulties have been described as metacognitive impairments or ascribed to students inability to think about what they read (Padeliadu et al., 2000). According to Flavell (1976, p. 232), the term metacognitive ''refers to one's knowledge concerning one's cognitive processes and products or anything related to them.'' Grabe and Stoller (2002) described metacognitive awareness as an essential method that explains readers explicit awareness of reading strategies used to plan, regulate, and monitor comprehension. In addition, O'Malley et al. (1985) demonstrated that students without metacognitive awareness were learners without * Correspondence: King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Education, Department of Special Education, Jeddah, KSA [email protected]

230 Assessing Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategy A. M. Al Dawaideh & I. A. Al-Saadi direction or chance to review their progress, accomplishment, and future directions. Anderson (2002) indicated that the use of metacognitive strategies force learners to apply a higher level of thinking for better performance. In addition, Onovughe and Hannah (2011) indicated that students who use a variety of metacognitive skills perform better in examinations and complete work more effectively. Anastasiou and Griva (2009) highlighted that metacognitive strategies involve the planning, monitoring, and evaluation that take place before, during, and after any thinking act, such as reading. Reading is a necessary skill for success in academic learning. Goodman (1994) defines reading as psycholinguistic processes to construct meaning for readers through their interaction with the text expressing the meaning the writer had in mind. Reading is a complex process involving a combination of perceptual, psycholinguistic, and cognitive abilities (Anastasiou & Griva, 2009). Reading strategies are the mental processes used by readers to approach a text and attempt to make sense of what they read. Effective readers apply more strategies more frequently and more effectively than do inefficient readers (Pani, 2004). Garner (1987) identified the use of reading strategies as an action, or a chain of actions that readers practice to make meaning in the reading process (Madhumathi & Ghosh, 2012). Barnett (1988) demonstrated that reading strategies were the mental operations involved when readers read a text and attempt to make sense of what they read. Mayor et al. (1995) classified these strategies into three categories, namely information processing strategies, problem-solving strategies, and regulationprocessing strategies. Certain characteristics of efficient and inefficient readers were indicated by Paris and Jacobs (1984). They demonstrated that efficient readers typically applied elastic strategies, such as periodic self-monitoring; they contemplate the title, look to the top and bottom of a passage, and ask themselves if they understand what they read. By contrast, beginner readers or inefficient readers do not develop and apply these skills. Anastasiou and Griva (2009) reported that efficient readers use cognitive strategies much more regularly than inefficient readers do. Schmitt and Sha (2009) indicated that effective readers must perform a number of tasks, most notably problem-solving tasks at the processing stage. They also self-monitor comprehension processes by identifying harmonious and disharmonious aspects among sources of information. Furthermore, the effectiveness of the processing stage is evaluated, the author s intention interpreted, and alternative strategies attempted. Problem-solving strategies are applied when there is a need to repair comprehension failure. Onovughe and Hannah (2011) argued that certain strategies are used to repair comprehension failure, including reading slowly and carefully, controlling the reading rate, rereading, pausing to reflect on the reading, and reading text aloud. Literature Review Studies on reading have demonstrated a positive relationship between students reading processes and their ability to understand what they are reading. In addition, Madhumathi and Ghosh (2012) indicated that reading process and reading ability strongly influence academic success. Certain studies have focused on reading process rather than on comprehension. Garner (1987) demonstrated that students with inadequate vocabulary and decoding ability find reading comprehension challenging, but this could be because of lack of 224

231 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 strategic knowledge. This study s results support the notion that awareness and monitoring of a person s comprehension processes are critical aspects of skilled reading (Mokhtari & Reichard, 2002). The relationship between reading strategy and reading comprehension was investigated by Madhumathi and Ghosh (2012). They observed that Indian English-as-asecond-language students mostly preferred to apply problem-solving strategies in academic reading, followed by supporting strategies, and they least preferred global strategies. In addition, significant differences existed in student strategy use, except for the supporting strategy. Furthermore, significant gender differences were observed in strategy use; female students exhibited superior performance. The relationship between reading strategies and reading comprehension achievement was also confirmed. Additionally, Alhaqbani and Riazi (2012) observed that problem-solving reading strategies were more useful than global and support strategies for students studying Arabic as a second language. In addition, a significant relationship was observed between participants Arabic reading ability of texts that related to the self, and their overall strategy use ( r = 0.233), problem-solving strategies (r = 0.236), and global strategies ( r = 0.239). The study also indicated that African students demonstrated more global strategies than did Asian students, and junior and senior students demonstrated consistently higher strategy use in all categories compared to first- and second-year students. Yau (2009) observed a relatively strong relationship between the perceived use of firstlanguage (Chinese), and second-language (English) strategies. Their results also demonstrated that metacognitive and cognitive strategies were used more frequently for first-language reading, and support strategies were more often used for second-language reading. Kudeir et al. (2012), in their study on undergraduate students at Yarmouk University, observed that problem-solving strategies were most commonly used, followed by the moderate use of support reading strategies, as well as moderate use of global reading strategies. Their results also revealed significant gender differences, and that female participants performed better, science faculties outperformed other faculties, and high academic achievers demonstrated superior reading strategy use. They observed no statistically significant differences caused by the interaction between variables. Certain studies have focused on the metacognitive strategies used by pre-university students. Onovughe and Hannah (2011) indicated that secondary school students were aware of metacognitive strategies in reading and comprehension exercises, and used metacognitive strategies to comprehend academic texts. A significant relationship was also demonstrated between students awareness and use of metacognitive strategies. Jimenez et al. (2009) used ESCOLA ( Reading Awareness Scale) which consists of 56 items that represent reading situations. Each situation offers the reader three alternatives to choose from. The measurement was used for students from grades three to seven, and they determined that ESCOLA instrument can quickly and accurately gather information about a student's level of reading awareness. Their results also revealed that younger students had lower levels of reading awareness than did older students, and female students had a higher level of reading awareness than did male students. Furthermore, Mokhtari and Reichard (2002) assessed the metacognitive awareness of reading strategies of elementary school students. The results indicated that students applied these strategies moderately. Problem-solving strategies were most commonly used, followed by global reading strategies, and finally support reading strategies. The results also indicated a statistically significant difference in the degree of use of these strategies attributed to reading ability variable, in favor of the students with high reading abilities

232 Assessing Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategy A. M. Al Dawaideh & I. A. Al-Saadi Purpose of the Study The intent of the current study was to assess metacognitive awareness (derived from several variables) in the application of reading strategies. The study is also interested in identifying the difference in use of strategy by gender, academic achievement, and area of specialization. The study was based on the following research questions: (1) Which metacognitive awareness strategy do students use most? (2) Is there a significant difference in strategy usage by gender, academic achievement, and area of specialization? (3) Is there interaction between gender, academic achievement, and area of specialization as it associates with metacognitive awareness of reading strategies? Methodology Participants The participants in this study were 550 undergraduate students, and were selected randomly, of which 269 were male and 281 were female, in the year age category at the time of data collection. The participants were students of the Special Education Department, and 25% were at the junior level (n = 138), 26.9% had learning disabilities (n = 148), 21.4% had autism spectrum disorders (n = 118), and 26.5% had intellectual disabilities (n = 146). The participants were also distributed into the following categories: high achievement (n = 14, 24%); moderate achievement (n = 362, 65.8%); and low achievement (n = 174, 31.6%). Instrument The researchers used the metacognitive awareness of reading strategies inventory (MARSI), version 1.0, developed by Mokhtari and Reichard (2002). It consisted of 30 items distributed into three subscales or factors: Global Readings Strategies (GLOB): This strategy consisted of 13 items that form part of intentional, carefully planned techniques that learners use to monitor or manage their reading. The following figures in the inventory illustrate GLOB: Figures 1, 3, 4, 7, 13, 14, 17, 19, 22, 23, 25, 26, 29. Problem-solving Strategies (PROB): This strategy consisted of 8 items, including actions and procedures readers use while working directly with the text. The following figures in the inventory illustrate PROB: Figures 8, 10, 11, 16, 18, 21, 27, 30. Support Reading Strategies (SUP): This strategy consisted of 9 items involving a basic support mechanism intended to improve readers text comprehension. The following figures in the inventory illustrate SUP: Figures 2, 5, 6, 9, 12, 15, 20, 24, 28. This questionnaire was translated into Arabic. It was suitable for the purposes of this study because it was specifically designed to measure the metacognitive awareness of reading strategies among adults while reading academic or school related materials. Validity: To check the validity of the scale, Mokhtari and Reichard (2002) reviewed the literature relevant related to reading strategies, reading comprehension, and metacognitive awareness. They compiled an initial collection of 100 reader strategies, and presented it to three experts on teaching and reading strategy assessment. They suggested deleting 40 items, and 60 items were retained for the initial student test sample (n = 825). The students were asked to indicate any items that were unclear to them. They were also asked to provide written comments regarding the clarity of the items of the scale. The observations and 226

233 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 comments of the students were considered, and the use factor analysis reduced the number of items to 30, which were distributed into three sub-scale categories. The revised version was then presented to the experts to be tested for appropriateness and clarity, and based on their revisions the final version was subsequently compiled. The researchers translated the scale into Arabic to further validate it, and it was then presented to five Arabic language, translation, special education, and psychology specialists at the University of King Abdulaziz to rate it. They were asked to provide their opinions on the appropriateness and translation of scale items, as well as on clarity and integrity of meaning and word choice. In addition, the specialists were requested to verify the appropriateness of item categorization, and to provide additional comments. Revisions were made based on the comments, including rewording for clarity and ease of comprehension in places. The researchers also carried out exploratory factor analysis in order to obtain other validity for measurement (see table 1). Initially, the factorability of 30 MARSI items was examined. Several well recognised criteria for the factorability of a correlation were used. There are 22 of 30 items correlated at least.3 with at least one other item, suggesting reasonable factorability. Furthermore, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was.713, above the commonly recommended value of.6 and Bartlett s test of sphericity was significant ( X (435) = , p<.05). Thirteen items loaded onto Factor one. It is clear from Table 1 that this items related to represented a set of reading strategies oriented toward a global analysis of text. Furthermore, eight items load onto a second factor PROB. These items surfaced to be oriented around strategies for solving problems. In addition, nine items that load onto factor three related SUP. These items related to outside materials that help reader. Table 1. Factor analysis for MARSI Inventory item Factor GLOB PROB SUP I have purpose in mind when I read1.39 I take notes while reading to help me understand what I read2.46 I think about what I know to help me understand what I read3.38 I preview the text to see what it s about before reading it4 When text becomes difficult, I read aloud to help me understand what I read.5.34 I summarize what I read to reflect on important information in the text.6.40 I think about whether the content of the text fits my reading purpose.7.41 I read slowly but carefully to be sure I understand what I m reading 8.50 I discuss what I read with other to check my understanding.9.43 I skim the text first by noting characteristics like length and organization I try to get back on track when I lose concentration I underline or circle information in the text to help me remember it I adjust my reading speed according to what I m reading I decide what to read closely and what to ignore I use reference materials such as dictionaries to help me understand what I read When text become difficult, I pay closer attention to what I m reading I use tables, figures, and pictures in text to increase my understanding 17 I stop from time to time and think about what I m reading I use context clues to help me better understanding what I m reading I paraphrase (restate ideas in my own words) to better understand what I read I try to picture or visualize information to help remember what I read I use typographical aids like boldface and italics to identify key information I critically analyze and evaluate the information presented in the text I go back and forth in the text to find relationship among ideas in it I check my understanding when I come across conflicting information I try to guess what the material is about when I read When text becomes difficult, I reread to increase my understanding I ask myself questions I like to have answered in the text I check to see if my guesses about the text are right or wrong I try to guess the meaning of unknown word or phrases

234 Assessing Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategy A. M. Al Dawaideh & I. A. Al-Saadi Reliability: To check the reliability of the scale, Mokhtari and Reichard (2002) administered the scale in its final version to a sample of 443 students in grades 6 to 12. Cronbach's alpha was calculated for each subscale, and for each grade level. The reliability of the total sample was To further establish reliability, the researchers administered the final version of the scale on an exploratory sample (n = 100) of students at the University of King Abdulaziz. Cronbach's alpha was calculated, and reliability for the total sample was 0.82 Data Collection Procedure The study was conducted during the first semester of the 2013 academic year. Participants were asked to complete the demographic questionnaire, which included questions regarding gender, academic achievement, and area of specialization. Participants were then asked to complete the MARSI questionnaire by reading each item, and then answering it according to their experiences with reading academic material. Data Analysis Procedures Descriptive statistics for each of the strategy items and each strategy category were performed, and a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was then used to analyze the collected data. Results and Discussion The results, which were obtained after analyzing the data acquired in accordance with the study's purpose, take place below taking account of the questions of the study. Q.1. Which metacognitive awareness strategy do students use most? To answer this question, means, standard deviations, and the average usage of each strategy were assessed. In addition, the order ranking statistic method was performed for each strategy according to the subscale and the total of questionnaires collected ( see table 2). In general, the results indicated that the mean of individual strategy items ranged from 4.53 to The strategy of reread to increase my understanding was the most frequently used strategy. By contrast, the I use reference materials, such as dictionaries to help me understand what I read was the least frequently used strategy. The mean indicated a low to high overall usage of reading strategies according to the established strategy use criteria. Twenty-four out of 30 strategies fell within the high usage group (M 3.5 or above). The results showed five strategies with moderate usage (M between 3.4 and 2.5). Only one strategy had a low usage value (M 2.4). The reason for the overall high usage of reading strategies might be that reading for academic courses encourages readers to use more strategies, because academic courses have greater cognitive demands (Alhaqbani & Riazi, 2012, p. 239). In addition, motivation plays a crucial role in motivating learners to increase reading strategy usage. Studies have indicated that academic need was a major contributor to high usage of reading strategies, and students in the humanities and the social sciences tend to use reading strategies more often than students who study technical or hard science subjects (Alhaqbani & Riazi, 2012). Therefore, because all participants in the current study were studying in the Department of Special Education (a humanities specialty), they were likely to use reading strategies. Overall, the mean of the three subscale categories were 3.71, 4.1, and 3.38 for global reading 228

235 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 strategies, problem-solving strategies and support reading strategies, respectively. The problem-solving (PROB) strategy was the preferred strategy, followed by global reading strategy (GLOB), and support reading strategies (SUP). These results were partially consistent with some studies that assessed reading strategy perceptions by using MARSI. A study by Mokhtari and Reichard (2002) demonstrated that the total average use of reading strategies was moderate, and the prime preference was for problem-solving, followed by global and support reading strategies. Another study by Alhaqbani and Riazi (2012) revealed that the total average use of reading strategies fell under a high usage level, and the primary preference was problem-solving, followed by global and support strategies. This study s results were consistent with the results of Kudeir et al. (2012), which indicated that the total average use of reading strategies was moderate, and problem-solving strategies were most used, followed by support and global reading strategies. Students preferred problem-solving strategies because the items in this category help readers to overcome difficulties that arise when a text is complicated. In addition, students were able to concentrate and understand the meaning of the text effectively. All items in this category were high degree used. For instance, the most preferred strategy (see table 2) was ''When text becomes difficult, I reread to increase my understanding'' (Item 27, M = 4.53, SD =.723), which indicates actions students take when not comprehending. Another strategy in this category, ''When text become difficult, I pay closer attention to what I m reading'' (Item 16, M = 4.23, SD =.896), indicates that students concentrated harder to resolve reading-related problems. To summarize, the use of problem-solving strategies is associated with skilled reading and strong comprehension, which requires skillful thinking, self- monitoring and going forward and backward in the text (Mokhtari & Reichard, 2002). The supporting strategy ''I use reference materials, such as dictionaries, to help me understand what I read'' (Item 15, M = 2.22, SD = 1.125) was least preferred. This indicates that students do not use supporting strategies, although they can increase their comprehension of a text. This also demonstrates that the students were not familiarized with these strategies in the general education schools they attended before university, and that they were accustomed to teacher-directed styles of learning. Table 2: Means, standard deviations, the average used and order for each strategy according to subscale and over all. Strategy No. M SD Order Average used Type Subscale over all High GLOB Moderate SUP High GLOB High GLOB High SUP Moderate SUP High GLOB High PROB Moderate SUP Moderate GLOB High PROB High SUP High PROB High GLOB Low SUP High PROB High GLOB High PROB High GLOB High SUP -229-

236 Assessing Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategy A. M. Al Dawaideh & I. A. Al-Saadi High PROB High GLOB Moderate GLOB High SUP High GLOB High GLOB High PROB High SUP High GLOB High PROB Q.2. Is there a significant difference in strategy usage by gender, academic achievement, and area of specialization? The means and standard deviations of gender, academic achievement, and students area of specialization for metacognitive awareness of reading strategies are shown in Table 3. The support reading strategy is least preferred by students. Table 3: Means and standard deviations of gender, academic achievement and students area of specialization for metacognitive awareness of reading strategies Metacognitive subscale Gender academic achievement area of specialization Global Problem Solving Support Reading St M n = 269 M SD F n = 281 M SD n= 14 Low M SD n= 362 Moderate M SD n = 174 High M SD n= 138 Junior M SD n=148 LD M SD n=118 ASD M SD n= 146 ID M SD Abbreviations Note: LD = Learning Disabilities; ASD = Autism Spectrum Disorders; ID = Intellectual Disability Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) analysis was used to examine the effect of gender, academic achievement, and students area of specialization on metacognitive awareness of reading strategies (global, problem-solving, and support reading). ANOVA was conducted on each dependent variable as a follow up test to the MANOVA. Post hoc tests were conducted using the Scheffe procedures to control for Type 1 errors. Analysis of variance A preset alpha level of.05 was used for all statistical procedures. Results of the MANOVA indicated significant differences for gender and area of Total 230

237 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 specialization, but not for academic achievement in relation to the global, problem-solving, and support reading strategies. Regarding gender, a significant effect was observed for the metacognitive awareness of reading strategies subscale (Wilks Lambda, F(3, 528) = 4.10, p <.007, =.023(. The MANOVA also revealed a significant area of specialization effect on the dependent variables (Wilks Lambda, F(9,1285) = 1.94, p <.043, =.011). The ANOVA result showed a significant gender difference in the problem-solving subscale (F(1,530) = 44.45, p =.001) with a small size effect ( =.021). A significant effect was observed for interaction of academic achievement on the global subscale (F(1, 530) = 8.91, p =.003, =.017). Furthermore the interaction of academic achievement and area of specialization exerted a significant effect on global (F(6, 530) = 3.64, p =.002, =.040), problem-solving (F(6, 530) = 3.20, p =.004, =.035), and support reading strategies (F(6, 530) = 3.97, p =.001, =.043). The interaction of gender, academic achievement, and area of specialization exerted a significant effect on global (F(3, 530) = 3.51, p =.015, =.019) and support reading strategies (F(3, 530) = 10.80, p =.000, =.058). Reading Strategy Use by Gender As shown in Table 3, the mean difference of the students with gender variable was statistically significant, in favor of the female students, the male students (n= 269) had a mean of M= and a standard deviation of SD = 1.182; the female students (n= 281) had a mean of M = and a standard deviation of SD = The overall strategy use explains that both male and female students more frequently use problem-solving reading strategies, the male students (n=269) had a mean of M = 3.96 and a standard deviation of SD =.475; the female students (n=281) had a mean of M = 4.25 and a standard deviation of SD =.422. These findings consistent with the results of previous studies based on gender, that indicated female participants use strategy more frequently than do male participants (Jimenez, et al., 2009; Kudeir et al., 2012; Madhumathi & Ghosh, 2012). Only the mean difference of the problem-solving strategy approaches statistical significance in favor of the female students; this result is consistent with that of Madhumathi and Ghosh (2012). The global reading strategy also approaches statistical significance in favor of the female students, whereas the mean difference in use of the supporting strategy between male and female students is not statistically significant; these results are inconsistent with those of Madhumathi and Ghosh (2012), which indicated that the mean difference of supporting strategy was statistically significant, and the mean difference of global strategy between male and female students was not statistically significant. The current study results are attributed to the difference between the interest shown by men and women in reading skills, that is, women are more accustomed to extra reading at home, such as reading novels, newspapers, and cookbooks. The regular reading habits might be improved the awareness and employment of the reading strategies ( Madhumathi & Ghosh, 2012). Thus, this habit helps them to enhance their reading strategy and their reading skills. This may be attributed also, to the females beholding generally to reading as a source of material to increase their culture and knowledge; making them more able to cope with instructions and suggestions in text readable compared with males, this is indication that they are more aware and conscious, including use reading skills and strategies ( Linkin, 1993)

238 Assessing Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategy A. M. Al Dawaideh & I. A. Al-Saadi Reading Strategy Use According to Academic Achievement Post hoc analyses of the MANOVA consisted of determining the differences between academic achievements in metacognitive awareness of the reading strategies subscale. Significant differences were observed within the global subscale between low achievement students and those with moderate achievement (p =.031), and between low and high achievement (p =.012) students. Moreover, significant differences were observed for the problem-solving subscale between low and high achievement groups (p =.002) and between moderate and high achievement groups (p =.000). As shown in Table 3, the mean difference was statistically significant for a whole scale associated with academic achievement variables in favor of the high achievement group. The students with high academic achievement (n=174) had a mean of M = and a standard deviation of SD = 1.354; and the students with moderate academic achievement (n=362) had a mean of M = and a standard deviation of SD = 1.221; and the students with low academic achievement (n=14) had a mean of M = and a standard deviation of SD = The overall strategy use shows significant differences for the global subscale between low achievement students (M = 3.40) and those with moderate achievement (M = 3.72), and between low (M = 3.40) and high achievement groups (M = 3.77). Moreover, significant differences were observed for the problem-solving subscale between low (M= 3.80) and high achievement groups (M= 4.23), and between moderate (M = 4.06) and high achievement groups (M = 4.23). This result can be attributed to students with high achievement typically being considered to be classified under the category of gifted, and therefore consistently perform conscientiously, striving to achieve their goals, and constantly seeking the optimal reading strategies to increase their understanding of texts. They are also distinguished from other students that they are more willing to knowledge; they are characterized by their ability to manage the time allotted for the study and organize study subjects according to their importance. They also have the ability to ask about the importance of the strategies they use; these properties are essential dimensions in metacognitive thinking. Based on this is expected to be students with high achievement more interested in the use of reading strategies, and ultimately contribute to increased academic achievement. This result is consistent with those of previous studies (Kudeir et al., 2012; Madhumathi & Ghosh, 2012). In general, successful students have a greater sense of self-efficacy and attribute their success to controllable factors such as effort and strategy use ( Schraw, 1998, p.122). Reading Strategy Use According to Area of Specialization Post hoc analyses of the MANOVA consisted of determining the differences between the groups of area of specialization. Significant differences were observed only for the global subscale between junior and learning disability students, in favor of the learning disability group (p =.007); students with learning disabilities were observed to be more strategic readers than are junior students. The results indicate proving hypothesis that students in the humanities and social sciences tend to use strategies more often than do those who study technical or scientific sciences. Therefore, since all students in the current study were studied in Department of Special Education, motivation and academic major can be considered factors accounting for the high use of reading strategies (Alhaqabani & Riazi, 2012). In contrast, the results inconsistent with findings of the study conducted by Kudeir et al. (2012) that indicated the students in scientific sciences are more use reading strategies than other sciences. 232

239 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Q.3. Is there interaction between gender, academic achievement, and area of specialization as it associates with metacognitive awareness of reading strategies? A significant interaction was observed between gender and academic achievement, and the dependent variables (Wilks Lambda, F(3, 528) = 3.53, p <.015, =.020). Furthermore, a significant interaction was observed between gender and area of specialization, and metacognitive awareness of the reading strategies subscale (Wilks Lambda, F(9,1590) = 2.49, p <.008, =.014). A significant interaction was also observed between academic achievement groups and area of specialization, and the dependent variables (Wilks Lambda, F(18,1493) = 3.87, p <.001, =.042). Gender, academic achievement, and students area of specialization exerted a significant effect on the dependent variables (Wilks Lambda, F(9,1285) = 6.17, p <.001, =.034). These results show that interaction between variables contributes to the effective understanding of academic texts. This result is inconsistent with that of Kudeir et al. (2012), which indicated no statistically significant differences between the mean estimates of the study sample and all areas of the scale, based on the interactions between gender and area of specialization, gender and academic achievement, and area of specialization and academic achievement. Conclusions and Recommendations From the findings of the study, it could be concluded that male students have weaker reading habits, which might be a reason for making less use of strategies, compared with female students; The interaction between variables contributes to the effective understanding of texts; High achievement students frequently use reading strategies, compared with low and moderate achievement students; and Students use problem-solving strategies more frequently than global and support reading strategies. It was therefore recommended that Students should be guided in using various metacognitive strategies in reading, and teachers should be trained through workshops on how to use metacognitive strategies to help their students, and future studies could detect the extent of students use of metacognitive reading strategies and comprehension in general education schools. Finally, future studies could assess metacognitive awareness of reading strategy as related to students grades, ages, and I.Q score. Overall, however, the results of this study should be treated with caution, as it is limited to the students perceptions of strategy use awareness rather than their actual use of reading strategies. Acknowledgement The researcher acknowledge the faculty team's support, guidance, and encouragement in accomplishing this study. References Alhaqbani, A., & Riazi, M. (2012). Metacognitive awareness of reading strategy use in Arabic as a second language. Reading in a Foreign Language, 24(2), Anastasiou, D., & Griva, E. (2009). Awareness of reading strategy use and reading comprehension among poor readers. Elementary Education Online, 8(2), Anderson, N. J. (2002). The role of metacognitive in second language teaching and learning. ERIC Digest, Retrieved from Barnett, M. (1988). Teaching through context: how real and perceived strategy use affect L2 comprehension. The Modern Language Journal, 77(2),

240 Assessing Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategy A. M. Al Dawaideh & I. A. Al-Saadi Flavell, J. (1976). Metacognitive aspect of problem solving. In L.Resnick (ed.), The nature of intelligence ( ). Hillsdale. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Garner, R. (1987). Metacognitive and reading comprehension. Norwood.NJ:Ablex. Goodman, K. (1994). Reading, Writing and written texts: a transactional sociopsycholinguistic view. In R. Ruddell & M. Rudde (Eds.). Theoretica models and process of reading, 4 th ed. Newark, DE: International Reading. Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. L. (2002). Teaching and researching reading. Harlow, England: Pearson Education. Jimenez, V., Puente, A., Alvarado, J., & Arrebillaga, L. (2009). Measuring metacognitive strategies using the reading awareness scale ESCOLA. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 7(2), Kudeir, R., Magableh, N., Nsser, H., & Alkawaldeh, M. (2012). The degree to which undergraduate Yarmouk University students have practiced strategic reading as related to some variables. Islamic University Journal of Educational and Psychological Studies, 20(2), Linkin, H. (1993). Toward a theory of gendered reading. Journal of Reader, No. 30, Madhumathi, P., & Ghosh, A. (2012). Awareness of reading strategy use of Indian ESL students and the relationship with reading comprehension achievement. Canadian Center of Science and Education, Vol. 5, No. 12, Mayor, J., Suengas, A., & Gonzalez, J. (1995). Estrategias metacognitive. Madrid: Sintesis. Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. ( 2002). Assessing students metacognitive awareness of reading strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), O'Malley, J., Chamot, A., Stewner-Mazanares, G., Russo, R., & Kupper, L. (1985). Learning strategies applications with students of English as a second language. TESOL Qyarterly, 19, Onovughe, G., & Hannah, A. (2011). Assessing ESL students' awareness and application of metacognitive strategies in comprehending academic materials. Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies, 2(5), Padeliadu, S., Botsas, G., & Sideridis, G.(2000). Metacognitive awareness and reading strategies: differences between average and reading disabled students. Proceeding of the 14 th International Conference on Applied Linguistics, Thessaloniki, Greece, 1-9. Pani, S. (2004). Reading strategy instruction through mental modeling. ELT Journal, 58(4), Paris, S.G., & Jacobs, J. E. (1984). The benefits of informed instruction for children's reading awareness and comprehension skills. Child Development, 55, Schmitt, M. S., & Sha, Sh (2009). The developmental nature of metacognition and the relationship between knowledge and control over time. Journal of Research in Reading, 32(2), Schraw, G. ( 1998). Promoting general metacognitive awareness. Instructional Science, 26, Yau, J. L. C. (2009). Reading characteristics of Chinese- English adolescents: Knowledge and application of strategic reading. Metacognition Learning, 4,

241 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Appendix Metacognitive Awareness Reading Strategies Inventory ( MARSI) Version 1.0 Kouider Mokhtari and Carla Reichard (2002) Directions: Listed below are statements about what people do when they read academic or school related materials such as text books, library books, etc. Five numbers follow each statement (1,2,3,4,5) and each number means the followings: 1 means " I never or almost never do this" 2 means " I do this only occasionally" 3 means " I some times do this ( about 50% of the time)" 4 means " I usually do this" 5 means " I always or almost always do this" After reading each statement, click the number (1,2,3,4,or 5) that apply to your using the scale provided. Please note that there are no right or wrong answer to the statement in this inventory. Type Strategies Scale GLOB I have purpose in mind when I read SUP I take notes while reading to help me understand what I read GLOB I think about what I know to help me understand what I read GLOB I preview the text to see what it s about before reading it SUP When text becomes difficult, I read aloud to help me understand what I read. 5 SUP I summarize what I read to reflect on important information in the text GLOB I think about whether the content of the text fits my reading purpose PROB I read slowly but carefully to be sure I understand what I m reading SUP I discuss what I read with other to check my understanding GLOB I skim the text first by noting characteristics like length and organization. 10 PROB I try to get back on track when I lose concentration SUP I underline or circle information in the text to help me remember it PROB I adjust my reading speed according to what I m reading GLOB I decide what to read closely and what to ignore SUP I use reference materials such as dictionaries to help me understand what I read. 15 PROB When text become difficult, I pay closer attention to what I m reading GLOB I use tables, figures, and pictures in text to increase my understanding PROB I stop from time to time and think about what I m reading GLOB I use context clues to help me better understanding what I m reading SUP I paraphrase (restate ideas in my own words) to better understand what I read.20 PROB I try to picture or visualize information to help remember what I read GLOB I use typographical aids like boldface and italics to identify key information. 22 GLOB I critically analyze and evaluate the information presented in the text SUP I go back and forth in the text to find relationship among ideas in it GLOB I check my understanding when I come across conflicting information GLOB I try to guess what the material is about when I read PROB When text becomes difficult, I reread to increase my understanding SUP I ask myself questions I like to have answered in the text GLOB I check to see if my guesses about the text are right or wrong PROB I try to guess the meaning of unknown word or phrases

242 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at Evaluation of Alternative Preschool Education Programs Regarding Their Perspectives on Teaching Science and Nature Hasret Nuhoglu* Maltepe University Teacher Education for Gifted Children Program, İstanbul, Turkey, Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Montessori, Waldorf and Reggio Emilia approaches, science and nature teaching Various preschool education programs are being implemented at the international level. These programs aim to raise self-confident, curious, creative, imaginative children, who respect themselves and others around them, can perceive problems and try to come up with alternative solutions to these problems. The purpose of this study is to make a comparative analysis of educational approaches of Montessori, Waldorf, and Reggio Emilia by reviewing their histories, philosophies, learning environments, teaching materials, roles of teachers and students in the learning process and by discussing science curricula, assessment processes and relationships between learners and teachers. Montessori approach is based on the theory that children can learn spontaneously in their own developmental process. It allows children to understand the order of the nature, to investigate, experiment, and make errors, and to correct their own mistakes. Waldorf approach aims to enable children learn about life and be an active member of society, by emphasizing the improvement of children s motivation and development of their cognitive and affective skills. Reggio Emilia approach allows children to make new discoveries through real life experiences. All three approaches are student centered and they allow children discover themselves and their environments. Evaluation of these programs regarding their perspectives on teaching science and nature, in theory and implementation, is also in the scope of this study. Introduction Contemporary educational approaches that have been proposed since 19 th century are based on the following fundamental principles: children are fit and ready for improvement from birth; they are creatures on their own merit rather than miniature copies of grown-ups; their developments and societies should be respected; educational activities should be designed according to children s interests and needs; education must be the life itself, not a preparation for it (Chatelain, 1964). Alternative educational approaches that are developed based on these principals propose a learner centered, freedom based point of view that emphasizes interaction with social environment, improvement of critical skills and psychological development. They also have a holistic understanding of development (Miller, 2004; Loftin, 2003). These alternative approaches differ from other educational approaches because they offer students and teachers choices, they are suitable for every student profile and they provide many alternative methods for learning. * Correspondence: [email protected]

243 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 While these alternative educational approaches essentially try to reach the same objectives, they differ in the processes of learning and teaching. One of these differences is to introduce children with nature and to explain what is happening around the environment through science topics, during their pre-school period, where the sense of curiosity and discovery are at their peak. Nowadays, it is possible to come across many alternative educational approaches. In this study, three of these, namely Montessori, Waldorf and Reggio Emilia approaches are compared and contrasted to evaluate their perspectives of science and nature education. This evaluation has been done regarding their learning environments, use of educational materials, teacher-student relationships, science and nature curricula, and measurement and evaluation techniques. Principles and historical development of Montessori, Waldorf and Reggio Emilia approaches Non-violence, peace and reconstruction are the common outstanding ideals for these three approaches. Each approach share a solid vision that emphasizes use children s potential of intelligence and creativity in the best way possible, to ensure the development of a society (Edwards, 2002). Historical developments of these three approaches also show similarities. Montessori and Reggio Emilia emerged from Italy, and Waldorf form Germany, before they expanded worldwide. Dr. Maria Montessori ( ), who was the first female medical doctor in Italy, opened her fist Children s House which was named after her, in Rome Montessori received a medical degree from University of Rome and then moved to the department of psychiatry in the same university for residency. During her time working in this department, she was interested in children with mental disabilities, and came to the conclusion that with a special education, their development can be improved. With this in mind, she examined Itard s and Seguin s work, who are the pioneers in the field of special education. After obtaining positive results working with mentally disabled children, she started working in the field of education, thinking the same approach would be successful with normal children. In order to gain more knowledge in this field, she studied philosophy, psychology and anthropology in the University of Rome (Montessori, 1997; Lillard, 2005). Inspired by the work of philosophers and educators such as J. J. Rousseau, Henrich Pestalozzi, Friedrich Froebel, Edward Seguin and Jean Itard, Montessori has created a unique approach in early childhood education. She was especially influenced by the studies of Jean- Marc-Gaspard Itard and Edward Séguin (Shipley & Oborn, 1996; Edward, 2002, Korkmaz, 2005). Fundamental principle of the Montessori philosophy is the idea that children carry the person they are meant to become within themselves. Children need freedom to achieve their full physical, intellectual and emotional potential. However, this freedom should be reached through order and self-discipline (Montessori, 1997). Waldorf educational approach, based on the philosophical foundations of Rudolf Steiner, was developed under the leadership of Emil Molt, who was the owner of Waldorf Astoria Cigarette Factory in Stuttgart, Germany. Rudolf Steiner ( ) was a scientist and a mathematician. He said that we can explain what we cannot see in geometry and mathematics -237-

244 Evaluation of Alternative Preschool Education Programs H. Nuhoglu with the help of formulas; therefore he valued spiritual, immaterial aspects very much. Under the guidance of his technical, philosophical and mystical knowledge, he developed a thought and belief system called Antrosophy (human wisdom). This philosophy was against Western way of thinking which focused on the mind and ignored a person s emotions and willpower. Following this thought system, with an educational approach that would develop awareness and liberate individuals egos, Steiner and his friend Emil Molt opened the first Waldorf School in September 7, 1919 (Barnes, 1980; Uhcmacher, 1995). Steiner, the founder of Waldorf approach, is said to be influenced by Gothe s work on science. Main goal of Waldorf education is to help students develop an understanding of manners and their place in the world. According to this educational system, every individual is a global citizen. Hence, Waldorf approach aims to educate children in all aspects and adopts the philosophy of heart, mind and skill (Driscoll, 1999). Waldorf education aims to enable children build upon their existing abilities instead of teaching children an intellectual content that they are not interested in. This way learning becomes an enjoyable journey of discovering oneself and the world. According to Waldorf approach, children become more alert and interested when they can make a connection between learning and their own experience, and they begin to learn through these experiences (McDermott, 1992). In the spring of 1945 right after the Second World War, inhabitants of a small village called Villa Cella, 50 km northwest of Reggio Emilia in Italy, began to build a school for their little children. Loris Malaguzzi ( ), a young teacher in his twenties, joined them to help. Malaguzzi had resigned from his job as a protest against state policies that ignore the diversity among children and went to Rome to study psychology. After returning from Rome, he started working on small schools that the families had built (Edwards, Gandini & Forman 1998). The village preschool had been built by the families in Under the leadership of Malaguzzi this movement reached the city Reggio Emilia and eventually in 1968 Italian government decided to support preschool education. Loris Malaguzzi, Founder of Reggio Emilia approach apparently had been influenced by the works of Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner, since he emphasized social constructivism. However, he found Piaget s cognitive developmental stages too structured; according to him the child is an intelligent and curious individual who has been social since birth. In Malaguzzi s view, the goal of education is to focus on supporting children s relationships with their families, peers and other people close to them. Consequently, children can change the system when they eventually become a contributor to the development of the culture they live in (Edwards, 2002). Analysis of the Three Educational Approaches in Terms of Science Teaching Learning Environments In Montessori approach, child is in the center. The learning environment focuses on individual development and process, and is designed according to the needs and abilities of the child. In this environment every child is considered as a universe, and they are allowed to develop in their own pace (The Montessori Foundation)

245 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Games that support creativity and imagination take precedence in Waldorf education. First thing that catches the eye in a Waldorf school is that the environment is cozy, natural and colorful, and contains a big play area. When children enter the classroom, they feel as if they are inside a fairytale. Children create their own play area; chairs and cloths, trains and ships made of wood pieces and pegs. The learning environment is designed in such a way that the children s senses are developed systematically and esthetically (Schmitt-Stegmann, 1997). Learning environment in Reggio Emilia approach consists of the physical and social environment as a whole. These environments are designed to facilitate the social interaction between children and adults. Moreover, classrooms are arranged in a way that supports children s creativity and imagination and they can share ideas with each other. Environment allows children s interaction, but there are also areas where children can be on their own if they want. In each Reggio Emilia school there are various plants and flowers, a pantry and a kitchen, lunchroom, toilets and a garden. These schools have an atmosphere that pulls people in and make them want to play games (Edwards, Gandini & Forman, 1998; Amus, 2006). Classroom Design Montessori classrooms contain furniture that is light, mobile and suitable for children s body size. Cabinets and shelves can be easily reached by children, drawers and doors are easy to open. There are also coat hangers, brooms with short, straight handles and brushes. Children can reach and use educational and other sort of materials according to their interests and needs, independent of adults. No unnecessarily distractive elements can be seen such as huge chalkboards and notice boards, dozens of the same paintwork or big alphabets that cover the walls (Montessori Connections, 2012). Montessori acknowledges that the real beauty of simplicity. Therefore, for children too fancy, complex objects, rather than simple, arranged according to the needs of the child in a manner consistent an environment with bright colours available. Prepared in accordance with the size and needs of the child in this environment, there is no any object placed exclusively for adults (Pines, 1969, Evans, 1971; Lillard, 1973). Montessori class, child, adult, away from the pressures of management and their world can discover, develop intelligence and the body of an attractive environment (Mallory, 1989). According to Steiner, in Waldorf approach children are assumed to be very sensitive to their environments and collect information using all of their sense organs. Therefore colors of the walls, furniture and materials are very important. Colors that are light and not eye tiring are preferred. Furniture is made from natural and enduring materials. In order to support children s learning, classes are filled with rich stimuli. Waldorf classes are considered as an extension of home environment and disturbing external factors are removed as much as possible. For example, teacher irons napkins and cloths in the class. Every child has a distinct symbol, which is used in everything that belongs to the child. The ceiling is low and descends towards the windows. There are no defined edges. Classrooms are decorated in light tones of pink and make children feel secure. Children leave their coats and shoes in cupboards with their name on them (SWSF, 2008). In Reggio Emilia programs, a free environment is developed where children can discover properties of materials, shapes and colors. School interiors are warm and calm, matte colored, decorated with glass and wood. Boards in the classes are used as a tool for communication among children and to display their work (Hertzog, 2001). Sinks in bathrooms are designed to allow children reach the taps easily and be close to each other when they are washing their hands or playing with water. Floors are wooden but there are places covered with carpets. Different types of mirrors are placed on the floors and ceilings. Convex and concave mirrors -239-

246 Evaluation of Alternative Preschool Education Programs H. Nuhoglu and mirrors formed as a triangular roof in the entrance, allow children think and observe themselves from various angles and in different situations (New, 1993; Amus, 2006). Alternative Learning Environments In Montesori schools there are spaces for working on the floor or sitting, individual and small group studies and class meetings. There are storage spaces for library collections and materials that are not frequently used (Montessori, 1997). In Waldorf schools provided to children a simple learning environment like a home. It contain open-ended toys and activities to allow improve their creativity and imagination in the Waldorf early childhood education. The curriculum in a Waldorf school is not purely academic in nature, but includes art, practical activities, and physical education as well (Melissa, 2011). For the purpose of facilitating social interactions between children and adults, large gathering areas (Piazza) are located in Reggio Emilia schools where children and teachers can spend some time together. Classrooms are located around this area. Children and adults have to pass this area during the day (Aral, Kandır & Yaşar, 2000). Piazza is not a place where children simply discharge, but a place for discovery, dramatization, and costume plays. The boards placed inside Piazza s inform parents about current projects, journals and children s dialogues amongst themselves. Children s products are also displayed here (Amus, 2006). Reggio Emilia schools also contain ateliers, workshops that are a cross between studio and laboratory, full of natural materials and art supplies. Each atelier has a graphical arts expert called atelierista, who works with the teacher and the children. Activities held in here enable students express themselves via new tools such as clay, painting, sculpture and collages. Education environments in Reggio Emilia schools have attractive, comfortable book corners and areas full of various toys and dolls for playing house. Playgrounds (gardens and play areas) Ideally, Montessori educational environment includes a little greenhouse, garden, a workshop for carpentry, an observation room with a one-way mirror and a small office (Montessori, 1997). In Waldorf environments, there are safe outdoor spaces containing sand boxes and mud ponds, trees, shrubs and short walking tracks. Also available are organic fruit gardens where children can pick up fruits. They walk on balance boards, climb trees, jump over ropes and dig the ground. This way, children discover their boundaries, recognize their potential and try to improve it (SWSF, 2008). Reggio Emilia schools have outdoor areas for water plays, hills for climbing, various little trees planted by the parents and picnic tables (Bennett, 2001). Materials Used Educational Materials In Montessori learning environments, materials are designed (from simple to complex, abstract to concrete and specific to general) to allow children desire tackling more complex tasks as they succeed simpler ones. They use natural and real materials that adults use in daily life; they drink tea in glass cups, do ironing with real iron and cut vegetables with real knives (Montessori, 1997; Temel & Dere, 1999).There are only one set of each material in the -240-

247 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Montessori class. These materials can be categorized into six basic themes: daily life, senses, language, mathematics, biology and geography. Most important properties of these materials are that they are durable and they have unique purpose. Multi-purpose toys in Waldorf classes foster children s imaginations. Toys are made of natural materials to allow maximum scope for imaginative use as props in children s play. Through plays, they can assume different roles, make social contacts and have the opportunity to use what they learn. Wooden blocks (natural timbers with no geometric shapes), natural cloths, Waldorf dolls, porcelain, ceramic plates and fresh fruit baskets can be seen in the Waldorf classes. Additionally, there are mills, fruit presses, repair kits, simple hand tools (these are generally stored in sheds and used for garden work), watercolor paints, wide brushes, pastels and crayons, sewing kits and custom designed picture books. Children work with crayons on a daily basis, but use brushes only in watercolor painting activities (SWSF, 2008; Toprak Ana, 2009; Şenol, 2012). Reggio Emilia toys are usually made of wood and recyclable (Bennett, 2001; Amus, 2006). Telephone with flexible line, various ropes and rocks are also available so that children can make some discoveries. Science Materials There is a nature table in the Montessori classroom. Flowers and plant seeds are always available and you can also see animals such as rabbits, snails, silkworms and ants in the class. A space is reserved in parks or gardens for raising animals or planting (Gilder, 2009; Poyraz & Dere, 2003). Botanical cards, zoology sets, equipment for chemistry and geology are among science materials used (Montessori Materials, 2012; Montessori for Learning, 2012). Waldorf classrooms contain natural materials such as calabashes, pine cones, branches and pebbles that are used in activities aiming to understand and become a part of nature (Şenol, 2012). Children are encouraged to look after the kindergarten equipment, sanding and oiling wooden furniture and toys, mending things that break, washing cloths and other simple tasks which children and adults can do together (SWSF, 2008). Teachers support all kinds of child development in Reggio Emilia approach. Taking children s interests and needs into account, they try to construct their scientific knowledge through various activities. In Reggio Emilia classes, education is combined with art. Children s observations are integrated with paintings. For example, children are initially asked to draw poppies, then they go to the fields to observe and draw real poppies. Then two pictures are compared. This process helps children compare their imagination and observations (Gandini, 1993). Teacher-learner relationship Teacher s role In Montessori education, teacher is a guide supporting the children s participation and assists them whenever they need help. Teachers are capable of their duties and responsible for designing the environment making children interact with that environment. They allow children use their potential to improve themselves. In addition, teachers are excellent observers; they monitor each child s development, and know what kind of materials the child should use for which purpose. When a child makes a mistake, following the principle children learn through experience, teacher does not intervene directly, but helps the child -241-

248 Evaluation of Alternative Preschool Education Programs H. Nuhoglu realize the mistake (Mallory, 1989; Poyraz & Dere, 2003; Malm, 2004; Temel, 1994; Korkmaz, 2005; Oğuz &Akyol, 2006). Waldorf teachers have dedicated themselves to bring out the love of learning that exists inside every child. They use arts and activities freely during the process of teaching. Teachers are required to have a university degree and a certificate from Waldorf School Teacher Collage (Reinhard, 1997; SWSF, 2008). In Waldorf schools the class represents family environment where the teacher acts as the authority figure. The teacher s main responsibility is to accept the child born in this world with gratitude, teach children with affection, and lead them while allowing them the full freedom any human being deserves. Fundamental academic subjects are thought by the same teacher throughout the school years (Waldorf Answers, 2004). In Waldorf schools, teachers emphasize children s strengths, not their weaknesses (McDermott, 1992). Reggio Emilia approach, teachers are considered to be learners. Teachers are obligated to provide opportunity and suitable environment for children so that they can move with enough freedom and construct knowledge. They see themselves as compasses in the journey of discovery they take on with children (Cadwell,1997; Temel &Dere, 1999). In addition, they support children to strengthen the social construct of the classroom and help them plan their learning experiences. A classroom does not belong to a single teacher, whole educational staff plan and work together. School cook and other staff attend meetings of weekly planning; there is no hierarchy of duty, so that everybody is included in planning and making other arrangements for children (Bennett, 2001). Reggio Emilia teachers also act as researchers. They work in strong cooperation with their colleagues and other staff; discuss and make comments on their daily work and children s progress among themselves. These comments provide sustainability of education and enhance it theoretically. Teachers see themselves as researchers who document their work with children. Rather than providing solutions to problems themselves, teachers help children come up with their own solutions (Gandini, 1993). Learner s role As a modern educational approach, Montessori allows children to investigate, make trials and errors, and correct their mistakes on their own (Vilscek, 1966). According to this approach, understanding the rules of nature is the basis of science. Children should notice and appreciate the order, harmony and beauty of nature. Individuality of the child is forefront in Montessori education (Montessori, 1997; Korkmaz, 2006; Gilder, 2009) Waldorf educated children are no longer dependent on outer objects for creative, symbolic activity but can develop an independent internal imaging ability (Schmitt-Stegmann, 1997). Reggio Emilia approach suggests that the child is against a wall that blocks his/her development while growing up. The child should succeed in passing though this wall on his/her own. Basic characteristic of Reggio Emilia approach is that it is constructed according to the rights children have, rather than their simple needs. Malaguzzi (1994) states that if children have their legal rights, they will also have the opportunity to improve their own intelligence. This way, children s competent, creative and curious requests and attributes with high potential can be recognized. Children that own their rights will take active role in learning and be more eager to perceive the world they possess since birth, learn and discover. Reggio Emilia approaches do not -242-

249 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 consider the child as an objective of education; children have active roles as an apprentice. As they are discovering, they work with other to find solutions to problems (Katz, 1993). Curriculum Montessori observed that, when children go through their natural development process in a suitable environment, they learn science, mathematics and how to read and write on their own just like they learn speaking and walking. In Montessori curriculum teachers develop a classroom design that is compatible with Montessori "prepared environment" principles. They create uninterrupted daily work periods of 90 minutes to 3-hours, considering the3-hour work cycle as ideal, integrate specialty programs (music, art, physical education, etc.) around the uninterrupted work periods. In Waldorf approach, children learn various elements in nature. When working with soil, they learn how its composition changes through seasons; they discover creatures living in the soil by farming or planting a flower. In addition, children know the gardeners working in the garden. Together, they cook meals in wood fire. They learn math and statistics while playing with sand, stones and wood. They also learn uses and changes of state of water, how rain is formed and similar events in nature by experience and active involvement. Science is thought through stories, poems and theatrical activities (Barnes, 1991; Schmitt-Stegman, 1997). In Waldorf early childhood schools, children are encouraged to appreciate the natural world. The beauty of nature, plants, insects and animals is brought to the children with awe and wonder. Domestic tasks provide opportunities for elementary experiences of science and the four elements. When children make toys from sheep's wool, wood, felt, cotton and other natural materials they learn about its origin (SWSF, 2008). Children in Reggio Emilia schools are allowed to make new discoveries through real life experiences. They follow the process of research, production and hypothesis testing (Temel & Dere, 1999). They strive to discover nature, make observations and develop projects based on these observations. Children are expected to develop basic scientific process skills such as making observations and comparisons, analyzing and evaluating results obtained from these observations (Cadwell, 1997). This approach presents many opportunities that involve problem solving, creative thinking and research (New, 1993). Science experiments cannot be repeated or copied without any change in Reggio Emilia approach, because it has a philosophy that inspires teachers. Teachers can make adjustments or adopt parts that are relevant to the subject matter. Curriculum developed by teachers emphasizes research, meaningful understanding, arousing curiosity and group work, and provides children project based science experiences (İnan, 2009). Assessment In Montessori education teacher use a process of reporting student progress that is compatible with Montessori and includes parent conferences and authentic assessment tools such as observation, portfolio, performance assessment with rubric. They implement state mandated assessments in such a way that the character of the Montessori program is not compromised (Montessori, 1997). The Waldorf method of evaluation might be characterized as the Look At The Leaves approach. To facilitate this indirect and qualitative assessment method, several important elements must come into play: the class teacher, parent, community of evaluators, portfolio -243-

250 Evaluation of Alternative Preschool Education Programs H. Nuhoglu approach and conservation. The class teacher comes to know the children, their learning styles and their developmental needs in a comprehensive manner. The Waldorf parent is asked to be an active part of the assessment process. In making her evaluation of the child, the Class Teacher has to work with a group of special-subject teachers who can speak of the child s progress and so contribute to the total picture of the child. Students are assessed by portfolio approach that includes the child s drawings, paintings, knitting, facility of movement, musical skills, oral expressiveness etc. as factors that are no less important than the more easily determined powers of cognition and verbal memory. The Waldorf assessment method is time and labor intensive in nature. It cannot function without numerous meetings and conversations between teacher and teacher, and teacher and parent. (McDermott, 1992; Eugene, 2009) In Reggio Emilia approach, documentation system is used for assessment. Teachers observe children in each working process, and try to understand their inner worlds by keeping written and visual records of these observations. This documentation aims to understand and analyze children s thinking and learning processes (Edwards, 2002; İnan, 2009) Discussion and Conclusion It is found two articles in the literature about compared these approaches. Cox & Rowlands (2000), compare Steiner, Montessori, and traditional methods of education in order to determine which approach is best for children s drawing ability. The results indicated that the Steiner method was the most conducive to creative, general drawing, and colour detail. Steiner also produced better overall results in accuracy and detail of observational illustrations. Edwards (2002), compares and contrasts the Waldorf, Montessori, and Reggio Emilia approaches to education. These progressive approaches emphasize the importance of respect, peace, and reconstruction in the development of individualistic and intelligent children. Of these approaches, Montessori education has the most empirical research on learning outcomes. This article tries to make a comparative analysis of educational approaches of Montessori, Waldorf, and Reggio Emilia by regarding their perspectives on teaching science curricula. When these three European originated educational approaches are compared with respect to their foundations and philosophical roots, some similarities and differences are stand out. Looking at the founders background, it is seen that Montessori was a psychiatrist, Waldorf s founder Steiner was a scientist and a mathematician, and Reggio Emilia s founder Malaguzzi was a teacher and a psychologist. Fundamental characteristic of all these founders is that they are innovative, open to challenges, resourceful and able to find alternative solutions to problems. All three approaches have risen as a part of an effort to revitalize a society that had been going through tough times. Although Montessori and Waldorf approaches were created and developed by the founders, Reggio Emilia differs from them in one point: it is a movement that women started for their children with the involvement of society. Focus point of all the approaches is the children. Considering the difficulties and lack of resources that people were facing during the years these approaches emerged, it seen that the intention is to form a profile of a child who could manage to satisfy his/her own needs, take on responsibilities, be aware of his/her talents and be able to use these talents effectively. Montessori approach focuses on the physical, intellectual and emotional potential of children while Waldorf approach focuses on their heart, mind and talents. In Reggio Emilia approach on the other hand, the focus is on children s social lives, curiosity and desire to explore

251 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 In terms of learning environments, one common aspect of all the approaches is that they are designed to allow children act independently and freely. Classes contain simple, wooden furniture that does not limit children s movements. However, there are some differences in the arrangement of learning environments. One of the biggest differences is use of boards in classroom. In Montessori approach, there are no boards or other distracting materials on the walls, whereas in Waldorf approach, walls are full of various stimuli to enhance children s learning. The walls of Reggio Emilia classes are decorated with children s work and they facilitate communication between children and parents. One distinct feature in Montessori class is the elliptic line on the floor, which is used in walking exercises. An aspect of Reggio Emilia that is not found in other approaches is the triangular roof made of mirrors in the entrance of the school. These mirrors allow children look at themselves form different angles. Reggio Emilia schools also have large windows and classes receive plenty of sunlight. On the contrary, following antroposophic architecture, curtains in Waldorf schools are sometimes kept closed, for example in mealtime, because eating is considered as a ritual. When teaching materials are considered, the most remarkable point is that Montessori materials are too structured. Materials focus on a unique purpose, they are always put in the same place in the class and there is only one set of each material. After children are done with the materials, they put the materials back in their places. Meanwhile, materials of Waldorf and Reggio Emilia approaches are modifiable and can be used for different purposes. Montessori focuses on reality, while other approaches emphasize creativity and imagination. Teacher plays an important role in all approaches. Montessori teachers act as guides who observe and support children s development, and help them when needed while in Waldorf approach that provides family environment in their classes, teachers represent the authority figure in the family. When learning processes are compared, it is seen that Waldorf teachers initiate the work and children join them gradually. Children work with the same teacher through most of their education whereas in Reggio Emilia approach teachers are considered as productive learners who constantly improve themselves and take part in the learning process along with the children. There is not only one teacher in the class; since sharing and communication are essential, people such as pedagogues, atelieristas, cooks, assisting staff and parents work together in harmony. It can be concluded that, in this age of science and technology, Reggio Emilia teachers take more active roles in preparing children for the future. In all three approaches, children are assessed without traditional tests and grades. In assessment process teachers and parents work in partnership. Parents receive extensive descriptive information about their children's daily life and progress and share in culminating productions or performances. Especially portfolios or other alternative evaluation methods products of children's individual and group work may be displayed and sent home at key intervals and transitions (Edwards, 2002). In the area that the Reggio Emilia school is built, the society and its culture are incorporated in education. Pedagogues and artists support children in the ateliers. In addition, there is a recycling center nearby each school and children use materials coming from these center. In Montessori education of the five senses is given with the help of teaching materials, Waldorf education addresses 12 senses, including intuitions, with the help of natural materials and children s imaginations. Since Reggio Emilia approach assumes every child is a unique social individual with a different point of view, education is customized according to the child s development, interests and desires

252 Evaluation of Alternative Preschool Education Programs H. Nuhoglu Repetition plays an important role in Montessori approach. Together with repetition, Waldorf approach also values rhythm (Ogletree, 1997) since they both help children develop feelings of trust. The child needs to know what to do in every hour of the day, therefore breakfast time, garden time etc. never change. They stick to strict schedule, thinking that radical changes in children s lives lead to confusion. In addition, Waldorf schools have a weekly rhythm; for instance Mondays they play house, Tuesdays they do water color painting, Wednesdays they bake breads. Same tale is told throughout the week. Annual rhythm involves a theme set for a year, and throughout the year subjects of the theme are thought through experiences. Montessori approach focuses on child s individual work, and this leads to one of the most criticized aspects of Montessori education; the danger of children s isolation from their environment due to extreme individualism (Buğday, 2002). Similar to Waldorf education, everything in the Montessori program is predetermined and assessment of this program depends on the child s improvement. Reggio Emilia s program is more flexible and easier to change compared to the other two approaches, since they do not have a predetermined class schedule; when children start school, studies and activities are arranged according to general and specific objectives relevant to each child. All approaches agree that children are inclined to learn the nature of science in early ages though experience and active involvement. In Montessori approach, children learn science related subjects by doing activities in the garden and plant house, and using science materials. Since Waldorf schools do not present any academic content for early childhood, they learn science subjects in a natural environment by discovery and experience. Reggio Emilia school supports science learning by channeling children to projects that foster research and discovery. Plans are made considering children individually. Generally, there is a planned schedule; it can be adjusted according to the children s wishes and interests. The Table 1 below compares the three approaches with respect to various criteria. Table 1: Montessori, Waldorf and Reggio Emilia approaches compared Montessori Waldorf Reggio Emilia Country of Origin Italy Germany Italy Founders Maria Montessori Rudolf Steiner Loris Malaguzzi First Schools and House of Children Waldorf School-1919 Village School-1946 Opening Dates Scholars of Influence J.J. Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Frobel, Seguin, Itard J.J. Rousseau, Goethe Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner Premise Freedom through order and self discipline Heart-Mind-Talent Social development and constructivism Realism is emphasized Imagination and creativity are emphasized Imagination and creativity are emphasized Development Fields Supports cognitive Supports affective Supports social development Supported development development Child Image Individual, free, self disciplined child Child developing talents with heart and mind Social, intelligent, curious child Teacher s Role Guide Family Authority Learner Interactions Child-Teacher Child-Teacher Child-family-teacher-societyenvironment Materials Learning environment Physical environment Simple, durable, natural, wooden Simple, durable, natural, wooden Simple, durable, natural, wooden Constructed Predisposed to learning Predisposed to learning Focused on individual Focused on development of Focused on social interaction development and process senses in an esthetic and between adults and children orderly fashion Closed to stimuli Rich stimulus Rich stimulus Furniture is easily Furniture is easily reachable Furniture is easily reachable reachable -246-

253 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Acknowledgement Some parts of this article presented in 3 rd International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their Implications. References Amus, G. (2006). Dayanışma, İletişim, Paylaşım Ve Çocuğa Verilen Değer: Reggio Emilia Yaklaşımı. Solidarity, Communication, Sharing, and the Child Given Value: Reggio Emilia Approach Zil ve Teneffüs Dergisi, 6: Aral, N., Kandır, A. & Yaşar, M. (2000). Okul Öncesi Eğitim ve Ana Sınıfı Programları Programs in Early Childhood Education and Kindergarten. Ya-Pa Publication, İstanbul. Barnes, H. (1980). An Introduction to Waldorf Education. Teachers College Record, 81, Barnes, H. (1991). Learning that grows with the learner: An introduction to Waldorf Education. Educational Leadership, 49, Bennet, T. (2001). Reactions to Visiting the Infant-Toddler and Preschool Centers in Reggio Emilia, Italy. Early Research and Practice. Volume 3, number 1. Buğday, (2002). Eğitimde Alternatif Uygulamalar. Alternative Education Applications ISSN: , IFOAM, EVU and GEN Publication: 1, 14, İstanbul. Cadwell, L.B. (1997). Bringing Reggio Emilia Home. An Innovative Approach to Early Childhood Education. P:2-5. Teacher Collage Press. Columbia University, U.S.A. Chatelain, F. (1964). Yeni Eğitimin Prensipleri. New Principles of Education (Translation: Nuri Kodamanoğlu), Millî Eğitim Basımevi, Ankara. Cox, M. V. & Rowlands, A. (2000). The Effects Of Three Different Educational Approaches on Children s Drawing Ability: Steiner, Montessori, and Traditional. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70(4), Driscoll, A. & Nagel, N.G. (1999). Childhood Education, Birth-8.Allyn and Bacon, Boston: USA. Edwards, C. P. (2002). Three Approaches from Europe: Waldorf, Montessori, and Reggio Emilia. Early Childhood Research and Practice: 4(1): Edwards, C., Gandini, L. & Forman, G. (1998). The Hundred Languages of Children. Ablex Publishing Corporation. London. Eugene S. (2009). Discover Waldorf Education: Assessing Without Testing. millennialchild.wordpress.com/article/discover-waldorf-education-assessing- 10mw7eus832b-4/ 2/10. Evans, D.E. (1971). Contemporary Influences in Early Childhood Education. Holt, Rinchart and Winston Inc. s.59, New York. Gandini, L. (1993). Fundamentals of the Reggio Emilia Approach to Early Childhood Education. Young Children, 49 (1), 4 8. Gilder, S. A. (2009). Montessori by Nature. Montessori Life, 4:

254 Evaluation of Alternative Preschool Education Programs H. Nuhoglu Hertzong, N. B. (2001). Reflection and Impression from Reggio Emilia: It s Not About Art! Early Childhood Research and Practice. Volume 3, number 1. İnan, H. Z. (2009). Science Education in Preschool: How to Assimilate the Reggio Emilia Pedagogy in a Turkish Preschool. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 10 (2): 1. Katz, L. (1993). What can we learn from Reggio Emilia? In C. Edwards, L. Gandini, & G. Forman (Eds.). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia Approach to Early Childhood Education Norwood, Nj: Ablex. Korkmaz, E, (2005). Montessori Metodu ve Montessori Okulları: Türkiye`de Montessori Okullarının Yönetim ve Finansman Bakımından İncelenmesi. Montessori Schools and Montessori Method: Investigation of The Montessori Schools in Turkey in Terms of Management and Finance. Unpublished Master s Dissertation. Marmara University, Instutute of Education Science, İstanbul. Korkmaz, E. (2006). Montessori Metodu / Eğitimde Bir Alternatif. Montessori Method /Alternative Education. Algı Publication, Ankara. Lillard, A.S (2005). Montessori, The Science Behind the Genius. Oxford University Press, New York. Lillard, P.P. (1973). Montessori, A Modern Approach. Schocken Books, New York. Loftin, J. (2003). Making a Difference: Alternative Education in Indiana. The Indiana Alternative Education Conference, Indianapolis, alternatives. net/loflin_alternatives_paper.doc Malm, B. (2004). Constructing Professional Identities: Montessori Teachers Voices and Visions. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 48(4), Mallory, T. (1989). Montessori ve Çocuğunuz, Ana-Babanın El Kitabı. Montessori and Your Children, Parental Handbook. (Translation: Füsun Öztaş ve Cihan Gülten). Hatipoğlu Publication, Ankara. Malaguzzi, L. (1994). Your image of the child: where teaching begins. Child Care Information Exchange, 3, McDermott, R. (1992). Waldorf Education in America: A Promise And Its Problems. Questia Journal Vol. 15 (2): 82. Melissa, K. (2011). Approaches to Natural Learning: Montessori, Reggio Emilia, and Waldorf. Natural Parents Network. Miller, R. (2004). Educational Alternatives: A Map of the Territory. Paths of Learning Magazine, 20, 20. Montessori, M. (1997). Çocuk Eğitimi, Montessori Metodu Children s Education, Montessori Methods (Translation: Güler Yücel). 5. Issue, Özgür Publication, İstanbul. Montessori Connections, (2012). Early Childhood Classroom, 3 to 6 Years, montessorieducation/montessori_ed013.html Montessori Materials, (2012). Pre-school Montessori Materials

255 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Montessori for Learning, (2012). Science Montessori Units. New, R. S. (1993). Reggio Emilia: Some Lessons For U.S. Educator. Eric Clearing-House On Elemantary and Early Childhood Education U.S.A. ERİC, ED Ogletree, E. J. (1997). Eurythmy in Waldorf Schools. ERIC ED Oğuz, V. ve Akyol, K. A. (2006). Çocuk Eğitiminde Montessori Yaklaşımı. Montessori approach in Childhood Education. Çukurova University, Journal of Social Science Institute, 15(1): Pines, M. (1969). Revolution Learning. Allen Iane, The Penguin Pres, London. Poyraz, H. & Dere, H. (2003). Okulöncesi Eğitiminin İlke ve Yöntemleri. Principles and Methods of Early Childhood Education. 2. issue, Anı Publication, Ankara. Reinhard, B. (1997). Public Waldorf School In Calif. Under Attact. Educational Week. 16 (39): 1-3. Schmitt-Stegmann, A. (1997). Child Development and Curriculum in Waldorf Education. ERIC-ED Shipley, G. L. & Oborn, C. S. (1996). A Review of Four Preschool Program: A Preschool Models That Works, Annual Meeting of the Mid-Western Educational Research Association, Chicago, ERIC ED SWSF, (2008). Steiner Waldorf Early Childhood Education. Şenol, Ş. (2012). Waldorf Pedagogy. Temel, Z. F. & Dere, H. (1999). Okul Öncesi Eğitimde Yaklaşımlar. Approaches to Early Childhood Education Gazi University Preschool Teachers Handbook. Ya Pa Publication, İstanbul. Temel, Z. F. (1994). Montessori nin Görüşleri ve Eğitime Yaklaşımı. Montessori Perspective and Approach to Education. Okul Öncesi Eğitimi Dergisi. 26 (47), The Montessori Foundation. Twenty Best Practices of an Authentic Montessori School. =Load%20Layout&formfields[newnode]=46 Toprak Ana, (2009). Radyo Programı. Eğitimde Nereden Nereye? Radio Program. From Where to Where in Education. Uhcmacher, B. P. (1995). Uncommon schooling: A historical look at Rudolf Steiner, Anthrosophy, and Waldorf Education. Curriculum Inquiry, 25, Vilscek, E. (1966). Programs for the Pre-school Child. ERIC ED Waldorf Answers, (2004)

256 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at Exploring the Turkish Teachers Professional Development Experiences and Their Needs for Professional Development Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Professional development, teachers, need, professional development activities, teacher quality and effectiveness. Soner Mehmet Ozdemir* Kırıkkale University, Faculty of Education, Kırıkkale, TURKEY The purpose of this study was to examine the activities of professional development that Turkish elementary and secondary teachers experienced individually in the previous two years. Survey method was used and data were collected through an instrument developed by researcher. Sample consisted of 507 elementary and secondary teachers employed in 12 elementary and 11 secondary schools in Kırıkkale. Results of the study indicated that the most common activities, teachers participated in, were to search on the internet to follow the latest developments (new methods, techniques or activities etc.) related to their fields or education and use these in their lessons, to participate in forums on the Internet related to education or teachers to share opinions, documents or activities for professional development, to visit another school (in or outside city) with the aim of professional development. Besides, four-fifths of the teachers needed professional development. The most required professional development areas were new instructional approaches/techniques/methods, subject field, the use of instructional technologies, teaching students with special needs, recognition of the student psychology and measurement and assessment. Introduction Teachers are the key asset of schools. They need to be well trained at the beginning of their careers and provided with high quality professional development in subsequent years in their profession (Hargreaves, 1998:38) and, it is evident to assume that a teacher will, in one respect, need continuing professional support to become a master teacher (Orlich, Harder, Callahan & Gibson, 1998:389). Professional development is a process or processes by which competent teachers achieve high levels of professional competence and expand their understanding of self, role, context, and career (Duke & Stiggins, 1990:99). Indeed, the need for professional development for all teachers is indisputable (Ingvarson, Meiers & Beavis, 2005) with the vitality of the teaching profession dependent upon continuous professional learning which should be planned, systematic, regular and relevant (Committee for the Review of Teaching and Teacher Education, 2003, cited in Yates, 2007:214). Professional Development of Teachers: Definition, Aim and Importance Professional development, in a broad sense, refers to the development of a person in his or her personal role and the sum of formal and informal learning experiences throughout one s career from initial preparation phase (pre-service and in-service teacher education) to * Correspondence: [email protected], Phone:

257 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 retirement (Craft, 1996 ; Fullan, 2001). Many definitions of professional development have been found in the literature. For example, while Bolam (2000:272) see professional development as a process by which teachers and head teachers learn, enhance and use appropriate knowledge, skills and values, for Glatthorn (1995), it is the professional growth a teacher achieves as a result of gaining increased experience and examining his or her teaching systematically. Elliott (1991, cited in Kervin & Rodwell, 2007) underlines that professional development is more than just experiences teachers have- professional development is the individualistic and possessive process of acquiring techniques. Day (1999:4), on the other hand, defines professional development in a broader perspective. According to Day, Professional development consists of all natural learning experiences and those conscious and planned activities which are intended to be of direct or indirect benefit to the individual, group or school and which contribute, through these, to the quality of education in the classroom. It is the process by which, alone, and with others, teachers review, renew and extend their commitment as change agents to the moral purposes of teaching; and by which they acquire and develop critically the knowledge, skills and emotional intelligence essential to good professional thinking, planning and practice with children, young people and colleagues through each phase of their teaching lives. Relevant literature indicates that professional development is indispensable element in terms of teacher competence and quality, student learning and outcomes, school improvement and effectiveness and educational reform. Primarily, professional development plays an important role to improve teacher s professional and personal development and increase their career by helping them changing and reviewing their skills, knowledge, attitudes and understanding (Blandford, 2000; Bolam, 2000; Borko, 2004; Craft, 1996; Day, 1999; Desimone, 2009; Glatthorn, 1995; Guskey, 2002a; Hien, 2008; Hill, 2009; Villegas-Reimers, 2003). The research have confirmed that engaging teachers in high quality professional learning is the most successful way to improve teacher effectiveness (Elmore & Burney 1997; Greenwald, Hedges & Laine 1995; Guskey & Huberman 1995; Hawley & Valli 1999; Elmore 2002, cited in Fraser, 2005). Several opinions and findings exist that professional development of teachers is effective on students learning and outcomes directly or indirectly in the literature (Blandford, 2000; Bell & Gilbert, 1996; Diaz-Maggioli, 2004; Garet et al., 2001; Guskey, 2002a; Hill, 2009; McDonald, 2009; Villegas-Reimers, 2003). Findings from the relevant literature all over the world proved an encouraging relationship between the improvement of teachers education and the levels of students accomplishment (Borko & Putnam; 1995; Meiers & Ingvarson: 2005, cited in Hien, 2008). There are even research findings about students of teachers who participated in long-term teacher education achieved higher matriculation scores than their counterparts (Cohen & Hill, 2001; Viadero, 2005, cited in Klieger & Bar Yossef, 2011). In short, the professional growth of teachers and other staff in the school is a key component of developing children s learning (Bubb & Earley, 2007:13) as well as change and development in their teaching skills, knowledge, attitudes and values. Professional development is also related to school improvement and effectiveness and educational reform (Bolam, 2000; Bubb & Earley, 2007; Day, 1999; Desimone, 2009; Fullan & Hargreaves, 1992; Guskey, 2000; Hien, 2008; Vandenberghe, 2002; Villegas-Reimers, 2003). As noted by Day (1999:2), successful school improvement is in one respect dependent upon successful teacher development. In other words, investment in professional development is essential both to the growth and revitalization of the individual and organization, and is the most significant investment a school can make (Cardno, 1996). Thus, it becomes evident that -251-

258 Exploring the Turkish Teachers Professional Development S. M. Ozdemir teachers professional development is a key factor to ensure the success of educational reform at every level, which will impact educational reform and school effectiveness positively. For this reason, it is significant to explore the reality of teachers professional development (Zhu, 2010:379). In brief, as a professional, a teacher is expected to evaluate his/her competences, practices and teaching approaches to benefit from continuing professional development opportunities. Inquiring own practices, collaboration with colleagues for improvement of teaching and learning environments, exchange of views about compliance with educational and didactic choices, learning by sharing success or failures are underlined on the basis of the development process (TED, 2009:5). Types of Professional Development Teachers experience a vast range of activities and interactions that may increase their knowledge and skills and improve their teaching practice, as well as contribute to their personal, social, and emotional growth. These experiences can range from formal, structured topic-specific seminars given on in-service days, to everyday, informal hallway discussions with other teachers on instruction techniques, embedded in teachers everyday work lives (Desimone, 2009:182). In addition to this, there are many types of professional development activities can be classified as traditional and alternative or new in the literature. These types of activities are: local and national conferences, seminars, short courses, workshops, faculty courses, special institutions, qualification programmes, reading professional publications, mentoring, coaching, peer observation, action research, visits to other schools, sharing views and good practices with colleagues, examining student work, study groups, individual and collective research, case discussions, lesson study, social networking (Boyle, While, & Boyle, 2004; Diaz-Maggioli, 2004; Ganser, 2000; Guskey, 2000; Garet et al., 2001; General Teaching Council for Wales, 2002; Hustler et al., 2003; Villegas-Reimers, 2003; Struthers, 2007). These activities cover all forms of teachers professional learning, whether formal or informal within school or out of school, self-directed or externally prescribed (Conlon, 2004:116). Perhaps, the most traditional form of professional development is the typical in-service staff training that includes the use of workshops, short seminars and courses. Although traditional forms of professional development are quite common, they are widely criticized as being ineffective in providing teachers with sufficient time, activities, and content necessary for increasing teacher s knowledge and fostering meaningful changes in their classroom practice because of one-shot experiences, completely unrelated to the needs of teachers and providing no follow-up ( Loucks-Horsley, Hewson, Love & Stiles, 1998, cited in Garet et al., 2001:920; Villegas-Reimers, 2003:93). Therefore, Guskey (2002b) argued that professional development does not consist of event-driven activities such as workshops and seminars, but forget the wide range of less formal, ongoing, job-embedded professional development activities-study groups, action research, collaborative planning, curriculum development, structured observations, peer coaching, mentoring, and so on. Professional Development for Teachers in Turkey There has been a variety of activities and programs organized by central and local education authorities for the quality and continuous professional development of teachers in Turkey. These activities and programs are planned and organized at central level mostly by The Ministry of National Education and Provincial Directorate for National Education and at -252-

259 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 the local level rarely by the schools. Most of the professional development activities for teachers are in the form of in-service training seminars covering specific subjects of education, courses, workshops and conferences. These professional development activities are not effective due to various reasons such as; ignoring needs and expectations of the teachers, problems with timing and duration, lack of opportunities to put learnings into practice, insufficient physical settings and resources, inappropriate instructional methods and materials, lack of motivation and outdated content (Kanlı and Yağbasan, 2002; Uçar and İpek, 2006; Yalın, 2001). For the reasons above mentioned, these activities turn out to be inefficient traditional routine activities. In this context, The Turkish Ministry of National Education introduced The Teacher Career Ladder System (TCLS) to encourage continuous professional development for teachers in Teaching profession within the frame of TCLS is divided in to three career steps as teacher level, master teacher level and head teacher level. Career in this system is defined as advancing to master teacher from teacher and advancing to head teacher from master teacher by gaining necessary competencies (MEB Mevzuat Bankası, 2006). Teachers advancement in their careers depends on their seniority, examinations for TCLS centrally conducted by the Ministry of National Education and their participation to various professional development activities. Besides, teachers studying for a master and PhD degrees are exempt from these exams. By this way teachers are encouraged to participate in qualification programmes. In the career system, especially participating professional development activities is considered to be important for promoting teachers professional skills and motivations, improving students learning and providing development of schools. For each professional development activity, a point is determined in the system. Of these activities, as well as traditional professional development activities such as; workshops, conferences, participating in qualification programmes, writing an article in national and international peer-reviewed journals, writing a book, participating in symposium/congress or participating in scientific activities such as designing projects and/or participating projects, organizing concerts, conferences, panels, competitions inside and outside of schools etc., are also available. TCLS was only applied in 2005 and revoked by the Constitutional Court as a result of the case filed by education unions for several reasons. Currently, Turkish Ministry of Education is working on a new regulation for professional development and career to meet the needs and requests of all interested parties. It can be said that such a regulation is important for not only teachers own professional development and progression and development of schools but also having effective learning for students. In this context, the aim of this study is to examine the professional development activities that teachers experienced and their needs for professional development. Teachers professional development is one of the important factors in both increasing the qualifications of teachers and educational institutes and improving students learning. Thus, the findings of this study are considered to provide some information to the decision-making authorities related to education and to educational institutes and to shed a light on which subjects teachers should improve themselves and which subjects opportunities for professional development should be given to teachers by education authorities and educational institutes. Method This study was designed based on survey model to determine the activities elementary and secondary school teachers participated in professional development and their needs for professional development

260 Exploring the Turkish Teachers Professional Development S. M. Ozdemir Participants The present study was carried out on teachers in elementary and secondary schools in Kırıkkale located in 80 km east of Ankara the capital of Turkey. In the center of Kırıkkale 53 public and 3 private elementary schools and 19 public and 1 private secondary school are located in academic year teachers in elementary schools and 918 secondary teachers are working in the city centre (Kırıkkale İl Milli Eğitim Müdürlüğü, 2010). Of these schools 12 elementary schools, nine of these schools are public and three of them are private and 11 high schools, 10 of them are public and one of them is private were selected randomly. The types of these selected schools are general high school, science high school, teacher high school, Anatolian high school, technical and vocational high school, fine arts high school and imam hatip high school (Religious Vocational High School). To the teachers in these selected 12 elementary and 11 high schools, a questionnaire developed by researcher was sent and 520 volunteer teachers responded this questionnaire. Since 13 of these questionnaires were filled incompletely, these questionnaires were eliminated and were not included in the study. Accordingly, 507 teachers consisted of the participants of this study. As examined demographic information of teachers, about 53% of teachers (n=269) work in elementary schools and 47% of them (n=238) in secondary schools. The study sample included 303 (59.8%) male and 204 (40.2%) female teachers. Besides, 18.7% of teachers have 1-3 years of teaching experience, 19.3% of them 6-10 years of experience, 21.3% of teachers years, 16.8% of them years, 12% of them years and 11.4 % of them 26 years or over. The participants were (27%) primary school teachers, (38.3%) social science teachers (social studies, history, geography, Turkish literature etc), (20%) science education teachers (physics, chemistry, mathematics, biology, and science), (7.3%) vocational school teachers and (6.5%) fine arts and physical education teachers. Data Collection Tool and Its Implementation The data were gathered through a questionnaire developed by the researcher from elementary and secondary education teachers in spring semester In development of the questionnaire, international and national literature were examined first. Instruments used in the studies related to the research subject were examined and correspondingly draft items were formed which would be used as measurement tools for this study. In the formation of draft items, professional development activities in Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) Study conducted by OECD in 2009 and activities in Teaching Career Ladder System introduced by Ministry of Education in Turkey in 2005 as well as items in instruments used in some studies related to the subject in literature were utilized. A variety of professional development activities realized by teachers individually took place in the draft measurement tool. For the content validity of the scale, a group of teachers opinions working in elementary and secondary schools in Kırıkkale and academicians expert opinions working in Faculty of Education in Kırıkkale University were gathered. In expert opinion, it was intended to determine whether the items with professional development in the scale were convenient and related to the subject. As a result of expert opinions, it was decided to remove some items and to correct some of them and finally to add some more items (activities) to the scale. In line with expert opinions, the scale s internal validity was provided by determining whether the items in data collection tool served for the purpose of the study and sub-problems of the study and whether it was related to desired area or not. In addition, for the reliability of the measurement tool, the questionnaire applied to a group of teachers and it was seen that majority of the items were understood and answered easily. Open-ended questions were existed related to reasons why the teachers did not participate in professional development -254-

261 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 activities. Tallies of the answers given by the participants to the open-ended questions were kept and it was used for the interpretation of the findings in conclusion part. Data Analysis Part of the data analysis and interpretation of the data, values of arithmetic mean and standard deviation as well as percentage and frequency were computed. Teachers participation in professional development activities were presented in the tables of percentage and frequency, while the findings on the frequency of their use of the library in the table of arithmetic mean and standard deviation. SPSS software was utilized to analyze data. Findings Table 1. Professional development activities teachers attended in the previous two years Professional development activities Have you attended a seminar/course/workshop at a public or private institution on your own will in the previous two years? Yes No f % f % Total n Have you attended a conference/panel on your own will in the previous two years? Have you attended a congress/symposium on your own will in the previous two years? Have you written a book or a book chapter in your field or on an educationrelated topic? Have you published an article in national refereed scientific journals? Have you published an article in international refereed scientific journals? Have you published an article/paper in non-refereed scientific or education journals? Have you written for the local / national press (printed or online)? Have you participated in provincial or national scientific/educational research projects in your field or the field of education? Have you been involved in an educational project funded by the EU (i.e. Comenius, Leonardo da Vinci) as coordinator, researcher or visitor? Have you got a patented scientific / educational invention? Have you got original instructional materials that you have developed for your courses? Have you got a subscription to a scientific journal or one in your field, or education? Have you visited a colleague s class with the aim of development in the previous two years? Have you visited another school (in or outside your city) with the aim of professional development? Do you participate in forums on the Internet related to education or teachers to share opinions, documents or activities for professional development? Do you search on the Internet to follow the latest developments in your field or in the field of education (new methods, techniques or activities, etc.) and use these in your classes? As can be seen from Table 1, teacher responses to questions about professional development activities showed that approximately one-third (30.4%) willingly attended a seminar/course/workshop in a public or private institution in the previous two years, -255-

262 Exploring the Turkish Teachers Professional Development S. M. Ozdemir approximately half (49.1%) attended a conference/panel, and more than one-fourth (27.0%) attended a symposium/congress. The table also shows that in their professional lives, one-tenth of teachers (10.1%) wrote a book or book chapter in their field or the field of education, a very small number (2.4% and 1.6%) published articles in national and international journals, 7.9% published in non-refereed scientific or educational journals, a little more than one tenth (11.6%) wrote for the local/national press (printed or on the internet), 15.2% participated in provincial or national scientific/educational research projects in their field or the field of education, and 16.4% were involved in a project funded by the European Union Education Programs (Comenius, Leonardo da Vinci) as a coordinator, researcher or visitor. While only 0.4% of the teachers had a patented invention in their field or education, a little more than one-third (34.9%) reported to have developed original course materials to use in their courses. Another finding of the study was that, approximately one-third (29.8%) of the teachers subscribed to an educational or scientific journal in their field. Slightly more than two-thirds of the teachers (34.9%) stated that they visited a colleague s class in the previous two years with the aim of self development, while half (50.7%) expressed they visited another school (in or outside their cities) for professional development. In addition, three-fourths of the participants (74.2%) responded that they participated in forums on the Internet related to education or teachers to share opinions, documents, and activities for professional development, while more than four-fifths of the participants (83%) reported searching on the Internet to follow the latest developments (new methods, techniques or activities, etc.) in their fields or on education, and using them in their classes. Table 2. Teacher participation in qualification programs Teacher participation in qualification programs Yes No % % Total f f Of the teachers who participated in the study, 15.2% (n=77) had attended qualification programs such as masters and doctoral programs. Of these teachers, 5 (1%) either held a doctoral degree or was enrolled in a doctoral program. Table 3. The frequency of teachers reading book related their field or education per month The frequency of teachers reading book f % Never Total As shown in Table 3, more than two-thirds (67.9%) of the teachers read 1 or 2 books in their field, related to education or scientific topics monthly, 15.2% read between 3-5 books, and as high as 16% never read

263 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Table 4. The amount of money teachers spend for professional development per month (books, journal subscriptions or symposium, conference, panel participation, etc.) The amount of money spent for professional development by teachers f % Never Less than 50 TL TL TL and more Total The participants reported that more than half (54.2%) spent 50 TL (Turkish Liras) or less monthly on professional development, 15.2% spent between TL and only 4.5% spent 101 TL and more. On the other hand, one-fourth of the teachers (25.2%) did not spend any money on professional development. Table 5. The frequency of teachers use the city or university libraries for professional development The frequency of teachers use of the library Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always Total S f % f % f % f % f % f % Arithmetic means show that, overall, teachers do not use libraries much for professional development ( =1.78). Half of the participants (49.9%) stated that they never used the library for professional development. Slightly more than one-fourth (27.6%) stated that they used it rarely, 16.4% used it often and only 2.0% used it all the time. Table 6. Teachers need for continuing professional development Need for continuous professional development of teachers f % Yes No Total Approximately four-fifths (78.2%) of the teachers responded that they needed more professional development than they already experienced, slightly more than one-fifth (21.8%) noted that they did not need any professional development. It could thus be stated that most of the teachers needed their professional development and growth. Table 7. Areas teachers need for professional development Areas teachers need for professional development f % New instructional approaches/ methods / techniques Subject field The use of instructional technologies Teaching students with special needs Recognition of the student psychology Measurement and assessment General knowledge Classroom management As shown in Table 7, the area in which teachers needed professional development the most was new instructional approaches, methods, techniques (53.6%). This was followed by -257-

264 Exploring the Turkish Teachers Professional Development S. M. Ozdemir subject field (41.2%), the use of instructional technologies (38.8%), teaching students with special needs (34.3%), recognition of the student psychology (32.7%) and measurement and assessment (28.2%). Meanwhile, the areas, teachers feel the least need for professional development are general knowledge (19.3%) and classroom management (18.1%). Discussion and Results Professional development for teachers has become one of the most crucial focus of discussion in the field of education in recent years. Teacher development throughout careers, from the preservice stage to retirement, is an indispensible component of personal and professional development, student success and high quality schools and educational system. According to Glatthorn (1995), professional development covers informal experiences such as following professional publications and watching TV documentaries as much as formal participating in seminars, workshops and other professional meetings. In addition to the quality of the teaching profession, teacher participation in informal experiences for professional development also affects student learning and school improvement positively. As noted by Day (1999), professional development of teachers should be an intrinsically motivated process of personal development. Thus, this study explores the professional development experiences of Turkish elementary and secondary teachers, their needs for professional development and the areas in which they need it. The findings of this study showed that the most voluntarily participated professional development activities by teachers : using the internet to follow the latest developments in their own field or in topics related to education (new methods, techniques or activities, etc.) and to use these in their classes (83%), participating in forums on the Internet related to education or teachers to share opinions, documents or activities for professional development (74.2%). It may thus be stated that, for professional development, teachers preferred to use the internet which is one of the most common technological tools of our day. There are other studies in the international literature which have studied similar topics. Wermke (2010) compared the professional development activities of German and Swedish teachers and found that both groups of teachers used the internet frequently for their professional development. Contrary to the findings of the current study, Seezink & Poell (2011) concluded that only 7% of the teachers they studied used the internet for professional development. Bolam and McMohan (2004) argued that technological tools such as e-learning, learning through TV, networks (virtual and real) and the internet are among the new professional development methods and approaches for teachers. In this context, as cited by Desimone (2009:182), formal and informal learning communities may play a significant role as strong mechanisms for teacher growth and development. One of the most common professional development activities that teachers attended was visiting another school (in or outside their cities) for professional development (50.7%) in the present study. In the study of Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) conducted by OECD, almost 28% of teachers from different countries reported to visit other schools (OECD, 2009). Of the Turkish teachers who participated in TALIS study, 21% visited other schools. Furthermore, in a study based on the TALIS Dataset by The Turkish Ministry of National Education about 27% of teachers undertook this activity (Büyüköztürk, Altun & Yıldırım, 2010). Sato, Wei and Darling-Hammond (2008) cited that these opportunities to work with colleagues allowed teachers to share ideas and practices, make everyday curriculum decisions, and participated productively in school reform initiatives. In fact, sharing their knowledge and practice with colleagues indicates the distributed nature of -258-

265 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 learning (Vandenberghe, 2002). According to the findings, almost half of the participant teachers (49.1%) attended a conference/panel in the last 2 years, and 30.4% attended a seminar/course/workshop at a public or private institution. In Boyle, While and Boyle s (2004) study, 77% of the teachers attended conferences and workshops given by local educational authorities while 43% attended the conferences and workshops organized in their schools. Ekşi (2010) also found that attending courses, workshops or seminars (X=2.89) was among the professional development activities attended commonly by teachers. Additionally, OECD TALIS Report indicated that 67.8% of Turkish teachers undertook educational conferences and seminars in the previous 18 months. Mean score of participation in educational conferences and seminars by teachers from all countries in the TALIS study was about 49% (OECD, 2009). In Turkey National Report of TALIS 71.8% of teachers participated in these activities (Büyüköztürk, Altun & Yıldırım, 2010). Perhaps the most traditional forms of professional development are the workshops, short seminars and courses typically offered in in-service training schemes. They are often criticized for being one-off activities, being irrelevant to teacher needs, and not having continuity (Villegas-Reimers, 2003:93). However, professional development is not only limited to event-driven activities such as workshops and seminars. The new trends in professional development include less formal, ongoing and job-embedded activities- study groups, action research, collaborative planning, curriculum development, structured observations, peer coaching, mentoring, and so on (Guskey, 2002b). Thus, conference and seminar plans should not only contribute to the advancement of the school or profession, but also help teachers make more meaning of conferences and seminars (Diaz-Maggioli, 2004). One-third of the teachers in the study (34.9%) reported having prepared original instructional materials to use in their courses. This finding means that two-thirds of the participants did not design any instructional materials to use in their courses. While Seezink & Poell (2011) found that 53% of their participants developed instructional materials for professional development, Kwakman (2003) concluded that teachers frequently (X=2.59) developed course materials. These findings from the international literature suggest that teachers are not really active in developing instructional materials, which is an important professional development activity. This study also showed that approximately one-third of the participants (30.4%) visited a colleague s class for development purposes in the previous two years. A similar finding was obtained in the TALIS. It showed that nearly 35% of all teachers and 32% of Turkish teachers participated in mentorship and peer observation activities (OECD, 2009). Also, according to the findings of Turkey National Report of TALIS 34.3% of the participants experienced this activity (Büyüköztürk, Altun & Yıldırım, 2010). On the other hand, Kwakman (2003) and Ekşi (2010) found that teachers rarely undertook observation of other teachers. Observing a colleague, being observed, and receiving feedback is a key component of active learning. Sharing knowledge and practices with other colleagues shows the extensive nature of learning (Vandenberghe, 2002: 5) and observing and being observed is considered a useful process as well as an important professional development opportunity (Da Costa, 1993; Joyce & Showers, 2002, cited in; Desimone, 2009:182; Garet et al., 2001:925). Of the teachers in this study, 15.2% participated in qualification programs such as MA or doctoral programs. The TALIS Study found that about 25% of all teachers and 19% of Turkish teachers participated in qualification programs (OECD, 2009). Similarly, findings of Turkey National Report of TALIS indicated that 18.5% of teachers undertook this activity (Büyüköztürk, Altun & Yıldırım, 2010). When compared with the findings of the TALIS, the -259-

266 Exploring the Turkish Teachers Professional Development S. M. Ozdemir teachers who took part in the current study seem to participate less in qualification programs. Teachers responses to open-ended questions revealed that they did not participate in professional development programs due to their work load at school, familial responsibilities, lack of time, economic problems, and lack of administrator support. The findings of this study indicated that 16% of teachers did not read any books in their field, related to education or scientific topics, 67.9% read 1-2 books monthly, and 15.2% read between 3-5 books. The national and international literature also includes similar findings. For instance, Kwakman (2003) found that teachers rarely follow professional publications related to their field/branch (X=2.11), and Ekşi (2010) found that teachers partially follow them (X=3.15). In addition, the findings of the study of Teacher Competencies conducted by Turkish Education Association (TED) (2009) showed that 16.4% of teachers did not read any books related to their professional development. On the other hand, Wermke (2010) reached the conclusion that both German and Swedish teachers frequently read scientific books and articles, and the former read more. Reading professional books and journals on teachers own subject matter or on educational or scientific topics is important for offering students quality learning opportunities as well as their professional development. As emphasized by Ornstein and Lasley (2000), a teacher needs to follow the latest developments in the field and in instructional approaches for effective teaching. A teacher who cannot continuously improve/renew himself ends up with obsolete knowledge and instructional skills. However, both the findings of this study and others in the international literature, show that teachers do not adequately follow professional publications. According to the findings of this research more than half of the participant teachers (54.2%) spent 50 TL or less monthly for their professional development, while one-fourth (25.2%) did not spend any money on it. This means that teachers spent little or no money on their own professional development. As shown by the open-ended questions, the main reason for this is economic problems. Most teachers stated that they could not attend conferences, symposiums and seminars in other cities, subscribe to journals, or buy professional and scientific books due to economic problems. This may also be due to personal reasons such as not needing professional development or professional isolation in addition to economic issues. Similar findings were found in the study of TED (2009). While 12% of the teachers who participated in this study did not spend any money to increase the quality of their educational activities, 55.5% of them spent 50 TL, 23.5% TL, and 6.8% 100 TL and over. The study also showed that teachers generally did not make much use of the library for their professional development (X=1.78). Half of the participants (49.9%) were found to make no use of libraries for this purpose. This suggests that teachers do not visit libraries to read professional books or journals, or to do research. The findings indicated that a big majority of teachers (78.2%) noted a need for more professional development than they had already undergone. Even though the teachers in this study did not attend enough activities for professional development, in general they were found to need professional development and improvement. The areas in which teachers needed professional development most were new instructional approaches, methods, techniques, subject field, use of instructional technologies, teaching students with special needs, recognition of the student psychology and measurement and assessment. On the other hand, they reported the least need for professional development in general knowledge and classroom management. The findings of the OECD TALIS Study showed that 54.8% of teachers felt the need for professional development (OECD, 2009). The same study also showed that 48% of Turkish -260-

267 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 teachers needed professional development. The areas in which teachers had the highest need for professional development in the TALIS Report were: Teaching students with special needs (32%), ICT teaching skills (25%), student discipline and behavior problems (21%). Besides, Turkey National Report of TALIS pointed out 45% of the teachers needed for professional development and the areas with the highest development need were teaching students with special needs, ICT teaching skills and teaching in a multicultural setting (Büyüköztürk, Altun & Yıldırım, 2010). Ekşi (2010) concluded that ELT teachers seemed to need professional development the most in new theories and practices in ELT, technology use in ELT and integrated skills instruction, while the area in which professional development was needed the least was classroom management. In sum, teachers need to participate in professional development activities not just for their own professional and personal development, but to also increase student learning, school improvement and the quality of the education system. Day (1999) argues that professional development for teachers should be a process of intrinsically motivated personal development. To achieve this, it is essential that teachers personally feel the need for professional development or gain awareness regarding this issue. As suggested by Villegas- Reimers (2003: ), the kinds of professional development programmes or activities designed by and for teachers must respond to their professional needs, their personal and professional interests, the stage of professional development attained at particular time, and the stage of the education system in force in their place of work. Also, school administrations and national and local education authorities should provide administrative and economic support for teachers to actively engage in professional development programs and activities. References Bell, B. & Gilbert, J. (1996) Teacher development: a model from science education. Washington D.C.: Falmer Press. Blandford, S. (2000). Managing professional development in schools. London: Routledge. Bolam, R. (2000). Emerging policy trends: some implications for continuing professional development. Journal of In-Service Education, 26(2), Bolam, R. & McMahon, A. (2004). Recent developments in CPD. In Day, C. and Sachs, J. (Eds.) International handbook of the continuing professional development of teachers, (pp ). Maidenhead: Open University Press. Borko, H. (2004). Professional development and teacher learning: mapping the terrain. Educational Researcher, 33(8), Boyle, B., While, D. & Boyle, T. (2004). A longitudinal study of teacher change: what makes professional development effective? The Curriculum Journal, 15(1), Bubb, S. & Earley, P. (2007). Leading and managing CPD: developing people, developing schools. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Akbaba Altun, S., & Yıldırım, K. (2010). Uluslararası öğretme ve öğrenme araştırması Türkiye ulusal raporu [Turkey s national report of teaching and learning international survey-talis). Ankara: Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı, Dış İlişkiler Genel Müdürlüğü. Cardno, C. (1996). Professional development: an holistic approach. New Zealand Journal of Educational Administration, 11, Craft, A. (1996) Continuing professional development: a practical guide for teachers and schools. London : Routledge. Conlon, T. (2004). A failure of delivery: The United Kingdom s New Opportunities Fund programme of teacher training in information and communications technology. Journal of In-Service Education, (30)1,

268 Exploring the Turkish Teachers Professional Development S. M. Ozdemir Day, C. (1999) Developing Teachers: the challenges of lifelong learning. London: Falmer Press. Desimone, L.M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers professional development: toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Researcher, 38(3), Diaz-Maggioli, G. (2004). A passion for learning: teacher-centered professional development. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Duke, D.L., & Stiggins, R.J. (1990). Beyond minimum competence: evaluation for professional development. In J.Millman & L.Darling-Hammond (Eds.), Handbook for the evaluation of elementary and secondary teachers. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Ekşi, G. (2010). An assessment of the professional development needs of english language instructors working at a state university. Unpublished thesis of the master of science. The Graduate School of Social Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara. Fraser, D. (2005). Professional learning in effective schools: the seven principles of highly effective professional learning. Melbourne: Department of Education & Training. Retrieved April 2011 from Schools.pdf Fullan, M. (2001). The New meaning of educational change. New York: Teachers College Press. Fullan, M., & Hargreaves, A., (Eds.). (1992). Teacher development and educational change. London: Falmer Press. Ganser, T. (2000). An ambitious vision of professional development for teachers. NASSP Bulletin, 84(618), Retrieved December 2010 from Garet, M.S., Porter, A.C., Desimone, L., Birman, B.F., & Yoon, K.S. (2001). What makes professional development effective? Results from a national sample of teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 38(4), General Teaching Council for Wales. (2002). Continuing professional development: an entitlement for all. Retrieved May 2010 from %20An%20Entitlement%20for%20all.pdf Glatthorn, A. (1995). Teacher development. In L.W. Anderson (Ed.). International Encyclopedia of Teaching and Teacher Education. (2nd Edition). London: Pergamon Press. Guskey, T. R. (2000). Evaluating professional development. California: Corwin Press. Guskey, T.R. (2002a). Professional development and teacher change. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 8(3/4), Guskey, T.R. (2002b). Does it make a difference? Evaluating professional development. Educational Leadership, 59(6), Retrieved December 2010 from Difference%C2%A2-Evaluating-Professional-Development.aspx Greenwald, R., Hedges, L.V., & Laine, R.D. (1996). The effect of school resources on student achievement. Review of Educational Research, 66(3), Hargreaves, D. (1998). Creative professionalism: the role of teachers in the knowledge society. London: Demos. Hien, T. (2008). Towards an effective teachers professional development in DFLSP CFL- VNU. Retrieved December 11, 2010 from

269 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Hill, H. (2009). Fixing teacher professional development. Phi Delta Kappan, 90(7), Retrieved June 2011, from Hustler, D., McNamara, O., Jarvis, J., Londra, M., & Campbell, A. (2003). Teachers perceptions of continuing professional development. DfES Research Report Number 429. London: Department for Education and Skills. Retrieved May 2011 from Kanlı, U., & Yağbasan, R. (2002) yılında Ankara da fizik öğretmenleri için düzenlenen hizmet içi eğitim yaz kursunun etkinliği [The effectiveness of in-service training courses organized for physics teachers in Ankara in 2000]. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, , Kervin, L., & Rodwell, M. (2007). In-school professional development: supporting teachers with the inclusion of critical literacy in their classrooms. Paper presented at English Literacy Conference. Retrieved May 2011 from Kırıkkale İl Milli Eğitim Müdürlüğü (Province National Education Directorate of Kırıkkale). (2010). İlköğretim ve ortaöğretim kurum istatistikleri [Elementary and secondary education statistics]. Retrieved December 2010 from Klieger, A., & Bar Yossef, N. (2011). Professional development of science teachers as a reflection of large-scale assessment. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 9(4), Kwakman, K. (2003). Factors affecting teachers participation in professional learning activities. Teaching and teacher education, 19, McDonald, L. (2009). Teacher change: a dynamic interactive approach. The International Journal of Learning, 16(10), MEB Mevzuat Bankası (Regulations Bank of Ministry of National Education). (2006). Öğretmenlik kariyer basamaklarında yükselme yönetmeliği [The regulation of teacher career ladder system]. Retrieved November 2010 from OECD. (2009). Creating effective teaching and learning environments: First Results from TALIS. OECD, Paris. Orlich, D.C., Harder, R.J., Callahan, R.C., & Gibson, H.W. (1998). Teaching strategies: a guide to better instruction (5th ed). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Ornstein, A.C., & Lasley, T.J. (2000). Strategies for effective teaching (3rd ed). New York: McGraw Hill. Seezink, A., & Poell, R. (2011). The role of schools perceived human resource policies in teachers professional development activities: a comparative study of innovations toward competence-based education. Asia Pacific Education Review, 12, Struthers, D. (2007). Personal development for teachers. Retrieved December 2010 from %20Personal%20Development%20for%20Teachers.pdf TED (2009). Öğretmen yeterlikleri [Teacher competencies]. Ankara: Okan Matbaacılık. Uçar, R., & İpek, C. (2006). İlköğretim okullarında görev yapan yönetici ve öğretmenlerin MEB hizmet içi eğitim uygulamalarına ilişkin görüşleri [The opinions of teachers and administrators working in primary schools on in-service traning applications of MEB]. Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 3, Vandenberghe, R. (2002). Teachers professional development as the core of school improvement. International Journal of Educational Research, 37(8), Villegas-Reimers, E. (2003). Teacher professional development: an international review of the literature. Paris: UNESCO, International Institute for Educational Planning

270 Exploring the Turkish Teachers Professional Development S. M. Ozdemir Wermke, W. (2010). Continuing professional development in context: teachers continuing professional development culture in Germany and Sweden. Professional Development in Education, 37(5), Yalın, H.İ. (2001). Hizmet içi eğitim programlarının değerlendirilmesi [Investigation of inservice training programs]. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 150, Yates, S. M. (2007). Teachers perceptions of their professional learning activities. International Education Journal, 8(2), Zhu, H. (2010). Curriculum reform and professional development: a case study on Chinese teacher educators. Professional Development in Education, 36(1),

271 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 3(4), pp , 1 December, 2013 Available online at The Impact of Mnemonic Devices on Attainment and Recall in Basic Knowledge Acquisition in Nursing Education Onur Koksal* School of Foreign Languages, Selcuk University, Konya, Türkiye Ali Murat Sunbul Educational Curriculum Department, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Türkiye Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Nurses, Health Care System, Health Teams, the Role of Nurses, Mnemonic Devices, Letter/PhoneticMethod, Attainment, Recall Yunus Emre Ozturk Faculty of Health Sciences, Selcuk University, Konya, Türkiye Musa Ozata Faculty of Health Sciences, Selcuk University, Konya, Türkiye The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of letter/phonetic method on attainment and recall of basic knowledge about healthcare system, health teams and the roles of nurses taught in Introduction to Nursing lesson in freshman students studying at nursing department at the faculty of health sciences. Therefore, the present study was carried out with 76 freshman students in two classes with almost the same knowledgelevel in the Department of Nursing at the Faculty of Health Sciences at Kafkas University in academic year. Before the instructional period, one of these classes (39) was assigned as the treatment group, while the other (37) was assigned as the control group. Both groups were given a test on Health care system, health teams and the role of nurses. The participants were given the same test after the study as well. Three weeks after the instructional period, the attainment test was given as the recall test. The test scores were analyzed using t- test. The analysis of the t-test scores indicated that there was a significant difference between the attainment scores of the groups. Similarly, when the recall test scores of the groups were compared, it was found there was a significant difference between the groups in favor of the treatment group in terms of recalling what was learnt. The findings of the study indicated that letter/phonetic method implemented in the study was highly effective in boosting learners success and recall. Introduction The purpose of nursing is to develop the health of individuals, families and society throughout human life, to prevent illnesses and to provide patients with better health care and to alleviate the agony of patients. The basic roles of nurses determined by International Union of Nurses are advocacy, developing a safe environment, doing research and contributing to the formation of health policies, managing the patients and the health system and carrying out educational activities (The ICN Definition of Nursing, 2011). Nursing is a scientific field that * Correspondence: SelcukUniversity School of ForeignLanguages, [email protected]

272 The Impact of Mnemonic Devices on Attainment O. Koksal, A. M. Sunbul, Y. Emre Ozturk & M. Ozata entails expertise. The knowledge that nurses possess play a significant role in providing patients with the health care that they need (Çetin, 2008: 108). A major purpose of nursing is to teach existent knowledge, skills and values; validate, renew, develop and generalize and make them perfect (Altun 2010: 237; cited in Çınar et al., 2013: 2) The basis of nursing education is to ensure competency in knowledge and skills. Therefore, both theory and practice are equally important in nursing curricula (Gannon et al., 2001:534; cited in Ay, 2007: 58). From a global perspective, nursing education is a training process that includes theoretical and practical instruction and learning experiences. During this educational process, learners are given theoretical knowledge to help them establish and maintain effective communication with healthy/ill individuals within the family/the society and develop and express themselves well, along with turning knowledge into behaviour (Taşocak 2003: 1; Keçeci, 2007:3). In Turkey, nursing education is basically provided at the undergraduate level. During the four-year educational period, learners are provided with lessons such as introduction to nursing that represents clinical information, nursing for internal diseases, surgical nursing, women's health nursing, public health nursing and psychiatric nursing along with lessons concerning basic medical sciences (anatomy, physiology, pathology, biochemistry, histology, nutrition, etc.) and lessons in social sciences (sociology, psychology, management, professional communication, educational methodology, etc.). Introduction to Nursing among these lessons is one of the most significant lessons that helps learners get acquainted with the nursing profession, change their perspectives about nursing and understand this profession. This lesson includes such subjects as introduction to nursing, health-care system, the roles of health teams and nurses, establishing communication with patients, healthy environments in hospitals, patient admission and discharge, the process of nursing, ethical issues in nursing and others related with basic nursing (Kaya and Akçin, 2002: 6). Nursing education is an educational system that encompasses cognitive, affective and psychomotor learning domains. The cognitive domain is concerned with the classification of instructional objectives based on thinking, and the affective domain encompasses behaviours that include the human emotions, whereas the psycho-motor domain studies behaviours that emerge as a result of the cooperation between the senses, mind and muscles (Mete, 2009: 115). Since nursing as a significant health education program encompasses a number of concepts, principles and symbols, various significant problems emerge in terms of learners' success and behavioural objectives. The quest for effective strategies in concept instruction is one of the significant problems of health education. In this context, it is significant that mnemonic devices should be included in nursing education. Mnemonic Devices in Education and the Letter-Phonetic Method Mastropieri and Scruggs (1998) defined mnemonic devices as strategies that help code relationships and associations that are not a natural part of the subject to be learned. Mnemonic strategies are an artificial network of relations that pair up semantically unrelated components with similar or different properties. That is, mnemonic devices make the piece of information to be learned more meaningful and facilitate retention. They are supportive methods that make the mind more powerful and facilitate recall (Bourne, Dominowski, Loftus and Healy, 1986). Sweda et al., (2000) noted that mnemonic devices are instructional strategies, intended for the memory that establishes links between old and new information with the help of visual and auditory cues

273 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Since mnemonic devices facilitate learning activities, they help increase the amount of information learned during the educational period. Arends (1997) stresses that mnemonic strategies help individuals form schemata for the information that they learn. In this process, learners develop problem-solving skills which are efficient in analytical thinking, reasoning as well as retaining information in the memory for a long time (Marschark and Hunt, 1989; Levin et al., 1990). In this regard, Eysenck and Keane (1995) stress that mnemonic devices facilitate deeper thinking in learners that lack such a skill. In conclusion, no matter how mnemonic devices are defined, the purpose of such strategies is to support the process of retaining information in the mind (Zimbardo, Johnson and Weber, 2006). The use of mnemonic devices in nursing education is a relatively new practice (Schumacher, 2005). Various studies focusing on the effectiveness of mnemonic devices suggest that they are effective in increasing learner's success and boosting retention (Schunk, 2004; Schumacher, 2005; Heather and Gibson, 2009).While the letter-phonetic method helps learners acquire the objectives of the unit focusing on the health-care system, health teams and the roles of nurses, it might also lead confusion in the mind of the learners or result in forgetting. Furthermore, this method facilitates systematic recall of the newly learned information. The letter-phonetic method involves creating a meaningful word or a sentence by using the initial letters of the items to be learned. This facilitates retention and recall. The letter phonetic method is composed of 2 techniques; namely, the acronym and acrostic technique. In the former, the initial letters of the words to be learned are combined and a new word is created (Kleinheksel and Summy, 2003; Köksal, 2013). On the other hand, in the latter, the initial letters of the words to be learned are taken and meaningful sentences are created using words beginning with these letters (Mastropieri and Scruggs, 1998; Schunk; 2004; Kondu, 2011) The acronym technique used in this study is particularly effective in remembering information in a certain order. Schumacher (2005) coded what nurses have to do in health security controls by using an acronym that he developed: CATS PRRR? In this acronym, each letter stands for the steps that have to be followed (See Table 1). Table 1:The Acronym of "Cats PRRR" -267-

274 The Impact of Mnemonic Devices on Attainment O. Koksal, A. M. Sunbul, Y. Emre Ozturk & M. Ozata Similarly, Fahrer and Harris (2004) used the acronym technique to teach climatic changes in geography lesson. They inserted what they want to teach in the acronym LAMPPOST (Köksal, 2013). In this acronym, the letters stand for the following: L: Latitude, A: Altitude, M: Maritime influence, P: Pressure systems P: Prevailing winds, O: Ocean Currents, S: Storm and T: Topography. Figure 1 demonstrates the Lamppost variables created by the researchers. As a result of the research study the researchers stated that this method contributed to learning and retention to a significant extent. Figure 1: LAMPPOST Acronym Köksal (2013) notes that a new acronym was created in the course titled "instructional principles and methods" in the form of the Turkish word "KEBAB," meaning cooked meat, to code reinforcement principles suggested by Skinner. This word is an acronym for the principles of programmed learning. The letters and what they stand for are given below: K: Küçükadımlarilkesi (The principle of small steps), E: Etkinkatılım (Effective participation), B: Başarıilkesi (Principle of success), A: Anındadönütilkesi (The Principle of instant feedback), B: Bireyselhız (The principle of individual pace). It is essential that the learners should know the relationship between the acronym "KEBAB" and Skinner's reinforcement principles. If they do not learn reinforcement principles well, they will not remember what each of the letters stands for in the acronym. If the principle of "efficient participation" is not fully learned, the learner will not be able to make meaning out of the letter "E". Mastropieri and Scruggs (1998) stated that when the acronym technique is used, what each letter stands for should be learned well (Cited in Köksal, 2013). Sometimes it is not possible to form a meaningful word or a sentence using the initial letters of the words that students are supposed to learn. In such a situation, the students might rearrange the acronym by adding other letters into the word (Korkmaz, 2007). For example, the acronym FıSTıKÇıŞaHaP, meaning a man called Şahap, who sells nuts, is widely used in Turkish language lessons to help learners remember stop sounds in the Turkish language. As it is seen in the example, vowels are inserted within consonants to make a meaningful acronym (Korkmaz,2007; Akt; Köksal,2013). The present study aims to investigate the impact of the letter-phonetic method as a mnemonic device on the attainment and retention in freshman nursing students in the unit about health-care system, health teams and the role of nurses in the lesson titled "Introduction to Nursing and Rapport"in the first year of the nursing department in the faculty of health sciences

275 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Purpose of the Study The purpose of the present study is to investigate the impact of letter-phonetic method as a mnemonic device on the attainment and retention in freshman nursing students in the unit about health-care system, health teams and the role of nurses in the lesson titled "Introduction to Nursing and Rapport"in the first year of the nursing department. Research Questions (1) Is there a significant difference between the post-test attainment scores of the treatment group which received instruction using letter-phonetic method as a mnemonic strategy and the control group, which was instructed traditionally to help attain the objectives in the unit, health-care system, health teams and the roles of nurses in the lesson "Introduction to Nursing and Rapport" in the first year of the nursing department? (2) Is there a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test attainment scores of the treatment group which received instruction using letter phonetic method as a mnemonic strategy to attain the objectives in the unit, health-care system, health teams and the roles of nurses in the lesson "Introduction to Nursing and Rapport" in the first year of the nursing department? (3) Is there a significant difference between the mean pre-test and post-test attainment scores of the control group, which was instructed traditionally to help them attain objectives in the unit, health-care system, health teams and the roles of nurses in the lesson "Introduction to Nursing and Rapport" in the first year of the nursing department? (4) Is there a significant difference between the retention test scores of the treatment group which received instruction using the letter-phonetic method as a mnemonic strategy and the control group, which was instructed traditionally to help attain the objectives in the unit, health-care system, health teams and the roles of nurses in the lesson "Introduction to Nursing and Rapport" in the first year of the nursing department? (5) Is there a significant difference between the post-test and retention test scores of the treatment group which received instruction using letter phonetic method as a mnemonic strategy and the control group, which was instructed traditionally to attain the objectives in the unit, health-care system, health teams and the roles of nurses in the lesson "Introduction to Nursing and Rapport" in the first year of the nursing department? Method This study adopts an experimental method with a pretest, posttest and control group. The experimental method is a type of research in which the data to be observed are created to explore the causality of relations between the variables that are taken under control by the researcher (Karasar, 2007). This study was carried out using two randomly assigned groups. One of these was the treatment group (letter-phonetic method), while the other one was the control group (traditional learning). The learners were tested before and after the instruction in both groups. The present study was carried out on nursing students in the Department of Nursing at the Faculty of Health Sciences at Kafkas University in Kars, an eastern province in Turkey. The study aimed to test whether there was a statistically significant difference between late -269-

276 The Impact of Mnemonic Devices on Attainment O. Koksal, A. M. Sunbul, Y. Emre Ozturk & M. Ozata post-test scores of the control group instructed traditionally and the treatment group which received instruction through letter-phonetic method as a mnemonic device to acquire the objectives of the unit titled "Heath-care system, health teams and the roles of nurses." The study lasted for 8 sessions in 4 weeks. During this period the instructor taught issues regarding the health-care system, health teams and the roles of nurses in the lesson "Introduction to Nursing and Rapport" Class 1/A was assigned as the treatment group, while 1/C was assigned to be the control group before the instruction. 39 students in the treatment group and 37 students in the control group, totally 76 students, took part in the study. The learners in the treatment group received one-hour instruction about the letter-phonetic method. Moreover, the instructor was informed about the method and how to implement it. During the instructional period, the treatment group was taught using the letter-phonetic method as a mnemonic device, while the control group was instructed using traditional methods (such as lecturing). The Application of Letter-Phonetic Method Used in The Study First, the instructor gives information to the learners about preventive health services in the health-care system. "...Now, the scope of health services is to help the society, family and individuals, reach a certain level in terms of health services and to do this in an organized, planned and coherent way. Today, health-care services are presented in "three steps" to every member of the society. Possible losses, if preventive health-care services are not provided in the health-care system, are as follows: Loss of human health Loss of lives Loss of production and productivity Meaninglessness in life Economic loss It is possible to create an acronym (ÜYECİ) by using the letter-phonetic method as a mnemonic device to help learners remember the aforementioned losses easily. Ü: Üretim ve verim kaybı (Loss of production and productivity) Y: Yaşamın anlamını yitirmesi (Meaninglessness in life) E:Ekonomi kkayıp (Economic loss) C: Can kaybı (Loss of lives) İ:İnsansağlığınınkaybı (Loss of human health) After this presentation, the instructor wants the learners to tell him what each letter stands for. He says, "Now, let's repeat the information that we coded using the initials." The learners, together with the instructor, repeat the information several times. The instructor moves onto the roles of nurses after giving the learners the information mentioned above. "...Nurses significantly contribute to the health-care system. This contribution is ensured through the use of the functions and the methods to put these roles into practice. Nurses assume roles that of a/n -270-

277 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 Practitioner Administrator Educator Creative person Researcher Professional. The information can be coded using the letter-phonetic method as "Beniderneğe UYE YAP", meaning "Register me as a member of the association" to facilitate recall. The acronym "UYEYAP" helps remember the roles of nurses in the health-care system. Ü:Uygulayıcı (Practitioner) Y:Yönetici (Administrator) E:Eğitimci (Educator) Y:Yaratıcı (Creative) A:Araştırıcı (Researcher) P:Profesyonel (Professional) After this presentation, the instructor wants the learners to tell him what each letter stands for. He says, "Now, let's repeat the information that you coded by using the letters." The learners repeat the information together with the instructor a few times. At the end of the lesson, the instructor gives the acronyms to the learners and tries to get feedback from the students to test whether they remember the content. Sample Evaluation Questions (1) Write what each letter in the following acronym stands for. Ü: Ü: Y: Y: E: E: C: Y: İ: A: P: (2) What does the acronym Beniderneğe UYE YAP stand for? (3) What does the acronym ÜYECİ stand for? Sample acronyms used in the study: The acronym "KaTaR" used to teach the three-step health-care services: K:KoruyucuSağlıkHizmetleri (Preventive Health Care Services) a: T: TedaviEdiciHizmetler (Remedial Services) a R: RehabilitatifveSosyalHizmetler (Rehabilitative and Social Services) -271-

278 The Impact of Mnemonic Devices on Attainment O. Koksal, A. M. Sunbul, Y. Emre Ozturk & M. Ozata The KaYGı acronym used to teach prior objectives of nursing with respect to individual and public health as a health discipline: K: Koruma (Protecting) a Y:Yardım Etme (Helping) G: Geliştirme (Development) I The HABER acronym used to teach the independent roles of nurses: H: Hasta haklarınısavunma (Advocating patient rights) A: Araştırma (Research) B: Bakım (Care) E: Eğitim (Education) R: RehabiliteEtme (Rehabilitation) Data collection tools Attainment test In order to collect data about the dependent variable in the study, an attainment test was developed and piloted. The objectives in the unit "health-care system, health teams and the roles of nurses" were identified to prepare the material to be used in the course called "Introduction to Nursing and Rapport." A test form with 30 questions was prepared. To do so, items that cover each issue in the unit to be studied were constructed in line with the scope of each subject to ensure content validity. In this step, the opinions of testing and evaluation experts were sought. Before the test was administered as the pretest, it was given to supposedly two equal groups. After obtaining the results, item analysis was carried out for each item. After the item analysis, those items with item facility (Pj) between 0,40 and 0,60 and item discrimination (rpb) over 0,30 were directly included in this test. In this way, a test that was composed of 20 items with average item facility and high discrimination index was created. KR20 internal reliability coefficient of the resulting test was calculated to be 0,82. The pretest helped the researchers to observe the extent to which the learners had the objectives of the unit covered in the study. The attainment test was administered to both groups as the posttest to find out whether the learners reached the objectives of the unit. The attainment test developed in the study was also used as the retention test to calculate the retention scores of the learners. Findings and Interpretations This section elaborates on data collection and analysis. The data collected before and after the instruction were analyzed using appropriate statistical techniques, and they are presented in tables. The first research question of the study is: "Is there a significant difference between the posttest attainment scores of the learners in the control and treatment group?" In line with this purpose, the data were analyzed using independent sample t test, and the -272-

279 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 results are presented in Table 2. Table 2: A Comparison of the Post-test Attainment Scores of the Learners in the Treatment and Control Group Group N x sd t p Attainment Treatment 39 78,21 9,56 9,35,000 (Posttest) Control 37 57,70 9,55 When Table 2 is examined, it is seen that the mean post-test scores of the learners in the treatment group was X =78,21, while that of the learners in the control group was X =57,70. Therefore, there was a significant difference between the mean post-test scores of the treatment and the control group in favour of the former. This finding suggests that the letterphonetic method used in the treatment group as a mnemonic device is highly effective in boosting retention. The third research question of the study was "Is there a meaningful difference between the pre-test and post-test attainment scores of learners in the treatment group?" In line with this purpose, the data were analyzed using independent sample t test, and the results are presented in Table 3. Table 3: A Comparison of Pre-test and Post-test Attainment Scores of the Learners in the Treatment Group Treatment N x sd t p Group Attainment Pretest 39 45,26 9,73-20,75,002 Test Posttest 39 78,21 9,56 Table 3 demonstrates that the mean pre-test scores of the learners in the treatment group was X =46,26, while their post-test scores was X =78,21. This finding suggests that the letterphonetic method used in the treatment group is highly effective in boosting learners' success. The third research question of the study was "Is there a meaningful difference between the pretest and post-test attainment scores of learners in the control group?" In line with this purpose, the data were analyzed using independent sample t test, and the results are presented in Table 4. Table 4: A Comparison of Pre-test and Post-test Attainment Scores of the Learners in the Control Group Control N x sd t p Group Attainment Pretest 37 44,59 10,63-2,85,000 Test Posttest 37 57,70 9,55 Table 4 illustrates that the mean pre-test scores of the learners in the control group was X =44,59, while their mean post-test score was X =57,70. This finding indicates that the traditional method used in the study increased the learners success. However, when the increase in the scores of the treatment and control groups are compared, it is seen that the increase in the former is higher than that in the latter (See Table 3)

280 The Impact of Mnemonic Devices on Attainment O. Koksal, A. M. Sunbul, Y. Emre Ozturk & M. Ozata The fourth research question of the study was "Is there a meaningful difference between the retention scores of learners in the treatment and control groups?" In line with this purpose, the data were analyzed using independent sample t test, and the results are presented in Table 5. Table 5: A Comparison of the Retention Scores of the Learners in the Treatment and Control Group Group N x sd t p Retention Treatment 39 73,85 8,47 12,73,000 Test Control 37 45,68 10,75 Table 5 indicates that the mean retention test score of the treatment group is significantly higher than that of the learners in the control group (p<,001). This finding suggests that the letter-phonetic method used in the treatment group is highly effective in boosting retention. The fifth research question of the study was "Is there a meaningful difference between posttest and retention scores of learners in the treatment and control groups?" In line with this purpose, the data were analyzed using independent sample t test, and the results are presented in Table 6. Table 6: A Comparison of Post-test and Retention Test Attainment Scores of the Treatment and Control Group Posttest Retention test Difference Test Group N x sd x sd x sd t p Attainment Test Treatmen t 39 78,21 9,56 73,97 9,98 3,72 4,55 Control 37 57,70 9,55 45,68 9,54 11,90 5, ,00 According to Table 6, a comparison of the post-test and retention test scores of the control and treatment group shows that there was a slight decrease in retention scores of both groups. When the decreases in the mean scores of the learners are examined, it is seen that the decrease in the control group's mean score is statistically significant (p<,05). This finding supports the finding of the previous research question. In other words, the activities carried out using the letter-phonetic method in the treatment group was more effective in helping learners reach the objectives in the lesson in comparison with the traditional activities in the control group. Results and Discussions (1) There was not a statistically significant difference between the pre-test scores of the control group which received traditional instruction and treatment group which was instructed using the letter-phonetic method. This finding indicates that the groups were equal in terms of their scores before the instruction. (2) After the instruction, there was an increase in the scores of both groups. However, there was a significant difference between the mean post-test score of the control and that of the treatment group in favour of the latter. In line with this finding, we can conclude that the use of the letter phonetic method as a mnemonic device in teaching basic knowledge in the lesson "Introduction to Nursing and Rapport" helps increase learner success. Similarly, in a number of other studies, it was found that mnemonic -274-

281 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 3(4); , 1 December, 2013 devices as strategies were more effective than the traditional methods. This finding lends support to some other studies carried out in Turkey (Senemoğlu, 2007; Korkmaz, 2007; Göl, 2010; Kondu; 2011; Köksal, 2013). Moreover, these findings concur well with those of some other studies (Mastropieri and Scruggs, 1998; Kleinhekseland Summy, 2003; Fahrer and Harris, 2004; Schunk, 2004; Schumacher, 2005; Heather and Gibson, 2009). As a conclusion, the use of the letter phonetic method in the lesson "Introduction to nursing and Rapport" increases the learner's success. (3) There was a significant difference between the retention scores of the control and the treatment groups. According to this finding, in comparison with traditional methods, the letter phonetic method used to teach basic knowledge in the treatment group was more effective in boosting retention. When the literature on this issue is examined, it is seen that there are quite a few studies that confirm the findings of the present study. (4) The learners retained what they learned for longer periods of time in the treatment group in which the letter phonetic method was used in comparison with the learners in the control group (Olçum, 2000; Carlson, Buskıst and Martin, 2000; Kırk, 2003; Rummel, Levin and Woodward,2003; Schunk, 2004; Schumacher, 2005; Korkmaz, 2007, Heather and Gibson, 2009). Recommendations The following recommendations can be made under the light of the findings of the present study carried out to investigate the impact of mnemonic devices on attainment and retention in learners. (1) The letter-phonetic method can be used in different lessons in the department of nursing. (2) Prospective studies might focus on the impact of learner generated letter-phonetic coding on learners' attainment. (3) The present study was limited with the unit "Health-Care System, Health Teams and the Roles of Nurses" in the course "Introduction to nursing and Rapport." This method can be used in all other units in the aforementioned lesson. What the present research study tries to achieve is to demonstrate that this method can be used throughout the course "Introduction to Nursing and Rapport." (4) New studies can be carried out to focus on the use of other mnemonic devices. Acknowledgement This article was presented in the International Interdisciplinary Conference in Venice in May and was published as conference proceedings. References Arends, R.I. (1997). Classroom Instruction and Management. USA: The Mcgraw Hill. Altun, İ. (2010). Building a Quality Culture in Nursing. In Fortier A&Turcotte S (Eds.), Health Education: Challenges, Issues and Impact, Nova Science Publishers, USA, pp

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