Mevlana Intenational Journal of Education (MIJE)

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2 Mevlana Intenational Journal of Education (MIJE) Volume 2, Issue 2 December 2012 MIJE is indexed in Turkish Educational Index, ASOS index, Index Copernicus, EBSCO Pub, Educational Research Abstracts (ERA), Aniji and DOAJ.

3 OWNER ADAM, Bahattin (Rector of Mevlana University) EDITOR IN CHIEF ÇELİK, Vehbi (Dean of Education Faculty) EDITOR KORKMAZ, Özgen ASSOCIATE EDITORS HALAI, Nelofer KUMARAN, Duraikkannu LEMMER, Eleanor ASSISTANT EDITORS USTA, Ertuğrul YEŞİLYURT, Etem PROOF READING FARRIS, Aundreta FARRIS, Michael THIRSK, Joanne COMPOSITION TURAN, Bülent Ahmet BULDUK, Sabiha DUYAR, Aysel ABADIANO, Helen R. (Central Connecticut State University, USA) AGAYEV, Ejder (Qafqaz University, Azerbaijan) AKBAŞ, Oktay (Kırıkkale University, Turkey) AKKOYUNLU, Buket (Hacettepe University, Turkey) AKMAN, Berrin Hacettepe University, Turkey AKPINAR, Burhan (Fırat University, Turkey) AKPINAR, Yavuz (Boğaziçi University, Turkey) AKTÜMEN, Muharrem (Ahi Evran University, Turkey) AKYOL, Hayati (Gazi University, Turkey) ALACACI, Cengiz (Florida International University, USA) AL-MABUK, Rathi (University of NorthernIowa, USA) Anastasiadou, Sofia D. (University of West Macedonia, Greece) ARICIOĞLU, Ahu (Pamukkale University, Turkey) BAEZZAT, Fereshteh (University of Mazandaran, Iran) BAYRAM, Servet (Marmara University, Turkey) BECK, Mitchell (Central Connecticut State University, USA) BİLGİN, İbrahim (Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey) BİRGİN, Osman (Uşak University, Turkey) BOOYSE, Johan (University of South Africa, South Africa) BOZDOĞAN, Aykut Emre (Giresun University, Turkey) BOZOĞLAN, Bahadır (Mevlana University, Turkey) BÜYÜKÖZTÜRK, Şener (Gazi University, Turkey) ÇAKIR, Abdulkadir (Mevlana University, Turkey) ÇAKIR, Recep (Amasya University, Turkey) EDITORIAL BOARD ÇANKAYA, İbrahim (Uşak University, Turkey) ÇELİK, Vehbi (Mevlana University, Turkey) CHUANG, Hsueh-hua (National Sun Yat-sen University, Tayvan) ÇOŞKUN, Eyyup (Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey) DANIŞMAN, Yusuf (Mevlana University, Turkey) DEMİREAY, Uğur (Anadolu University, Turkey) DEMİREL, Şener (Fırat University, Turkey) DEMİRLİ, Cihat (İstanbul Ticaret University, Turkey) DEREVENSKY, Jeffrey L. (McGill University, Canada) DIBOLL, Mike (University of Sussex, UK) DOĞRU, S. Sunay Yıldırım(Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey) ECIRLI, Ahmet (Universiteti Bedër, Albania ERBAY, Filiz (Mevlana University, Turkey) ERGÜN, Mustafa (Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey) FALLAHI, Vida (Shiraz University, Iran ) GAO, Ping (University of Northern Iowa, USA) GÖMLEKSİZ, Mehmet Nuri (Fırat University, Turkey) GÜNDÜZ, Mustafa (Yıldız Teknik University, Turkey) GÜNEL, Murat (Ahi Evran University, Turkey) GÜROL, Mehmet (Yıldız Technical University, Turkey) GÜZELLER, Cem Oktay (Akdeniz University, Turkey) HALAT, Erdoğan (Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey) HALAI, Nelofer(Aga Khan University, Pakistan) HAMMOND, John (University of Canberra, Australia)

4 HARPUTLU, Leyla (Ahi Evran University, Turkey ) HERRING, Mary C. (University of Northern Iowa, USA) HOSSEINCHARI, Massound (Shiraz University, Iran ) HUANG, Chi-Jen (National Chiayi University, Taiwan) HUTSON, Bryant (The University of North Carolina a, USA) İŞÇİOĞLU, Ersin (Eastern Mediterranean University, TRNC) IŞIK, Erkan (Mevlana University, Turkey) İŞMAN, Aytekin (Sakarya University, Turkey) KARA, Ahmet (Adıyaman University, Turkey) KARADAĞ, Ruhan (Adıyaman University, Turkey) KARADENİZ, Şirin (Bahçeşehir University, Turkey) KARAMI, Morteza(University of Mazandaran, Iran) KARAKUŞ, Mehmet (Zirve University, Turkey) KARAMI, Morteza (University of Mazandaran, Iran) KARATAŞ, Serçin (Gazi University, Turkey) KARIM, Rezaul (Leading University, Bangladesh) KAUR, Kirandeep (Punjabi university, India) KAYA, Osman Nafiz (Fırat University, Turkey) KESER, Hafize (Ankara University, Turkey) KOCABAŞ, İbrahim (Fırat University, Turkey) KOÇAK, Recep (Gazi Osman Paşa University, Turkey) KUMARAN, Duraikkannu (University of Madras, India) LAVICZA, Zsolt (Cambridge University, UK) LEBLANC, Raymond (University of Ottawa, Canada) LEMMER, Eleanor (University of South Africa, South Africa) LOUW, Gabriel (North-West University, South Africa) MCKEOWN, John A. G. (Mevlana University, Turkey) MEMMEDOV, Behmen (Qafqaz University, Azerbaijan) MICHAIL, Kalogiannakis (University of Crete, Greece) MITTAL, Shree Ram (University of Delhi, India) MOONSAMY, Sharon (University of the Witwatersrand, S.Africa) MSILA, Vuyisile (University of South Africa, South Africa) NAM, Jeonghee (Pusan National University, Korea) NEL, Norma (University of South Africa, South Africa) ODABAŞI, H. Ferhan (Anadolu University, Turkey) OKUYUCU, Cihan (Yıldız Technical University University, Turkey) ÖMEROĞLU, Esra (Gazi University, Turkey) OMRAN, Ebrahim Salehi (University of Mazandaran, Iran) ORAL, Behçet (Dicle University, Turkey) ÖZDEMİR, M. Soner (Kırıkkale University, Turkey) ÖZDEMİR, Selçuk (Gazi University, Turkey) ÖZER, Bayram (Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey) PANDAY, Shefali (University of Mumbai, India) PAPE, Stephen J.(University of Florida, USA) PEKER, Murat (Afyon Kocatepe, Turkey) GIJON PUERTA, José (Universidad de Granada, Spain) PHASHA, Tlakale Nareadi (University of South Africa, South Africa) PING-KWAN, Fok (The Chinese University of Hong Kong) POTGIETER, Calvyn (University of South Africa, South Africa) QUADIR, Tarik (Mevlana University, Turkey) RANA, Rizwan Akram (University of the Punjab, Pakistan) SADEGHI, Abbas (University of Guilan Iran) SAMUEL, Michael (University of Kwazulu-Nata, South Africa) ŞAHİN, İsmail (Selçuk University, Turkey) ŞAHİN, Sami (Gazi University, Turkey) SAMANI, Siamak (Islamic Azad University, Iran) SARI, Mustafa (Mevlana University, Turkey) SEMERCİ, Çetin (Fırat University, Turkey) ŞENAY, Hasan (Mevlana University, Turkey) SHAHIM, Sima (Shiraz University, Iran ) SHARRA, Steve(Michigan State University, USA) SHELLEY, Mack (Iowa State University, USA) SÜNBÜL, Ali Murat(Selçuk University, Turkey) TABAKU, Elida (Universiteti Bedër, Albania) TAŞPINAR, Mehmet (Gazi University, Turkey) THOMPSON, Ann D. (Iowa State University, USA) TÖREMEN, Fatih (Zirve University, Turkey) Trotman, Wayne (Izmir Katip Çelebi University) TÜYSÜZ, Cengiz (Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey) UZUNBOYLU, Hüseyin (Near East University, TRNC) YALÇIN, Paşa (Erzincan University, Turkey) YALIN, H. İbrahim (Gazi University, Turkey) YAMAN, Süleyman (Zonguldak Karaelmas University, Turkey) YILMAZ, Ercan (Selçuk University, Turkey) YÖRÜK, Sinan (Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey) REVIEWER OF THE ISSUE Ahmet Bedel (Mevlana University) Alpaslan Durmuş (Mevlana University) Aykut Emre Bozdoğan (Giresun University) Erkan Işık (Mevlana University) Ertuğrul USTA (Mevlana University) Etem Yeşilyurt (Mevlana University) Filiz Erbay (Mevlana University) İbrahim Kurt (Mevlana University) İrfan Emre (Fırat University) Kerim GÜNDOĞDU (Adnan Menderes University) Neslihan Saltalı (Mevlana University) Ömer Üre (Mevlana University) Rüştü YEŞİL (Ahi Evran University) Serçin Karataş (Gazi University) Sinan KAYA (Mevlana University) Şirin Karadeniz (Bahçeşehir University) Abdullah Şahin (Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University)

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS Letter as a Writing to Learn Activity and the Addressee Ali Yıldız Instructors practice level of Chickering and Gamson learning principles Sedat Aydoğdu, Kemal Doymu, Ufuk Şimşek Impact of Blended Learning Environments Based on Algo-Heuristic Theory on Some Variables Mustafa Aygün, Özgen Korkmaz Understanding a Primary School Teacher's Life and Her School Context Kh. Atikur Rahman Achievement Gaps between Different School Types and Regions in Turkey: Have They Changed Over Time? Sedat Gumus, Erkan Hasan Atalmis The Examination of Pre-school Teacher Candidates Academic Locus of Control Levels According to Gender and Grade Hakan Sarıçam, Ayşe Duran, Mehmet Çardak, Medera Halmatov Who helps an online facilitator to learn with students in a day? Simon B Khoza The development of a scale of attitudes toward tablet pc Aykut Emre Bozdoğan, Mustafa Uzoğlu LEADERSHIP ROLE of TURKEY for ICDEEEWA. Leadership Role of Turkey among Distance Education Institutions From the Balkans (Southeastern Europe) to the Baltic, Turkic and Caucasian Republics, to the Middle East and North Africa (Invited Article) Ugur Demiray Teaching Methods and Techniques Used By Teaching Staff during Lectures As Seen By Candidate Teachers (The Example of Bayburt) Sema ALTUN YALÇIN, Sinan YALÇIN, Sakıp KAHRAMAN, Sibel AÇIŞLI, Zeynel Abidin YILMAZ

6 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 2(2), pp. 1-10, 30 December, 2012 Available online at Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Writing to learn, Letter, Addressee Letter as a Writing to Learn Activity and the Addressee Ali Yıldız * Kazim Karabekir Faculty of Education, Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey The main purpose of this research was to study how the instructiveness of the letter, one of the writing to learn activities; changes according to the person to whom it is written (the addressee). The document analysis method was used in this qualitative study. Since documents are very important information sources used effectively in qualitative studies, their authenticity is important. The book named Letters from Father Inönü to Erdal Inönü published by Bilgi Publishing in 1988 and prepared for printing by Sevgi Özel with the permission of the Inönü Foundation and the letters published under the title The letters of Erdal Inönü to his father by Can Dündar in his column in the Milliyet on 17, June, 2007 were analysed using the qualitative analysis method. It was analysed in the study that how the instructiveness of the letters ( ) whose content was only related to physics and written from father to son and from son to father changed according to the addressee. The documents analysed in this study provide the first three stages of document analysis, which has five stages namely; access to the documents, control of their authenticity, understanding the documents, analysis of the data and the use of the data. The findings of the research support the views of the students, who stated that they had written more clearly to students who were younger than they were or studying in the subclasses than they had written to their teachers in the studies conducted previously. Introduction It is observed that the researches in the science education domain are under the effect of two paradigms and in the discussions about research approaches, the purpose and the result of the researches become important rather than deciding whether to use the qualitative or quantitative approach (Sözbilir & Canpolat, 2006). The USA Research Council determine that science education requires more than studying the known principles and theories and science must be taught differently from the psychology, philosophy, sociology and history courses (National Research Council [NRC], 1996). There are important instruments in science courses that are believed to develop higher level cognitive process skills. Writing to learn activities are the primary activities among the others. Writing activities help the students to become individuals who communicate better and help them to get used to the writing genres that are required in various academic disciplines and professional fields. In the twentieth century, two writing movements drew interest in the curriculum. The first emerged as a result of Dewey s progressive education, which started in the 1930s and lasted until the 1950s. The second is the movement that began in the 1970s and has lasted until now. In this process, writing became the teaching method that was used worldwide in many education levels and the science field (Anson, Schwiebert & Williamson, 1993; Bazerman & Russel 1994; Fulwiler, 1986; Martin, D'Arcy, Newton & Parker, 1994; McLeod, 1992; Pearce, 1984; Russell, 1991). Klein (1999) states that writing activities (diary, summary, letter, article and so on) help the students to become individuals who communicate better, think critically, and form a new * Correspondence: Atatürk University, Kazım Karabekir Faculty of Education, Department of Primary Education, , Erzurum-Turkey, [email protected]

7 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 1-10, 32, December, 2012 knowledge repertory. Klein (1999) draws attention to the four hypotheses about writing depending on certain studies (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987; Britton, 1982; Flower & Hayes, 1980, 1981; Newell, 1984; Young & Sullivan, 1984). The first hypothesis is that the writers form knowledge while telling it. In other words, it (spontaneous) is to form with telling without planning and controlling. The second hypothesis known as forward search claims that the writers materialise their ideas in their writings and then reread the writing and make new inferences depending on it. The third hypothesis (genre structures) argues that the writers use genres to form a relation between the elements of the text and the components with which the knowledge are associated. The last hypothesis called back-ward search states that the researchers have chosen scientific purposes that are expressed effectively, they obtain sub-purposes from them that are satisfying and they change their own knowledge to finalise it. Torrance, Thomas and Robinson (1994, 1999, 2000) investigated the individual differences in the writing behaviours of university students. They determined in their studies that because of the methods the students used while writing their thesis, they were divided into three groups as those who plan, those who revise, and mixed strategy writers. Those who plan want their ideas to be intelligible and they have a tendency to write less drafts than those who revise. At the beginning of the writing process, they decide on the content of the text, think and then write. Those who revise benefit from their corrections to develop the content. Writing makes their ideas more comprehensible and helps them to understand the discussions betters. While they are writing, they have a tendency to develop the content; they think while writing. The third group is mixed strategy writers who plan the text without forming it. They are similar to those who plan, but they change the content during their subsequent corrections. The ideas of the writers can change during the writing process. Because of this, the ideas arise during the writing process. While rethinking and expressing again, the ideas are shaped as fully developed ideas in the end. The knowledge change model is the quality of expert writers rather than novices (Tynjälä, 1998). The difference between the knowledge telling model and the knowledge change model only explains why answering research questions is not as effective a study strategy as writing an article. While research questions can be answered with the knowledge transfer strategy, writing an article consists of strategies that require knowledge change and a higher thinking process such as writing, organisation, and completion (Tynjälä, 1998). Numerous researches were conducted regarding the use of writing as a tool that develops learning and thinking (Mason & Boscolo, 2000). Langer and Applebee (1987) stated in their study about writing to learn that writing about a topic help the writer to enhance their knowledge, organise the ideas to be written, and experience learning. Writing activity urges the writer to express their views more openly and clearly. The use of writing as a cognitive activity is an important step in learning with a plan (Bereiter, 1990, 1994; Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1989). Yıldız and Büyükkasap (2011a, b, c) in their studies in which work groups were comprised of science teacher candidates concluded that the achievement percentages of the experiment groups who wrote letters as a writing to learn activity to the high school students in their final years about a photoelectric event, Compton event, and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle scored higher than the control groups. In the same studies, the experiment group students determined that they understood the topics that they wrote letters about and the writing to learn activity was effective in learning these topics. In the study called the effect of a writing activity in learning science subjects in an informal learning environment by Doğan and Çavuş (2008), the students stated that they learned to summarise by gathering information through the writing activity, sort the scientific knowledge by expressing it in their own words, associate the main ideas about a subject, and shortly present the information by organising it. In a study conducted by Özer Keskin, Doğan and Keskin Samancı (2008), the students were asked to write an explanatory text by taking into consideration the question asked in the pre-test. Most of the students stated that they had revised their ideas and organised their information while -2-

8 Letter as a Writing to Learn Activity and the Addressee. A. Yıldız writing the explanatory text. Akçay and Hand (2008) stated that the written and verbal expressions of the students gave information about what they learnt, how they interpreted what they learnt, and how they associated it with the knowledge they already had. The same researchers asserted that having students do different writing activities in science courses such as drawing pictures, writing poems and letters enhanced their motivation towards the science course. In the studies conducted about writing to learn activities (Hohenshell, Hand & Staker, 2004; Hand, Yang & Bruxvoort, 2007; Günel, Uzoğlu & Büyükkasap, 2009), the students writing letters stated that writing to younger addressees compelled them to use a different language than they used while writing to their teachers and the reason for this was that they wanted to write it more clearly. In short, the subjects determined that they thought more when writing to juniors and this condition caused them to structure the scientific concepts related to the subject that they had written successfully. In a study conducted by Yıldız (2009), the science teacher candidates determined that they thought more to write more explanatorily in the letters that they wrote about the subjects of quantum physics to the senior high school students as their addressees and this condition helped them to understand the subject as they explained it better in their letters. In the same study, in the section where the views of the science teacher candidates (positive or negative) were investigated, the teacher candidates stating views such as I tried to be more explanatory for the person to understand some conditions better reveal that the instructiveness of the letter written can change according to the addressee. The purpose of the study The aim of the study was to analyse how the instructiveness of the letter, one of the writing to learn activities; change according to the person to whom it is written (the addressee). Method Document analysis was used in this qualitative study. Document analysis can be used separately as a data collection method in qualitative researches (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011). Document analysis involves the systematic examination of written materials, which include information about the target events or phenomenon for analysis. Since documents are important information sources used in qualitative research studies, their authenticity is important. A theme, a word, a character, a sentence or paragraph, an item or a content related to the research topic is researched and the data obtained may not require quantification. The researcher can easily report the results obtained after the analysis in prose (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011).Since it is not proper for the researcher to make judgements without looking up the meanings of the words used in a sentence or sentences, content analysis, frequently used in social sciences researches, has been used. In this study, the book named Letters from Father Inönü to Erdal Inönü published by Bilgi Publishing in 1988 and prepared for printing by Sevgi Özel with the permission of the Inönü Foundation and the letters published under the title The letters of Erdal Inönü to his father by Can Dündar in his column in the Milliyet on 17, June, 2007 were analysed using the qualitative analysis method. The letters in the book include the two periods of time when Erdal Inönü went to the USA to complete his postgraduate studies ( , ). The letters analysed in both documents cover the first period ( ). How the instructiveness of the letters written only about physics from father to son and from son to father changed according to the addressee was analysed in the study. As it was determined by the researchers (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011), many documents (newspaper columns, course books, organisational documents, annual reports and so on) revised, controlled for authenticity, arranged and organised by the experts in the field can be a data source and the use of such documents can increase the reliability and validity of the qualitative study. The documents examined in this study (a book and a newspaper article) automatically provide the first three stages of document analysis, which has five stages (Forster, 1995; Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2011) such as -3-

9 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 1-10, 32, December, 2012 access to the documents, control of their authenticity, understanding the documents, analysis of the data and the use of the data. This condition is an important advantage for this study. Findings and Interpretation The data of the study was obtained by analysing the book named Letters from Father Inönü to Erdal Inönü, which was reorganised with an intelligible language and expertise without damaging the authenticity by Sevgi Özel with the permission of the Inönü Foundation and published by Bilgi Publishing in 1988 and the letters which had the content related to physics and published under the title The letters of Erdal Inönü to his father by Can Dündar in his column in the Milliyet (Dündar, 2007) on 17, June, The suitable letters were scanned and presented below, and necessary explanations and interpretations were made. 7, December, 1947, Monday Erdal, my dear son Let me ask you while it is on my mind. Will you need the physics tools in my physics laboratory in the future? If they can be beneficial to you, I will keep them. If not, they will stay in the Villa as the property of the state. Inform me in your first letter. The expression of Will you need the physics tools in my physics laboratory in the future? reveals that the father is interested in and curious about learning physics, he thinks about physical events, he might have knowledge about the fundamental concepts of physics, and correspondences can be made with him about this topic, he may have some questions and he may ask for the answers to be written. In the studies conducted (Dündar, 2009; Özel, 1988), these views were verified with the statements that Ismet Pasha conducted physics experiments in the physics laboratory in Presidential House with accomplished physicians of the period such as Hayri Dener. 28 January 1950, Saturday My dear Erdal, We received your letter dated the 18 th as we had expected at noon. You give details of smog. Ömer had told me the term. But the possibility of formation of S 1 H 2 So 4 in the eye made my eyes ache. I learned something. Nowadays, the newspapers mention the hydrogen bomb by referring to the USA. According to the news today, its effect was a hundred times more powerful than the atom bomb. Can you write a few lines to me about the (H) composition of this bomb? The interpretations made about the letters of Ismet Pasha dated 7 December, 1947 greatly verify some statements presented in the letter above. Pasha s desire to be given information about the comparison between the devastating effect of the atom bomb and the hydrogen bomb and the composition of the hydrogen bomb reveals that Ismet Pasha paid great attention to the topic, followed the hot agenda, and most of all, he did all this warmly. Ismet Inönü s following the current agenda (from Illustrated London News), reading the relevant books, being interested in the -4-

10 Letter as a Writing to Learn Activity and the Addressee. A. Yıldız relativity theory of Einstein and even trying to understand it and writing to his son (the letter dated 28 January, 1950) is surprising and interesting. While analysing the letters, do the letters that he is going to write to his son have an effect on these? In other words, can the letters that he is going to write to his son encourage him to follow the events about current physics and read books and journals about them? The occurrence of such a possibility is very important, although it is very small. It makes letter as a writing to learn activity very useful, beneficial and effective. 5 January, 1950, Sunday Erdal, my dear son, We received your letter dated the 28 th of January yesterday; in other words, after a week. It may be a record in this season. Don t inquire about our health. It is exceptionally cold and snowy here. Thank God, we are all well. We walked on the farm road for nearly half an hour. The wind was not very strong. We enjoyed it very much. When we went back home, we were exhausted from the heat. In one of my recent letters, I asked you for information about the hydrogen bomb. You talk about it politically, but not scientifically. You may also write about it. According to your letter, its scientific aspect seems to be hidden. The statement In one of my recent letters, I asked you for information about the hydrogen bomb and the subsequent sentences reveal that the addressee personally demanded information before, but what was written was not what he expected. It is an important advantage for the addressee to ask for information about the hydrogen bomb personally. It can indicate that he had the desire to learn, thought about the topic before and he would make more effort to understand what was written. 5 February, 1950 / Sunday Dear father, As you know, Truman made a decision about the production of the hydrogen bomb. In general, the first hydrogen bomb was said to have been produced in a year. Its cost is predicted to be million dollars. ( ) Many famous atom physicists came to Columbia University to join a meeting published a statement. They say, The hydrogen bomb is not a weapon, but it is a means to wipe out all the population. However right it may be, nothing can excuse such mass destruction. The expressions given in the letter below and written by his father (9 February, 1950) as a reply to the letter written by Erdal Inönü reveals that the letter dated 5 February, 1950 like the other letters written to father from son was not explanatory enough and did not include the information that he wanted at a level that he would understand. -5-

11 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 1-10, 32, December, February, 1950, Thursday Erdal, my dear son, I received your letter dated the 5 th of February today. A speed record. Thanks a lot. You are giving me very valuable information about the hydrogen bomb. I could not understand it very well. I am going to read it with Ömer. The statement You are giving me very valuable information about the hydrogen bomb. I could not understand it very well. I am going to read it with Ömer. reveals that the writer wrote it without thinking about the condition of the addressee. The addressee s statement that he could not understand it and even despite the help of another person, he could not understand it as he had desired indicates that the person who wrote it did not write explicitly enough to consider the addressee. After all, the addressee was his father and couldn t the person who taught him all throughout out his life as a teacher understand it? The research studies (Yıldız, 2009; Günel et al., 2009) determine that the writers experience some cognitive processes during the stage of how I can express my views in order to help the young addressees (junior) understand them more easily and clearly and this condition causes them to learn better. This finding supports the views stated in the previous studies (Hohenshell, Hand & Staker, 2004; Hand, Yang & Bruxvoort, 2007; Günel et al., 2009) that the student wrote more clearly while writing to their junior or studying in sub-classes than to their teachers and they thought more because of this. 10 February, 1950, Friday My dearest Erdal, I asked Ömer a question today He said, When four H atoms fuse, they make one helium atom. But the weight of helium is found to be less than 4H. The mass loss in between goes into the energy. This means that this is 8 times the energy consumed. Have I got it right? The statement I asked Ömer a question today. Is it understood correctly? reveals that the addressee is uncertain and wants approval. If Erdal Inönü had written these letters to a family member younger than him, rather than his father, he would have probably written them more clearly. The writers who write letters to a person who is younger in age and low in status think more about how to express themselves in order to be understood more easily and they use different expressions, similes, and examples. All of these points reveal that the age and status of the addressee can affect the instructiveness of the letter. 15 March, 1950, Wednesday My Dearest Erdal, Ömer and I are going to the Faculty of Letters and Science to listen to the conference of Heisenberg about the philosophy of atom physics. Regards, yours affectionately. The letter dated 15 th of March, 1950 points out that Ismet Pasha not only followed the developments in modern physics through reading books or journals, but he also went to conferences of scientists such as Werner Heisenberg, the winner of 1932 Nobel Prize in Physics. The individual who is very much interested in modern physics states that he could not understand the content of the -6-

12 Letter as a Writing to Learn Activity and the Addressee. A. Yıldız letter written to him by someone who is younger than him (his son), where the scientific explanation of the hydrogen bomb is made. It is an important finding that Ismet Inönü, a great commander and a politician who left a mark in the recent history of Turkey, mentioned the important developments in modern physics in his letters written to his son, who was completing his post studies on physics in the USA. These findings reveal that Ismet Inönü, the president of the republic from 1938 to 1950, was interested in modern physics and he read, conducted research, and most importantly thought about the subject. He might have read and examined the books and the journals relating fascinating developments in physics in order to motivate his son in his field of study with the letters that he wrote. What is important is that all these must have been provided with the letters that he wrote to his son. This possibility highlights the fact that writing activities contribute to learning. Conclusion Ismet Inönü conducted physics experiments with the accomplished physicists of the period in the physics laboratories in the Presidential House. He followed the fascinating developments in modern physics by reading books and journals, and joining the conferences of the European Physicists who were honoured with the Nobel Prize. He tried to compare and contrast the hydrogen bomb and the atom bomb. Furthermore, he wanted to learn the structure of the hydrogen bomb. He asked his son to write to him about this matter. Although he was very willing, equipped, and prepared on this matter, his inability to understand the explanation about the structure of the hydrogen bomb stated in the letters written to him by someone who was younger than him is an important finding of this study. It is an important finding of the studies conducted previously (Hohenshell et al., 2004; Günel & Hand, 2005; Hand, Prain, Lawranence & Yore, 1999; Akar, Günel & Büyükkasap, 2008; Günel, Uzoğlu & Büyükkasap, 2008; Günel et al., 2009; Yıldız, 2009) that people who are younger and low in status could not write explanatorily enough when they wrote to their elders. If Erdal Inönü had written these letters to a family member who was his junior or to another individual such a high school student like a student writing to his teacher, but not to his father, he would have probably written more explanatorily. The letters written to someone who is younger and low in status are more understandable because the writers think more about how to express them to be understood more easily and they use different expressions, similes and examples (Hohenshell et al., 2004; Yıldız, 2009; Günel et al., 2009). All these findings reveal that the instructiveness of the letter can change according to the addressee. Ismet Inönü must have read the journals that explain the fascinating developments in modern physics in order to motivate and support his son in his letters, maybe just to write or he was interested in modern physics so he read and analysed the books and went to conferences of the wellknown scientists of the period. Who knows? However, the important thing is the possibility of the letters that he wrote to his son having provided all these things. This possibility points out that writing activities serve and contribute to learning. Furthermore, it can be stated that the father and son revised their ideas due to the letters that they wrote, reorganised them by expressing them in their own words (Yıldız, 2009; Yıldız & Büyükkasap, 2011b) and most importantly, the letters encouraged them to think. This study supports the results of the experimental studies by revealing that the instructiveness of the letter and the condition in which the letters were written years ago, experienced and made history in real life would change according to the addressee. It might be suggested to instructors and teachers within the context of the findings of the study that writing to learn activities or the teaching strategies that include these activities is used in teaching physical concepts in general physics, modern physics and other science courses and realising the conceptual change of the students by simplifying it (Mason & Boscolo, 2000), as well as bringing the student to the position of the discoverer and the constructivist of the knowledge by placing them -7-

13 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 1-10, 32, December, 2012 in the centre (Yıldız & Büyükkasap, 2011a,b,c). It is thought that conducting studies about the other genres of writing to learn activities that were grounded on the constructivist theory and helped the students to come out of a conceptual change process such as summary and poster and the examination of whether or not the instructiveness of the written summary or a poster of a topic changed according to the addressee will make important contributions to the field. References Akar, M. S., Günel, M. & Büyükkasap, E. (2008, Ağustos). Laboratuar dersinde yazma metinleri oluşturmanın ve analoji kullanımının akademik başarıya etkisi. VIII. Ulusal Fen Bilimleri ve Matematik Egitimi Kongresi nde sunulan bildiri, Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi, Bolu. Akçay, H. & Hand, B. (2008, Ağustos). Farklı şekillerde uygulanan yaparak ve yazarak öğrenme metotlarının ilköğretim öğrencilerinin fen öğrenimine katkısı. VIII. Ulusal Fen Bilimleri ve Matematik Egitimi Kongresi nde sunulan bildiri, Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi, Bolu. Anson, C. M., Schwiebert, J. E. & Williamson, M. M. (1993). Writing across the curriculum: An annotated bibliography. Westport, C. T.: Greenwood Press. Bazerman, C. & Russell, D. (1994). Introduction: The rhetorical tradition and specialized discourses. In Bazerman, C. & Russell, D. (eds.), Landmark essays on writing across the curriculum (17-38). Davis, C. A.: Hennagoras Press. Bereiter, C. (1990). Aspects of an educational learning theory. Review of Educational Researcher, 60 (4), Bereiter, C. (1994). Constructivism, socioculturalism, and Popper s World 3. Educational Researcher, 23(7), Bereiter, C. & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ. Bereiter, C. & Scardamalia, M. (1989). Intentional learning as a goal of instruction. In Resnick, L. B. (ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honour of Robert Glaser ( ). Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Britton, J. (1982). Shaping at the point of utterance. In Pradl, G. M. (ed.), Prospect and retrospect: Selected essays of James Britton, Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc. Montclair, NJ, pp (Reprinted from Reinventing the rhetorical tradition, by Freedman, A., & Pringle, I. (eds.), (1980). Conway, A. R., L and S Books., for the Canadian Council of Teachers of English) Doğan, N. & Çavuş, S. (2008, Ağustos). İnformal öğrenme ortamlarında fen konularının öğrenilmesine yazma etkinliğinin etkisi. VIII. Ulusal Fen Bilimleri ve Matematik Eğitimi Kongresi nde sunulan bildiri, Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi, Bolu. Dündar, C. (2009). Anka kuşu. Ankara: İmge Yayınevi. Dündar, C. (2007, 17 Haziran). Erdal İnönü'nün babasına mektupları. Milliyet (Milliyet Pazar). Flower, L. S. & Hayes, J. R. (1981). A cognitive process theory of writing. College Composition and Communication, 32, Flower, L. & Hayes, J. R. (1980) The cognition of discovery: Defining a rhetorical problem. College Composition and Communication, 31, Forster. N. (1995) The analysis of company documentation. C. Casell & G. Symon (Eds.), Qualitative methods in organizational research: Apratical goide. London: sage. Fulwiler, T. (1986). The argument for writing across the curriculum. In Young, A., and Fulwiler, T. (eds.), Writing across the disciplines: Research into practice (21-32). Upper Montclair, NJ: Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc. Günel, M., Uzoğlu, M. & Büyükkasap, E. (2009). Öğrenme amaçlı yazma aktivitelerinin kullanımının ilköğretim seviyesinde kuvvet konusunu öğrenmeye etkisi. Gazi Üniersitesi Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 29(2), Günel, M., Uzoğlu, M. & Büyükkasap, E. (2008, Ağustos). Öğrenme amaçlı yazma aktivitelerindeki varyasyonun ilköğretim seviyesinde fen konularını ögrenmeye etkisi. VIII. -8-

14 Letter as a Writing to Learn Activity and the Addressee. A. Yıldız Ulusal Fen Bilimleri ve Matematik Egitimi Kongresi nde sunulan bildiri, Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi, Bolu. Günel, M. & Hand, B. (2005) The Effects of non-traditional writing and audiences in learning science. Paper Presented at The National for Research in Science Teaching (NARST), Dallas, Texas, USA. Hand, B., Prain, V., Lawranence, C. & Yore, L. D. (1999). A Writing in the science framework designed to enhance science literacy. International Journal of Science Education, 21, Hand, B., Yang, O. E. M., & Bruxvoort, C. (2007). Using writing-to-learn science strategiesto improve year 11 students understandings of stoichiometry. İnternational Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 5, Hohensell, L., Hand B. & Staker J. (2004). Promoting Conceptual Understanding of Biotechnology: Writing to a Younger Audience. American Biology Teacher, 66(5), Klein, P. D. (1999). Reopening Inquiry into Cognitive Processes in Writing-To-Learn. Educational Psychology Review, 11 ( 3), Langer, J. A. & Applebee, A. N. (1987). How writing shapes thinking: A study of teaching and learning, National Council of Teachers of English, Urbana, IL.: National Council of Teachers of English. Martin, N., D'Arcy, P., Newton, B. & Parker, R. (1994). The development of writing abilities. In Bazerman, C. & Russell, D. (eds.), Landmark essays in writing across the curriculum, Davis, CA, Hermagoras Press, (Reprinted from Writing and learning across the curriculum, (1976), Ward Lock Educational UK). Mashhadi, A. & Woolnough, B. (1999). Insights into students understanding of quantum physics: visualizing quantum entities. European Journal of Physics, 20, Mason, L. & Boscolo, P. (2000). Writing and conceptual change. What changes? Instructional Science, 28, , Printed in the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. McLeod, S. H. (1992). Writing across the curriculum: An introduction. In McLeod, S. H. & Soven, M. (eds.), Writing across the curriculum: A guide to developing programs, CA, 1-11, Newbury Park: Sage Publications, Inc. National Research Council (Ed.) (1996). National science education standards. DC , Washington: National Academy Press. Newell, G. E. (1984). Learning from writing in two content areas: A case study/protocol analysis. Research in the Teaching of English, 18, Özel, S. (1988). Baba İnönü den Erdal İnönü ye mektuplar. Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi. Özer Keskin, M., Doğan, N. & Keskin Samancı, N. (2008, Ağustos). Bioetik konularının öğrenilmesinde örnek bir uygulama: eşli tartışma ve yazma. VIII. Ulusal Fen Bilimleri ve Matematik Eğitimi Kongresi nde sunulan bildiri, Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi, Bolu. Pearce, D. L., (1984). Writing in content area classrooms. Reading World, 23, Russell, D. R., (1991). Writing in the academic disciplines: : A curricular history. Carbondale, IL.: Southern Illinois University Press. Sözbilir, M. & Canpolat, N. (2006). Fen eğitiminde son otuz yıldaki uluslararası değişimler. M. Bahar (Ed.) Fen ve teknoloji öğretimi ( ), Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık. Torrance, M., Thomas, G. V. & Robinson, E. J. (1994). The writing strategies of graduate research students in the social sciences. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 27, Torrance, M., Thomas, G. V. & Robinson, E. J. (1999). Individual differences in the writing behaviour of undergraduate students. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, Torrance, M., Thomas, G. V. & Robinson, E. J. (2000). Individual differences in undergraduate essay-writing strategies: A longitudinal study. Higher Education, 39, Tynjälä, P. (1998). Writing as a tool for constructive learning: Students' learning experiences during an experiment. Higher Education, 36(2),

15 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 1-10, 32, December, 2012 Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, H. (2011). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık. Yıldız, A. (2009). College students understanding level of quantum physics and the effect of using writing to learn activities on academic achievement. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Ataturk University, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Erzurum. Yıldız, A. & Büyükkasap, E. (2011a). Prospective teachers levels of understanding Compton Effect and the impact of writing activities for learning purposes on academic success. International Journal of Human Sciences, 8 (1), Yıldız, A. & Büyükkasap, E. (2011b). The Level of understanding of the photoelectric phenomenon in prospective teachers and the effects of writing with learning on their success rates. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice,11(4), Yıldız, A. & Büyükkasap, E. (2011c). Prospective teachers levels of understanding Heisenberg uncertainty principle and the impact of writing activities for learning purposes on academic success. Journal of Turkish Science Education, 8 (4), Young, R. & Sullivan, P. (1984). Why write? A reconsideration. In R. J. Conners, L.S. Ede & A. A. Lunsford (Eds.), Essays on classical rhetoric and modern discourse, , Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press -10-

16 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 2(2), pp , 30 December, 2012 Available online at Article history Received: Instructors practice level of Chickering and Gamson learning principles Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Education Faculty, Seven Principle for Good Practice, Active Learning Sedat AYDOĞDU * Department of Primary Education, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey Kemal DOYMUŞ Department of Primary Education, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey Ufuk ŞİMŞEK Department of Primary Education, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey The aim of this study is to determine the level of practice and utilization of the seven principles for good practice developed by Chickering and Gamson of the instructors of science department in faculty of education. In this study, descriptive method but not experimental, which is one of the quantitative research was used as appropriate for this aim the samples of this study consist of 52 instructors studying in universities. In this study, the seven principles for good practice by Chickering and Gamson, interaction of faculty-student, corporation among student, active learning, giving profit feedback, emphasizing time on task, communicating high expectations and respecting diverse talents and ways of learning styles were defined as Standard and this study focused on to what extent the instructors utilize from the principles. A scale or measure consists of 70 questions was used as data collection tool, which involves 7 principles, and in which there were 10 items. The total internal reliability coefficient of scale was calculated as Results show that scale items in terms of total item correlation changed between and Results indicate that factor values also changed between and The data were evaluated with ANOVA, which is descriptive, statistic and unidirectional, within the instructors answers given to scale items/questions. The findings of this study as a result of the implementation of the principles, they entered the classroom lessons teaching staff is more than the number of students was seen as the most important problem. 6 the most common teaching staff principle, and then 5 principle behind the 3 and 2 determined that principle. Introduction In recent years, the process of education has passed through many changes. The arrival of assessment, accountability, and focus on teaching have required faculty to examine how they are teaching. Primary, Secondary and Higher education is undergoing a paradigm shift: the focus of colleges and universities is shifting from teaching to learning. The type of learner is self-directed, creative, and innovative. Most teachers maintain a strong sense of commitment to teaching and learning, despite often unwelcome external requirements and workload pressures. Many work hard to improve the effectiveness of their practices, for example through undertaking classroom inquiry and other reflective activities. From this perspective, the role of education policy is to provide guidance, resource and accountability to support high quality teaching and learning. Educational research complements it by using careful description and analysis to offer insights and new knowledge about educational processes and outcomes (Johnson & Kardos, 2002). The constructivist model of learning is premised on the notion that learners actively construct their * Correspondence: Atatürk University, Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty, Department of Primary Education, Erzurum, Turkey

17 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 11-24, December, 2012 own meaning and knowledge from their experiences (Svinicki, 1999). This learning paradigm views teaching as a process which involves helping learners to create knowledge through interactive and authentic learning experiences (Partlow & Gibbs, 2003). The teacher s role is to guide students toward experiences that will facilitate meaningful learning. Direct instructional activities where students passively assimilate knowledge are minimized (Chickering & Gamson, 1999). Key features of constructivist learning environments include active learning, authentic instructional tasks, collaboration among students, and diverse and multiple learning formats (Partlow & Gibbs, 2003). If it is seen at the definition of education, it can say that the purpose in education is to become creative and innovative through analysis, conceptualizations, and synthesis of prior experience to create new knowledge. The educator s role is to mentor the learner during heuristic problem solving of ill-defined problems by enabling quested learning that may modify existing knowledge and allow for creation of new knowledge in the teaching and learning process. The learning goal is the highest order of learning: heuristic problem solving, metacognitive knowledge, creativity, and originality (Lombardi, 2011; Meyer, 2009). Chickering and Gamson recognized this in 1987 when they developed the Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education. Primary, Secondary and Higher education school and faculty must encourage active learning, teacher-student-school contact, and cooperation among students, give prompt feedback, emphasize time on task, communicate high expectations, and respect diverse talents and ways of learning (Gamson, 1991; Bangert, 2004). The majority of the student-centered instructional practices that comprise the Seven Principles Frameworks are clearly focused on constructivist-based teaching practices. For example the principle of active learning suggests that effective teaching engages students in authentic learning activities that require them to select, organize, and integrate their experiences with existing knowledge to create new cognitive schema (Gamson, 1995; Chickering & Gamson 1999; Hacker & Niederhauser, 2000). The Seven Principles framework offers solid, research-based guidance for the design and delivery of science courses (Bangert, 2004; Chickering & Gamson 1987). However, feedback specific to the effectiveness of science laboratory teaching practice would be of even more value to faculty. This study explored the use of a student evaluation of teaching questionnaire specifically constructed to assess the quality of science and technology teaching. The items for this instrument were written to reflect the constructivist-based teaching practices recommended by the Seven Principles of Effective Teaching (Jonassen, 2003; Shea, Pickett, & Pelz, 2003; Sherry, 2003). Student faculty contact has been shown to have positive effects on student retention and success in a variety of ways. The interaction outside of the classroom has been noted to be of particular importance (Alderman, 2008). Studies at institutions of higher education have documented this importance of school-student and teacher interaction outside the classroom (Cordell 2011; Berger & Millem, 1999; Kuh, 2001). On the other side, Positive student teacher relationships serve as a resource for students at risk of school failure, whereas conflict or disconnection between students and adults may compound that risk (Stipek, 2006). Although the nature of these relationships changes as students mature, the need for connection between students and adults in the school setting remains strong from preschool to 12th grade (Treslan, 2006; Crosnoe, Johnson, & Elder, 2004; Cordell, 2011). Furthermore, even as schools place increasing attention on accountability and standardized testing, the social quality of student-teacher relationships contributes to both academic and social emotional development (Gregory & Weinstein, 2004). As such, student teacher relationships provide a unique entry point for educators and others working to improve the social and learning environments of schools and classrooms. These relationships may be a direct focus of -12-

18 Instructors practice level of chickering S.Aydoğdu, K.Doymuş & U.Şimşek intervention or may be viewed as one important feature of successful implementation of many of the other interventions described in this volume. The main purpose of the relation of education is to improve student academic achievement and social skills. Cooperation among students, increases student achievement, creates more positive relationships among students, and generally improves students' psychological well-being. Learning is enhanced when it is more like a team effort than a solo race. Good learning, like good work, is collaborative and social, not competitive and isolated. Working with others often increases involvement in learning. Sharing one s ideas and responding to others improves thinking and deepens understanding. Cooperative learning is also the prerequisite and foundation for most other instructional innovations, including thematic curriculum, whole language, critical thinking, active reading, process writing, materials-based (problem-solving) mathematics, and learning communities. In addition, cooperative learning affects teachers' attitudes and competencies regarding working collaboratively because what is promoted during instructional time tends to dominate relationships among staff members (Ebrahim, 2012; Hsiung, 2012; Yesilyurt, 2010). Active learning is one of the key principles highlighted in Chickering and Gamson s (1991) hallmark study on good practices in undergraduate education. Active learning requires multitude of teaching practices, such as lively debates between instructor and students, peer-to-peer discussions, reflective writing and team work, all of them make possible students to discover, process, and apply knowledge through engagement (Kassens-Noor, 2012; McKinney & Heyl, 2008). While students actively participate in multiple learning contexts, their learning evolves within formal and informal settings (Greenhow, Robelia, & Hughes, 2009). Informal learning is a course-related activity outside the classroom that centers on students self-directed and independent learning activities including peer-to-peer interactions (Kassens-Noor, 2012; Aspden & Thorpe, 2009; Jamieson, 2009). In particular, networking is considered an informal learning strategy (Marsick & Watkins, 1990). Based on empirical evidence from MBA students, Yang and Lu (2001) suggest that informal learning ought to be an essential component in education, because it enhances academic performance. Chickering and Gamson (1987) outlined Seven Principles of Good Practice in Undergraduate Education, stating that the most effective teaching strategies are indeed that encourage active learning. This approach certainly promotes successful learning. However, can students-center education allow this technique to be practiced more and more, web-based teaching is being used in various forms to enhance or replace traditional teaching methods (Lewis & Harrison, 2012; Wright & Lawson, 2005). Prompt feedback as one of the motivational strategies can be regarded as the information available to the students which makes possible the comparison of their actual performance with some standard performance of a skill at an appointed time without delay (Oche, 2012). On the other hand, it is the process of informing students, parents and administrators regarding students progress under shortest possible period. For learners to change their responses they must be furnished with some kind of awareness of their consequences, this process is called feedback (Oche, 2012). Prompt feedback could facilitate the existence of interaction between the teachers and the students as well as the flow and exchange of information between them (Beard, 2008). However, Annet (2009) thinks that besides acting as reinforcement, prompt feedbacks provide information and if there is greater learning when there is interaction between teachers and students then feedbacks will go a long way to helping students because while giving out the scores, the teacher will also explain the areas where students have difficulties. Pickup and Anthony (2005) see feedback as an essential ingredient by which the teacher can evaluate the success and failure of his teaching. They further stressed that the importance of the employment of feedbacks by the teacher for the achievement of instructional objectives is immense (Oche, 2012). Time-on-task has typically been applied as a measure of the time students engage in academic -13-

19 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 11-24, December, 2012 activities. There are several reasons to believe that time-on-task could be an important indicator of academic growth and development (Taraban, 2012). Chickering and Gamsom (1987) list time-ontask as one of the seven principles of effective teaching and learning. In research involving learning, it has been shown that increasing the number of practice trials results in greater learning. At a neurological level, a chemically-based process of long-term potentiation is responsible for changing synaptic connections in the brain due to persistent chemical and electrical stimulation over time arising from the experience of the individual (Taraban, 2012). Long-term potentiation is associated with learning. There is ample evidence for the importance of time-on task to college learning (Babcock & Marks, 2010; Taraban, 2012). High expectations are gaining more attention as the assessment movement progresses. The successful schools share absolute characteristics: clear expectations and regulations, an emphasis on academics, high levels of student participation, and alternative resources such as vocational work opportunities, library facilities, music, art, and extracurricular activities. Schools also communicate expectations in the way they structure and organize learning (McVay, Murphy, & Yoon, 2008; Weinstein, Soule, Collins, Cone, Mehlorn, & Stimmonacchi, 1991). Researchers have studied the ways in which teachers' beliefs about students affect their behavior toward students. Some kinds of differential behavior toward students who vary in their mastery of the curriculum are appropriate and productive (Spitek, 2006). Giving some students more advanced material than others is clearly necessary when there is variability in student skill level, and students need different amounts and kinds of teacher assistance and attention (Conceicao, 2007). Nevertheless, most of the teacher behaviors described below, which have been shown to be associated with high versus low expectations, cannot be defended as appropriate accommodations to individual student needs (Spitek, 2006). Teachers who teach to a broad range of learning styles and multiple intelligences communicate that the school values the unique strengths and intelligences of each individual (Gardner, 1985). Schools that encourage critical thinking and inquiry and the development of a critical consciousness are not only able to engage youth but are especially effective at common. Another view of curriculum that leads to high expectations and flexibility is the need for schools to inoculate multicultural content throughout the curriculum. This honors students' home cultures, gives them the opportunity to study their own and other cultures, and to develop cultural sensitivity (Wilson, 2004; Kohl, 1994; Mehan, Hubbard, & Villanueva, 1994). Respect for diverse talents and ways of learning; Learning styles refer to the way students concentrate on, process, internalize, and recall new and difficult information (Rochford, 2003, p. 665). People bring different talents and styles of learning to primary school, high school and college. Students in the classroom may be all thumbs in the lab or art studio (Chickering & Gamsom, 1987). Students rich in hands-on experience may not do so well with theory. Students need the opportunity to show their talents and learn in ways that work for them (Chickering & Ehrmann, 1996). Then they can be pushed to learn in new ways that do not come so easily. Shi and Morrow (2006) discovered that instructors felt the audio tool (which allows for voice interaction with online students) was an effective tool for reinforcing diverse learning styles. One effective way to use this tool is to explain visuals you're presenting on the whiteboard: instead of overloading working memory with visual graphics along with text, allow students to "see" the visual content you're presenting and "hear" your explanation. Similarly, allowing students who may be slow or reluctant typists to interact orally gives them options to communicate (Milshtein, 2003). There are a few researches (Henninger & Hurlbert, 2006; Armstorn, Tucker & Massa; 2009) on community college chemistry courses and the degree to which instructors utilize the Seven Principles of Good Practice in Undergraduate Education. With the increasing number of studentcenter and non- student-center students choosing community colleges for introductory course work, it is vital that an examination be done on how science course is taught. -14-

20 Instructors practice level of chickering S.Aydoğdu, K.Doymuş & U.Şimşek In this study, the seven principles for good practice by Chickering and Gamson, interaction of faculty-student, corporation among student, active learning, giving profit feedback, emphasizing time on task, communicating high expectations and respecting diverse talents and ways of learning styles were defined as Standard and this study focused on to what extent the instructors utilize from the principles Method Research model, participants, data collection tools and data analysis of the research have been explained in this section. Research model; in this study, descriptive method but not experimental, which is one of the quantitative research was used as appropriate. The quantitative survey that guides this study served as the research design. In this study, the seven principles for good practice by Chickering and Gamson, interaction of faculty-student, corporation among student, active learning, giving profit feedback, emphasizing time on task, communicating high expectations and respecting diverse talents and ways of learning styles were defined as Standard and this study focused on to what extent the instructors utilize from the principles. A group of researchers met to choose items according to the following criteria: applicable to a range of disciplines, institutions, and class settings; short and jargon free; and focused on behavior or practices that could be changed (Gamson, 1991). After the committee chose the items, a draft of the inventory was sent to a wide range of institutions. After 250 respondents reacted to the inventory, the committee revised the survey as appropriate. The current version of the survey consists of seven sets of ten questions, each set concerned with one of the seven principles. Participants, in this study consisted of 52 instructors studying in Education faculties of six different university of Eastern Anatolia Region. Data collection tool; In this study, developed by Chickering and Gamson in 1987, an instrument used which was prepared to determine how much of these principles realized by candidates participating the study in their learning environment and based on seven principles that should be in a good learning environment to realize learning. The instrument was prepared by utilizing another instrument that consist of seven different sections in which the seven basic principles classified separately and used for the same purpose, developed by Bishoff (2010). Instrument questions are examined and integrated into Turkish Grammar in terms of meaning and structure by a lecturer of Ataturk University Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty Turkish Language Department. In addition, the latest status of instrument realized by examining and revising according to English grammar by two lecturers of Ataturk University Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty Science and English Education Department. Instrument consists of 70 questions was used as data collection tool, which involves 7 principles, and in which there were 10 items. The total internal reliability coefficient of scale was calculated as Results show that scale items in terms of total item correlation changed between and Results indicate that factor values also changed between and The data were analyzed by SPSS 18 software and were evaluated with ANOVA, which is descriptive, statistic and unidirectional, within the instructors answers given to scale items/questions. -15-

21 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 11-24, December, 2012 Results Descriptive statistics related to the total mean scores of response given for each principle statements are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Descriptive statistics for each principles items (Each code, IA1, IB1, IC1.. etc., stands for an statements from each principles) Items of the Seven Principles IA 1 IB 1 IC 1 ID 1 IE 1 IF 1 IG 1 IH 1 II 1 IJ 1 X SD IA 2 IB 2 IC 2 ID 2 IE 2 IF 2 IG 2 IH 2 II 2 IJ 2 X SD IA 3 IB 3 IC 3 ID 3 IE 3 IF 3 IG 3 IH 3 II 3 IJ 3 X SD IA 4 IB 4 IC 4 ID 4 IE 4 IF 4 IG 4 IH 4 II 4 IJ 4 X SD IA 5 IB 5 IC 5 ID 5 IE 5 IF 5 IG 5 IH 5 II 5 IJ 5 X SD IA 6 IB 6 IC 6 ID 6 IE 6 IF 6 IG 6 IH 6 II 6 IJ 6 X SD IA 7 IB 7 IC 7 ID 7 IE 7 IF 7 IG 7 IH 7 II 7 IJ 7 X SD The Number of participants (N): 52; X: Mean score; SD: Standard Deviation For each principle, there are ten survey items that characterize each principle. This research question is answered by reporting mean score and standard deviation for responses to each individual question. The Likert scale responses range from 5 (Very Often) to 1 (Never). Each principle and its codes are given at Appendix A. ANOVA statistical analyses results that relevant to each principles item is given below at Table 2 as DF, F, and p. Table 2. Principle utilization by each principles item Principles DF F p Encouraging student faculty contact 9/ Encouraging cooperation among students 9/ Encouraging active learning 9/ Giving prompt feedback 9/ Emphasizing time on task 9/ Communicating high expectations 9/ Respecting diverse talents/ways of learning 9/ The first principle states, Good practice encourages student-faculty relationship. Student-faculty contact has been identified as a critical factor for motivating students toward peak performance. Instructor characteristics such as friendliness, interest in student learning, enthusiasm, good communication skills, and accessibility to students have been identified as having a positive impact on the relationships between students and faculty (Chickering & Erhmann, 1996; Marsh, 1982; -16-

22 Instructors practice level of chickering S.Aydoğdu, K.Doymuş & U.Şimşek Young & Shaw, 1999). These attributes create a classroom climate where students feel comfortable approaching the instructor for help when encountering difficult course assignments (Bangert, 2004). According to this principle, views are taken from the teachers. There is significant difference between the items when ANOVA test result, as shown in Table 2, is analyzed [F(9,510) =21,66; p < 0,05]. Multiple comparison tests (Post-hoc) are applied after analysis to determine the items which cause to significance difference between the items. Multiple comparison test result outputs that items; IB 1, ID 1, IE 1, IF 1, II 1, IJ 1 and items; IA 1, IC1, IG1, IH 1 do not have significant difference between themselves and items; IA 1, IC 1, IG 1, IH 1 have more positive values. These results are also supported by the data which is indicating in Table 1. The second principle of good practice states, Good practice encourages cooperation among students. The constructivist model of instruction supports the notion that social interaction promotes student learning (Bangert, 2004; Astin, 1993; Cooper & Mueck, 1990; Johnson, Johnson & Smith, 1991). Results from items, there is significant difference between the items for principle 2 if the output of ANOVA in Table 2 is analyzed. [F(9,510) =3,420; p<0,05. Post-hoc test which is one of the multiple comparison tests is applied to determine the items which drive the significant difference between the items. LSD test is applied to the output emerged from the multiple comparison test. Results obtained from the test show that there is no significant difference between the items; MA 2, MB 2, MC 2, MD 2, ME 2, MF 2, MG 2, MH 2, MI 2 and items have more positive values except MJ 2. These results are also supported by the data shown in Table 1. The third principle states, Good practice encourages active learning. The capabilities for incorporating audio, video, and links to other virtual worlds allow instructors to create authentic, interactive problem-solving activities that augment student efforts to actively construct meaningful knowledge (Pahl, 2003). Overall, teachers responses to items written to assess active learning suggest that the majority of teachers perceived that the course assignments were engaging and motivating. There is significant difference between the items for principle 3 if the output of ANOVA in Table 2 is analyzed. [F (9,510) =10,651; p<0, 05] Post-hoc test which is one of the multiple comparison tests is applied to determine the items which drive the significant difference between the items. LSD test is applied to the output emerged from the multiple comparison test. Results obtained from the test show that there is no significant difference between the items; MB 3, MI 3, MJ 3 and MA 3, MC 3, MD 3, ME 3, MF 3, MG 3, MH 3. Items; MA 3, MC 3, MD 3, ME 3, MF 3, MG 3, MH 3 have more positive values. These results are also supported by the data shown in Table 1. The fourth principle states, Good practice gives prompt feedback. The assignment tool was especially useful for supplying detailed evaluative and corrective feedback that teachers could use to revise and resubmit assignments. Responses to the four feedback items indicated that all teachers agreed that that the instructor responded promptly to their questions about general course requirements. There is significant difference between the items for principle 4 if the output of ANOVA in Table 2 is analyzed. [F(9,510) =6,522; p<0,05]. Post-hoc test which is one of the multiple comparison tests is applied to determine the items which drive the significant difference between the items. LSD test is applied to the output emerged from the multiple comparison test. Results obtained from the test show that there is no significant difference between the items; ME 4, MF 4, MG 4, MJ 4 and MA 4, MB 4, MC 4, MD 4, MH 4, MI 4. Items; MA 4, MB 4, MC 4, MD 4, MH 4, MI 4 have more positive values. These results are also supported by the data shown in Table 1. The fifth principle states, Good practice emphasizes time on task. There is significant difference between the items for principle 5 if the output of ANOVA in Table 2 is analyzed. [F(9,510) =11,429; p<0,05]. Post-hoc test which is one of the multiple comparison tests is applied to determine the items which drive the significant difference between the items. LSD test is applied to the output emerged from the multiple comparison test. Results obtained from the test show that there is no significant difference between the items; MB 5, MC 5, MH 5, MI 5, MJ 5 and MA 5, MD 5, -17-

23 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 11-24, December, 2012 ME 5, MF 5, MG 5. Items; MA 5, MD 5, ME 5, MF 5, MG 5 have more positive values. These results are also supported by the data shown in Table 1. The sixth principle states, Good practice communicates high expectations. The use of good examples is an effective practice for setting clear expectations for quality student performance. Examples that provide models of instructor expectations provide students with more precise guidelines about the type of work necessary for proficient assignment completion. The benefit of presenting examples that demonstrate solutions to authentic problems not only sets instructor expectations but also supports the development of cognitive schema that will help students evaluate future applications of their newly acquired knowledge and skills (Bangert, 2004; Lim & Moore, 2002). Results from questions pertaining to high expectations suggest that most teachers felt that the models used to illustrate problem solutions clearly communicated expectations for weekly group problems. There is significant difference between the items for principle 6 if the output of ANOVA in Table 2 is analyzed. [F (9,510) =3,956; p<0,05]. Post-hoc test which is one of the multiple comparison tests is applied to determine the items which drive the significant difference between the items. LSD test is applied to the output emerged from the multiple comparison test. Results obtained from the test show that there is no significant difference between the items; MF 6, MG 6 and MA 6, MB 6, MC 6, MD 6, ME 6, MH 6, MI 6, MJ 6. Items; MA 6, MB 6, MC 6, MD 6, ME 6, MH 6, MI 6, MJ 6 have more positive values. These results are also supported by the data shown in Table 1. The seventh and final principle states, Good practice respects diverse talents and ways of learning. Learner-centered models of instruction advocate that prior knowledge, cognitive processing, personality styles, beliefs about learning, and demographics must be carefully considered when planning instruction (Svinicki, 1999). Creating an array of learning activities that allow multiple opportunities for demonstrating knowledge and skill proficiencies is one approach for planning instruction designed to address the diverse range of learning preferences and skills that learners bring to instructional environments (Bangert, 2004). There is significant difference between the items for principle 7 if the output of ANOVA in Table 2 is analyzed. [F(9,510) =17,559; p<0,05] Post-hoc test which is one of the multiple comparison tests is applied to determine the items which drive the significant difference between the items. LSD test is applied to the output emerged from the multiple comparison test. Results obtained from the test show that there is not significant difference between the items; MC 7, MD 7, ME 7, MF 7, MG 7, MH 7, MI 7, MJ 7 and MA 7, MB 7. Items; MA 7 and MB 7 have more positive values. These results are also supported by the data shown in Table 1. When the descriptive statistical outputs are analyzed, it is determined that faculty members use principle 6 at most while principle 5, principle 3 and principle 2 follow as the usage of principle order. Another result obtained from the study is; Sub-items of principle 4 is used seldom by the faculty members. Discussion In order to provide a good education in university, seven principles were developed in 1987 by Chickering and Gamson. In this study, it s investigated that these principles applied how much by instructors in science department in faculty of education and the results of this study are given below: It is seen that instructors participated to the activities a little which organized by student groups and also instructors taking their students to meeting of their respective fields a bit. It is believed that this problem will be overcome with encouraged the students to cooperative groups. For the cause of -18-

24 Instructors practice level of chickering S.Aydoğdu, K.Doymuş & U.Şimşek having trouble in communication inside and outside of the classroom, it is said the instructors didn t know the names of the students in crowded classrooms (Table 2). To provide cooperative learning among the students to distribute the criteria of evaluation performance for each student see the others notes independently have difficulty and not preferred by the instructors (Table 2). Use of active learning methods and promote the methods in the learning environment and students have difficulty in terms of associated the similarities and differences about the famous scientists works. In addition instructors have difficulties in arrange an excursion, send to students to workshops on active learning, do different activities such as voluntary works and preparation the research and development projects. If these difficulties were eliminated, students could be participating to active learning environment more efficiently (Table 2). With this result, the majority of instructors involved in this research stated that if students promoted on research and development projects, the effectiveness of active learning methods would be increased. Instant feedbacks are very important for students in order to be successful in the way of social and academic. Instructors didn t sufficient about to often do interviews with students on the academic field, inform to students strengths and weakness of the result of exams and working reports, determine the level of students prior knowledge about the course at the beginning of the period and make students to participate the class who don t attend to class. This result comes up because instructors have a lot of course hours and the number of students and this is the biggest factor (Table 1 and Table2). The subject that teaches and learns in undergraduate education classes is preferred. But because of some reasons, the students who not attend the class couldn t achieve the targeted knowledge and skills in the learning environments. In order to fill the deficiency, instructors think that make-up exam to students but instructors have lack of time because of scientific work and intensity, so it makes this impossible. In this way, with good learning environment attainable expectations must be gained to students. In this study, the senior expectations of reading textbooks and writing can t be reached the desired level has emerged. This shows that students unable to obtain the encouragement about reading and writing. In learning environment, it s difficult to be deal separately with gender and different culture and this leads to trouble because of lack of sufficient time to eliminate it. As a result, to create a good learning environment and to make students more effective the relationship between inter disciplines improved as well as reading textbooks, writing, teaching and learning different teaching methods and alternative evaluation tools to be used effectively. So, it s very important to get rid of instructors burden courses. In addition, students should be encouraged in accordance with the principles mentioned above. Also, the data obtained from this study indicate that these were consistent with Gamson(1995), Cordell (2011), Barget (2004) and Stipek (2006), inconsistent with data in Shery (2003), Berger & Millem (1999) and Treslan (2006) study. References Alderman, R. V. (2008). Faculty and student out-of-classroom interaction: Student perceptions of quality of interaction. Doctoral Dissertion, Texas A&M University. Annet, J. (2009). A survey of the knowledge of result in learning. In J. P. Dececco (ed) (23-40) Educational Technology. New York: Holt Reinhart and Winston publishers Ltd. Aspden, E., J., & Thorpe, L., P. (2009). Where do you learn?: Tweeting to inform learning space development. Educase Quarterly, 32 (1). Astin, A. W. (1993). What matters in college: Four critical years revisited. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Babcock, P., & Marks, M. (2010). Leisure college, USA: The decline in student study time. American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 7, 1-7. Bangert, A. W. (2004). The seven principles of good practice: a framework for evaluating on-line teaching. İnternet and Higher Education, 7, Beard, K. L. S. (2008). An exploratory study of academic optimism and flow of elementary school teachers. Doctoral Dissertion, The Ohio State University. -19-

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26 Instructors practice level of chickering S.Aydoğdu, K.Doymuş & U.Şimşek Johnson, S. M., & Kardos, S. M. (2002). Keeping new teachers in mind. Educational Leadership, 59 (6), Jonassen, D. H. (2003). Using cognitive tools to represent problems. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 35(3), Kassens-Noor, E., (2012). Twitter as a teaching practice to enhance active and informal learning in higher education: The case of sustainable tweets, Active Learning in High Education, 13 (1), Kohl, H. (1994). 'I won't learn from you' and other thoughts on creative maladjustment. New York: The New Press. Kuh, G. D. (2001, May/June). Assessing what really matters in student learning, Change, 10-17, 66. Lewis J.S., & Harrison, M.A., (2012). Online delivery as a course adjunct promotes active learning and student success, Teaching of Psychology, 39 (1), Lim, E. L. & Moore, D. W. (2002). Problem solving in geometry: Comparing the effects of nongoal specific instruction and conventional worked examples, Educational Psychology, 22 (5), 591. Lombardi, S.M. (2011). Internet Activities for a Preschool Technology Education Program Guided by Caregivers. Doctoral dissertation, North Carolina State University. Marsh, H. W. (1982). Factors Affecting Students' Evaluations of the Same Course Taught by the Same Instructor on Different Occasions, American Educational Research Journal, 19 (4), Marsick, V. J., & Watkins, K. (1990). Informal and Incidental Learning in the Workplace. London and New York: Routledge. McKinney, K. & Heyl, B.eds (2008). Sociology Through Active Learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE/ Pine Forge Press. McVay, G.J., Murphy, P.R. & Yoon, S.W. (2008). Good practices in accounting education: Classroom configuration and technological tools for enhancing the learning environment, Accounting Education, 17(1), Mehan, H., Hubbard, L., & Villanueva, I. (1994). Forming academic identities: Accommodation without assimilation among involuntary minorities. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 25 (2), Meyer, D. L. (2009). The Poverty of Constructivism. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 41 (3), Milshtein, A. (2003). Accommodating students learning styles. College Planning & Management, 6 (3), Oche, E. S., (2012). Assessing the effect of prompt feedback as a motivational strategy on students achievement in secondary school mathematics, Educational Research, 3 (4), Pahl, K. (2003). Artifacts, timescales and kinetic design: the semiotic affordances of popular culture in children s home communicative practices. Keynote paper for the Children s Literacy and Popular Culture ESRC seminar series. Partlow, K. M., & Gibbs, W. J. (2003). Indicators of constructivist principles in internet based courses. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 14 (2), Pickup, T. & Anthony, R.C. (2005). Feedback procedures in programme instruction. J. Educ. Psychol. 9 (1), Rochford, R.A. (2003). Assessing learning styles to improve the quality of performance of community college students in developmental writing programs: A pilot study. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 27, Shea, P., Pickett, A.M., & Pelz, W. E. (2003). A follow-up investigation of teaching presence in the SUNY learning network. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Network, 7 (2), Sherry, J. L. (2003). Media effects theory and the nature/nurture debate: A historical overview and implications for future research. Media Psychology, 6 (1). -21-

27 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 11-24, December, 2012 Shi, S., & Morrow, B. V. (2006). E-Conferencing for Instruction: What Works? Educause Quarterly, 29 (4), 42. Stipek, D. (2006). Relationships matter. Educational Leadership, 64 (1), Svinicki, M. D. (1999). New Directions in Learning and Motivation. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 80, Taraban, R., (2012). Time-on-Task: A pedagogical measure to assess differences in U.S. and Indian engineering curricula and outcomes, American Society for Engineering Education, Treslan, D. L.(2006). Transformational leadership in the classroom: Any evidence? Education Canada, 46 (2), Weinstein, R., Soule, C., Collins, F., Cone, J., Mehlorn, M., & Stimmonacchi, K. (1991). Expectations and high school change: Teacher-researcher collaboration to prevent school failure. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19, Wright, E. R., & Lawson, A. H. (2005). Computer mediated communication an student learning in large introductory sociology classes. Teaching Sociology, 33, Wilson, M.E. (2004). Teaching, learning and millennial students, New Directions for Student Services, 106. Pages copied: Yesilyurt, E. (2010). Evaluation of the Suitability of Teacher Candidates Qualities to Cooperative Learning Method, Dicle University Journal of Ziya Gökalp Faculty of Education, 14, Yang, B., & Lu, D. R. (2001). Predicting academic performance in management education: An empirical investigation of MBA success, Journal of Education for Business, ( ). Young, S. & Shaw, D. G. (1999). Profiles of Effective College and University Teachers, The Journal of Higher Education, 70, 6,

28 Instructors practice level of chickering S.Aydoğdu, K.Doymuş & U.Şimşek Appendix A Items of Principle 1: Encouraging student faculty contact Item Code a. I advise my students about career opportunities in their major field. IA 1 b. Students drop by my office just to visit. IB 1 c. I share my past experience, attitudes, and values with students. IC 1 d. I attend events sponsored by student groups. ID 1 e. I work with student affairs staff on issues related to students. IE 1 f. I know my students by name by the end of the first two weeks of the term. IF 1 g. I make special efforts to be available to students of a race or culture different from my own. IG 1 h. I serve as mentor or informal advisor to students. IH 1 i. I take students to professional meetings or other events in my field. II 1 j. Whenever there is a conflict on campus involving students, I try to help resolve. IJ 1 Items of Principle 2: Encouraging cooperation among students Item Code a. I ask students to tell each other about their interests and backgrounds. IA 2 b. I encourage my students to prepare together for classes or exams. IB 2 c. I encourage students to do projects together. IC 2 d. I ask my students to evaluate each other s work. ID 2 e. I ask my students to explain difficult ideas to each other. IE 2 f. I encourage my students to praise each other for their accomplishments. IF 2 g. I ask my students to discuss key concepts with other students whose viewpoints are IG 2 different from their own. h. I create learning communities, study groups, or project teams IH 2 i. I encourage students to join at least one campus organization. II 2 j. I distribute performance criteria to students so that each person s grade is independent of IJ 2 others. Items of Principle 3: Encouraging active learning Item Code a. I ask my students to present their work. IA 3 b. I ask my students to summarize similarities and differences among research findings. IB 3 c. I ask my students to relate outside events or activities to the course. IC 3 d. I ask my students to undertake research or independent study. ID 3 e. I encourage students to challenge ideas. IE 3 f. I give my students concrete, real-life situations to analyze. IF 3 g. I use simulations, roleplaying, or labs in my classes. IG 3 h. I encourage my students to suggest new readings, research projects, field trips, or other course activities. IH 3 i. My students and I arrange field trips, volunteer activities, or internships related to the course. II 3 j. I carry out research projects with my students IJ 3 Items of Principle 4: Giving prompt feedback Item Code a. I give quizzes and homework assignments. IA 4 b. I prepare classroom exercises and problems which give students immediate feedback on how well they do IB 4 c. I return examinations and papers within a week. IC 4 d. I give students detailed evaluations of their work early in the term. ID 4 e. I ask my students to schedule conferences with me to discuss their progress. IE 4 f. I give my students written comments on their strengths and weaknesses on exams and papers. IF 4 g. I give my students a pre-test at the beginning of each course. IG 4 h. I ask students to keep logs or records of their progress. IH 4 i. I discuss the results of the final examination with my students at the end of the semester. II 4 j. I call or write a note to students who miss class. IJ 4 Items of Principle 5: Emphasizing time on task Item Code a. I expect my students to complete their assignments promptly. IA 5 b. I clearly communicate to my students the amount of time they should spend preparing for classes IB 5 c. I make clear to my students the time that is required to understand complex material. IC 5 d. I help students set challenging goals. ID 5 e. When oral reports or class presentations are called for I encourage students to rehearse. IE 5 f. I underscore the importance of regular work, steady application, and scheduling IF 5 g. I explain to my students the consequences of nonattendance. IG 5 h. I make it clear that fulltime study is a full-time job. IH 5-23-

29 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 11-24, December, 2012 i. I meet with students who fall behind to discuss their study habits. II 5 j. If students miss classes, I require them to make up work. IJ 5 Items of Principle 6: Communicating high expectations Item Code a. I tell students that I expect hard work. IA 6 b. I emphasize the importance of holding high standards. IB 6 c. I make clear my expectations orally and in writing for each course. IC 6 d. I help students set challenging goals for learning. ID 6 e. I explain to students what will happen if they do not complete their work on time. IE 6 f. I suggest extra reading or writing IF 6 g. I encourage students to write a lot. IG 6 h. I publicly call attention to excellent performance. IH 6 i. I revise my courses II 6 j. I periodically discuss how well we are doing. IJ 6 Items of Principle 7: Respecting diverse talents/ways of learning Item Code a.i encourage students to speak up when they don t understand IA 7 b. I discourage stride remarks and class behaviors that may embarrass students. IB 7 c. I use diverse teaching activities IC 7 d. I select reading and activities related to student background ID 7 e. I provide extra material for students who lack essential skills IE 7 f. I integrate new knowledge about underrepresented populations. IF 7 g. I make explicit provisions for students who wish to carry out independent studies IG 7 h. I have developed mastery learning, learning contracts, or computer assisted learning. IH 7 i. I encourage my students to design their own majors II 7 j. I try to find out about my students learning styles, interests, or backgrounds IJ 7-24-

30 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 2(2), pp , 30 December, 2012 Available online at Impact of Blended Learning Environments Based on Algo-Heuristic Theory on Some Variables Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Algo Heuristic theory, Blended learning, Information technology, Attitude Mustafa AYGÜN Department of Primary Education, Ahi Evran University, Science Institute Özgen KORKMAZ * Department of Primary Education, Mevlana University, Educational Faculty In this study, the effects of Algo Heuristic Theory based blended learning environments on students computer skills in their preparation of presentations, levels of attitudes towards computers, and levels of motivation regarding the information technology course were investigated. The research sample was composed of 71 students. A semi empirical design with a pre-test post-test, and control group was used. Research data was collected using an Academic Achievement Test, the Computer Attitude Scale for Primary School Students and the Motivation Scale for the Information Technology Course. A one way ANOVA was conducted on all the data collected and the results revealed that the achievements and motivation levels of the students who studied in an Algo Heuristic Theory based blended learning environment in the information technology course increased significantly. Introduction It is an undeniable fact that technological developments in today s world have affected the field of education as, indeed, it has in all other fields. In line with the development of new technologies, there is a growing need for human resources that have the expertise to use these technologies, and fulfilling this need is only possible through education (Akıncı and Seferoğlu, 2010). Moreover, it is inevitable that benefits will be drawn while providing these improvements. In fact, throughout the world, and in particular the developed world, the impact of teaching and using these technologies in education is frequently questioned (Akıncı and Seferoğlu, 2010; Aksoy, 2003; Bayrakçı, 2005; EU, 2006; EU, 2008; Kozma, 2002; OECD, 2006). The studies conducted have revealed that students, teachers and parents are in agreement regarding the fact that IT has a positive impact on learning and that IT increased the academic success of students and contributed overall to the achievement of their educational goals. Furthermore, it was determined that IT has positive impacts on students behaviors, motivation, communication and operational skills, and in providing a strong motivation (Çetin and Günay, 2010; Demirer and Şahin, 2008; EU, 2006; Para and Reis, 2009; Seferoğlu, Akbıyık and Bulut, 2008). Thus, it is frequently emphasized that IT has a strong motivational impact (Civelek, 2008; EU, 2006; Mercan et al., 2009). Despite the importance of IT, there are various problems when faced with teaching these IT skills (Akbıyık and Seferoğlu, 2009). For instance, there are problems such as the current insufficiencies in the infrastructure, crowded classes, only having one computer per two children, the content * Correspondence: Mevlana University.Educational Faculty Department of Computer and Instructional, Yeni İstanbul Street Konya, Turkey, [email protected],

31 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 25-38, December, 2012 being updated constantly, and the content being hard for some and easy for others as well as insufficient lecture hours (Karal, Reisoğlu and Günaydın, 2010). In order to overcome these problems, the blended learning environment approach is seen as a solution. The aim of the blended learning approach is in providing the most effective learning environment by minimizing the weaknesses of different methods and benefiting as much as possible from their strengths (Osguthorpe and Graham, 2003). In the integrated education method, the idea is to combine e-learning with face to face training opportunities (Allan, 2007; Driscoll, 2002; Garnham and Kaleta, 2002; Horton, 2000; Morisson, 2003; Vaughan, 2003; Wilson and Smilanich, 2005). Blended learning environments supported by rich content may increase the satisfaction level of the students. Usta (2007) states that the blended learning environments increase student satisfaction. Students have the chance to access content outside classroom hours and, thus, this continued learning can help in overcoming the problem of insufficient lecture hours. In a study conducted by Kirişçioğlu (2009), students stated that they saved valuable time both before the lesson and after by learning the necessary theoretical information regarding the experiments they were to conduct in the Science Laboratory class beforehand thanks to the relevant websites and being able to do the work that needed to be done after the experiment, outside of the classroom. Together with the directives and supportive materials, web supported learning environments that can be used in blended learning may reduce the time required by the teacher to present the application and students may feel the joy of learning by discovering new things by themselves. Moreover, it is possible for the students to share their activities with their friends and teachers, and communicate with them when required. There are some factors that need to be considered for the success of blended learning. One of these factors is correct content design. (Yalın, 2003). The Algo-Heuristic Theory is one theory that can be beneficial in teaching progressive skills in IT content. To illustrate, the Algo-Heuristic Theory suggests solving problems by converting them into operational steps and underlines the importance of teaching students not just the information, but also how to use this information (Landa, 1987). Students see the information that they will learn as operational steps and can learn these steps by themselves (Laurence, 2004). Moreover, while students perform one operation, they will discover the operational methods themselves (Landa,1987). When we look at IT skills, it can be seen that many operations that need to be done on computers are performed as a result of carrying out a specific number of operational steps again in a specific order. The order of the operation is important in many of the processes and they are like a prerequisite for the next operation. From this perspective, it can be said that teaching IT skills by converting them into operational steps in line with Algo-Heuristic Theory is a more effective teaching method. In a blended learning environment, supporting these operational steps with valuable content can make learning more visual, more fun and more effective. Based on this premise, this study researched the impact of blended learning environments based on Algo-Heuristic Theory on skills for preparing presentations, attitudes towards computers, and motivation levels for information technology classes. Sub-problems: (1) Do the academic achievements of the students in the blended learning environment designed according to Algo-Heuristic Theory differentiate? (2) Do the attitudes toward computers and motivation levels in information technology lessons differentiate in students learning in the blended learning environment designed according to Algo-Heuristic Theory? -26-

32 Impact of Blended Learning Environments M.Aygün & Ö.Korkmaz Method Research Model This study was carried out with a quasi-experimental design with a pre-test post-test, and control group. Study Group This study group was composed of branches A and B, determined by simple random sampling from 5th grade students that studied IT skills at the Hüsnü M. Özyeğin Primary School in the central district of Kırşehir in the academic year. In total, 71 students participated in the study. Among these, 36 students from the 5/B branch took part as the experiment group and 35 from 5/A as the control group. Table 1: Distribution of students based on their genders Groups Female Male Total Experimental Group Control Group Total Data Collection Tools The research data was collected using the Academic Achievement Test composed of multiple-choice questions as well as the Attitude towards Computer Scales for Primary School Students and the Computer Lesson Motivation Scale, both of which are 5-point Likert scale type questionnaires. The Academic Achievement Test was developed by the researchers. The test, initially composed of 35 questions, was tested on 94 students and a total of nine questions with item discrimination powers less than 0.30 were removed and two questions with discrimination power between 0.20 and 0.30 were edited slightly to protect the content validity, and thus, a final test, composed of 26 questions, was obtained. The average difficulty index of the test is 0.487, and its KR-20 internal reliability coefficient is The Attitude towards the Computer Scale for Primary School Students was obtained by adapting the Uzunboylu (1995) translation of the Attitude towards Computer Scale for Secondary School Students prepared by Jones and Clarke (1994), to the level of primary school students. In the construct validity studies of the scale, Kaiser-Meyer-Oklin (KMO) and Bartlett test analyses were performed and it was realized that factor analysis could be carried out (KMO=0,820; p=0,000). The Principal Components Analysis and Varimax Perpendicular Rotation technique was applied in line with this, and several factors regarding the questionnaire were determined. Those with a factor load lower than 0.30 and items that were in multiple factors (a total of 22 items) were removed from the questionnaire and the same process was repeated. As a result of the factor analyses conducted on the remaining 18 items, it was determined that the scale be divided into three sub-factors within itself. The first factor loads varied between , the second factor loads between , and the third factor loads between , and these factors provide a contribution to the total variance of % respectively with the ratios of 26.30%, 9.96% and 9.28%. In the internal consistency studies of the questionnaire, the Cronbach Alpha coefficients were calculated. The internal consistency coefficient for the entire questionnaire, which was composed of 18 items, was The Computer Lesson Motivation Scale is the Motivation Scale originally developed by Christophel (1990) and adapted into Turkish by Kurt and Kurt (1999). No changes had been made -27-

33 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 25-38, December, 2012 in the expression and narration of the scale items, and only the lecture name was changed to Computer". This scale, which was composed of a single factor, included 9 items. In this study, the Cronbach-Alpha coefficient of the scale was found to be as a result of the reliability study conducted on the scale. Experimental Procedures Before starting the real application, the data collection tools were applied to the experimental and control groups both as a pre-test and as a post-test after six weeks of application. In the experimental group, the subjects that were to be discussed and the goals to be obtained were mentioned at the beginning of each lesson. On the webpage designed for the blended learning environment, only the content to be discussed that day was accessible and the students were asked to research these topics from this website. It was enabled so as to allow the students to access the instructions on the website; analyze the images and then apply the operational steps of the related skills, designed according to Algo-Heuristic Theory, after watching them one by one. The support and assistance that the student needed during the interaction of the students with the content was provided instantly by the teacher and the information was shared with the entire class when deemed appropriate. Furthermore, after the targeted subjects were studied, the teacher opened up all the subjects that were studied up to that point and allowed the students to access them. Free time was also given in order for the students to revise these subjects. In the last week of the application, the students were asked to prepare a presentation using the skills they had learned. In the control group, the training learning environment was used. A traditional learning environment is defined using the traditional learning environment definition mentioned in the Primary School Elective Computer Course Teaching Program (MEB, 2010a), and the lessons were to be conducted generally with the demonstration and narration method in line with the directives given in the information technologies teaching manual (MEB, 2009). The teacher presented the subjects to be discussed and the goals to be achieved that day at the beginning of each lecture. Following that, the teacher demonstrated the skills that will be learned by the students using the demonstration method. In the demonstration method, the teacher shows the screen of the main computer to the computers of the students using class management software. Afterwards, the teacher asked the students to repeat the skills they had just watched. The support and assistance that the students needed during this process were provided instantly by the teacher and information was shared with the entire class when deemed appropriate. After that day s lecture goals were achieved, the topics of the previous lectures were revised. In the last week of the application, the students were asked to prepare a presentation using the skills they had learned. Teaching Material Within the scope of the study, a Learning Management System (LMS) website was prepared to be used in the blended learning environment. In the preparation of the website, the server side programming language ASP (Active Server Pages) 3.0 and ISS was used. The prepared lecture content pages were added to the site, and the subject index and page information were entered into the site database. The prepared website was user sensitive, and stored the user information in a database. Besides opportunities such as viewing and changing user information in the web medium, navigating between course subjects, marking relevant pages as important, taking notes on the subject and page basis, monitoring the time spent on a page, direct access to the last page viewed, locking of the subjects by teachers and sending files to the teacher; there was also an instant messaging section for communication between users. -28-

34 Impact of Blended Learning Environments M.Aygün & Ö.Korkmaz In determining the content scope to be taught, the Information Technologies Student Study Book was reviwed for Steps 4, 5, 6 (MEB, 2010b) and the Information Technologies Teacher s Manual was reviewed for Steps 4, 5 and 6, 7, 8 (MEB, 2009). According to the determined subject scope, lecture pages were created and operational steps based on Algo-Heuristic Theory were placed by referring to expert opinions on the skills that were to be taught. The animated screenshots showing how each operational step will look on the computer screen were recorded and added to the site. Students were then enabled to see the operational steps regarding a subject as an ordered list which allowed them to watch the operational step they wanted. The students had the chance to pause, replay and rewind the view of each operational step. Figures 1-4 show example views of the prepared website. Figure 1: Web Media Course Home Page Figure 2: Web Media Sample Lesson Page Figure 3: Listing And Monitoring Steps Of Process Figure 4: Monitoring a Process Step Figure 5: Monitoring a Process Step Figure 6: Discovering Similar Process Steps Data Analysis On the data that was obtained; frequency, percentage, arithmetic mean, t-test and ANOVA statistics were used. In the significance tests of differences and relations, the 0.5 significance level was taken as the basis. -29-

35 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 25-38, December, 2012 Results and Discussion Academic Achievement Levels of Students Before starting the application phase of the study, academic achievement pre-tests were administered to both the experiment and control groups. Table 2 shows the total score averages of this academic achievement test and t-test findings. Table 2: Academic achievement pre-test score averages of groups and t-test results Groups X sd n df t p Experimental 13,94 3, ,312 0,194 Control 12,67 4, Despite being only moderate, as can be seen in the results of the academic achievement pre-test shown in Table 2, there is difference between the experimental group ( X =13,94) and the control group ( X =12,67). In addition, according to the results of the t-test analysis conducted, this difference was found to be insignificant [t (2-69) =1,312; P>0,05]. Therefore, it can be stated that both the experimental and control groups had similar qualities before the administration of the tests. After being applied for six weeks, the academic achievement post-tests were applied. To keep the effect of the insignificant difference between the experiment and control groups reflected in the academic achievement pre-tests under control, the academic achievement post-test and pre-test score differences were calculated for each student individually. Table 3 shows the academic achievement post-test and pre-test score difference averages for both the experimental and control groups. Table 3: Group averages of post-test - pre-test score differences Groups X n sd Experimental 4, ,717 Control 2, ,003 By applying ANOVA to the academic achievement post-test - pre-test score differences, it was checked whether a significant difference was created between the experimental and control groups or not. These findings are given in Table 4. Table 4: Variance analysis based on group averages of post-test - pre-test score differences Source of Sum of Mean df F p ŋ 2 Variance Squares Square Between Groups 103, ,576 8,803 0,004 0,113 Within Groups 811, ,766 Total 915, After Table 4 was reviewed, it was determined that there was a significant difference in favour of the experimental group between the experiment and the control group in respect of the academic achievement post-test pre-test score differences [F (1 69) =8.803, p<0.05]. Thus, it can be asserted that blended learning environments based on Algo-Heuristic Theory contribute more to acquiring the skill of preparing for presentations compared to that of traditional learning environments. The eta-square value calculated based on these results is ŋ 2 = In other words, approximately 11.3% of the variance observed on the score differences is caused by an independent variable. The Etasquare value is a correlation coefficient showing to what degree the independent variable is effective on the dependent variable (Büyüköztürk, 2009). -30-

36 Impact of Blended Learning Environments M.Aygün & Ö.Korkmaz This finding is also in line with the literature. In a study conducted by Usta (2007), it was revealed that students whose instruction took place in an blended learning environment had higher academic success rates than those whose instruction was in an online learning environment. Similarly, in studies where online and blended learning environments were compared in terms of teaching conditions and learning outputs; Lim, Morris and Kupritz (2006) suggested that blended learning has a positive impact on student success. In another study, it was proven that blended learning is more advantageous than face-to-face learning and provides more lasting effects (Ekici and Karaman, 2011) Additionally, in a study conducted by Uluyol and Karadeniz (2009), it was shown that student success in blended learning environments is higher and that these students perceive this medium as beneficial. Moreover, when the subject is analyzed in terms of instructional design, the study of Landa on teaching geometry using Algo-Heuristic Theory showed that it is possible for student success to increase from 25% to 87%. Again in another study, this method allowed for the reduction of the length of a Russian language course from 4 years to 3 years. The use of Landamatics in education and industrial fields has created an increase in both production and quality. Furthermore, it was stated that those who received this training are considered to be as successful as the experts, and this has been reflected by customer satisfaction (Laurence, 2004). Attitudes of Students towards Computer and Motivation Levels in Computer Lessons Before starting the study application phase, the pre-test of attitudes towards computer scales for primary school students was applied to experimental and control groups. Table 5 shows the total score averages of the pre-test of attitudes towards the computer scale for primary school students and t-test findings. Table 5: Attitude towards Computer Pre-test Scores of Groups Attitude toward Computer Groups N X sd. df t p Experimental 35 43,11 6, ,264 0,210 Positive attitude towards using computers Control 36 40,61 9,584 Positive attitude towards learning how to Experimental 35 12,91 1, ,570 0,570 use computers Control 36 12,67 2,084 Experimental 35 13,09 2, ,719 0,474 Usefulness of being able to use computers Control 36 12,61 3,017 Experimental 35 69,11 8, ,320 0,191 Total Control 36 65,89 11,971 As can be seen from Table 5, according to the results of the pre-test attitudes towards the computer scale for primary school students, there is a small difference between the experimental group ( X =69,11) and the control group ( X =65,89) in general. Thus, according to the results of the t-test analysis conducted, this difference was found to be insignificant [t (69) =1,320; p>0,05]. The attitude towards the computer scale for primary school students is composed of three sub-factors. And when the pre-test total score averages were examined in respect to these three factors, it was seen that there was a relatively small difference between the experimental and control group scores in favor of the experimental group. Therefore, to see if these differences were significant or not, the t-test was applied on the attitudes pre-test score averages for non-related samples in respect to these three factors. According to the findings in Table 5, it can be stated that the experimental and control groups have similar properties in respect to these three sub-factors [p>0,05]. Before starting the application phase of the study, a computer lesson motivation scale pre-test was applied to the experimental and control groups. Table 6 shows the total score averages of these computer lesson motivation scale pre-test and t-test findings. -31-

37 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 25-38, December, 2012 Table 6: Computer Lesson Motivation Scale Pre-test Scores of Groups and T-Test Results Groups X sd n df t P Experimental 32,63 5, ,904 0,369 Control 34,14 8, As can be seen in the results of the computer lesson motivation scale pre-test shown in Table 6, there is difference between the experimental group ( X =32,63) and the control group ( X =34,14) even though it is relatively small. According to the results of the t-test analysis conducted, this difference was found to be insignificant [t(69)=-0,904; p>0,05]. Thus, it can be said that experimental and control groups have similar properties in respect to the computer lesson motivation scale pre-test scores. At the end of the six week long application period, the post-testing of the attitudes towards the computer scale for the primary school students was applied. To keep the effect of the insignificant differences between the experimental and the control groups as evidenced in the pre-tests of attitude towards the computer scale for primary school students, the score differences between the post-test and pre-test of the attitude towards the computer scale for the primary school students were calculated for each individual student. Table 7 shows the post-test pre-test score difference averages regarding the attitude towards the computer scale for the primary school students both in respect to the general scale and the three sub-factors. Table 7: Group Averages of Attitude towards Computer Scale Post-test Pre-test Score Differences Attitude toward Computer Groups n X sd Experimental 35 3,83 5,485 Positive attitude towards using computers Positive attitude towards learning how to use computers Usefulness of being able to use computers Total Control 36-0,50 6,601 Experimental 35-0,34 1,999 Control 36-0,08 2,612 Experimental 35 0,89 2,323 Control 36 0,31 2,291 Experimental 35 4,37 6,231 Control 36 0,28 8,568 When the post-test - pre-test score difference averages regarding the attitudes towards the computer scale for primary school students were analyzed in relation to the findings in Table 7, a difference in favor of the experimental group in general was found. And when it was analyzed in respect to the three sub-factors, differences in favor of the experiment group in respect of positive attitude towards using computers, usefulness of being able to use computers, and a difference in the favor of the control group in respect to positive attitude towards learning how to use computers were found. To establish whether or not these differences were significant, ANOVA was applied on the score differences in attitude towards the computer scale for primary school students both for the general scale and the three sub-factors, and these findings are presented in Table 8. Table 8: Variance Analysis of Attitude towards Computer Scale Post-test Pre-test Score Differences of Groups Source of Sum of Mean Factors df F p ŋ 2 Variance Squares Square Positive attitude towards using computers Positive attitude towards learning how to use computers Between Groups 332, ,507 9,004 0,004 0,115 Within Groups 2547, ,927 Total 2880, Between Groups 1, ,195 0,220 0,640 Within Groups 374, ,

38 Impact of Blended Learning Environments M.Aygün & Ö.Korkmaz Factors Positive attitude towards using computers Usefulness of being able to use computers Total Source of Variance Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p ŋ 2 Between Groups 332, ,507 9,004 0,004 0,115 Within Groups 2547, ,927 Total 375, Between Groups 5, ,973 1,122 0,293 Within Groups 367, ,321 Total 373, Between Groups 383, ,592 6,805 0,011 0,090 Within Groups 3889, ,368 Total 4272, According to the findings in Table 8, it was observed that the difference, which was obtained in favor of the experimental group when the averages score differences between attitudes towards the computer scale post-test and pre-test were compared, is in fact significant [F (1 69) =6,805; p<0,05]. Based on this finding, it can be said that blended learning environments based on Algo-Heuristic Theory have a more positive impact on the attitudes of students towards computers more than do traditional learning environments. The calculated degree of impact is ŋ 2 = In other words, approximately 9% of the variance observed on the score differences is caused by the independent variable. Since ŋ 2 >0.06, it can be said that the degree of impact is at a moderate level (Büyüköztürk, 2009). In addition, based on Table 8, a significant difference in favor of the experimental group was seen between both the experimental and control groups in respect to the post-test and pre-test score differences for the sub-factor positive attitude towards using computers in the attitudes towards the computer scale for primary school students [F (1 69) =9,004; p<0,05]. When it was analyzed in terms of the sub-factor positive attitude towards learning how to use computers, it was seen that there was no significant difference between the experimental and the control groups [F (1 69) =0,220; p>0,05]. In addition, when it is finally analyzed in terms of the sub-factor usefulness of being able to use computers, it was seen that there was no significant difference between the experimental and the control groups [F (1 69) =1,122; p>0,05]. The eta-square value was calculated based on the variance analysis of the score differences in the sub-factor "positive attitude towards using computers" is ŋ 2 = In other words, approximately 11.5% of the variance observed on the score differences was caused by the independent variable. Since ŋ 2 >0.06, it can be said that the degree of impact is medium (Büyüköztürk, 2009). At the same time, based on the results of the variance analysis, it can be said that a blended learning environment based on Algo-Heuristic Theory and traditional learning environments have similar impacts on the attitude levels of "positive attitude towards learning how to use computers" and "usefulness of being able to use computers". Since the difference regarding the sub-factor positive attitudes towards using computers is found to be significant, and even though the differences regarding the sub-factors positive attitudes towards learning how to use computers and usefulness of being able to use computers" were found to be insignificant based on the analysis results, the general difference was found to be significant. This may be caused by the fact that the variance with regard to the sub-factor positive attitudes towards using computers held more weight in the total variance of % with 26.30% compared to the other two sub-factors. Table 9 shows the computer lesson motivation scale post-test and pre-test score difference averages for the experimental and control groups. -33-

39 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 25-38, December, 2012 Table 9: Group Averages of Computer Lesson Motivation Scale Post-test Pre-test Score Differences Groups X n sd Experimental 3, ,073 Control -0, ,930 By applying ANOVA to the computer lesson motivation scale post-test - pre-test score differences, it was possible to investigate whether or not a significant difference was created between the experiment and control groups. These findings are presented in Table 10. Table 10: Variance Analysis of Computer Lesson Motivation Scale Post-test Pre-test Score Differences Sum of Mean Source of Variance df F p ŋ 2 Squares Square Between Groups 249, ,560 12,172 0,001 0,14 Within Groups 1414, ,504 Total 1664, When Table 10 was examined, it was seen that the difference in favor of the experiment group found in respect to the computer lesson motivation scale post-test and pre-test score differences was significant [F (1 69) =12,172; p<0,05]. Therefore, Algo-Heuristic Theory based blended learning environments have a greater impact on the motivation of students regarding computer lessons than traditional learning environments. The eta-square value calculated according to the variance analysis of the computer lesson motivation scale post-test and pre-test score differences is ŋ 2 =0.15. In other words, approximately 15% of the variance observed on the score differences is caused by the independent variable. Since ŋ 2 >0.14, it can be said that the degree of impact is high (Büyüköztürk, 2009). These findings are also in line with the literature. According to the results of the study conducted by Usta (2007), students educated in a blended learning environment were more satisfied than those in the online learning environment in terms of student-teacher interaction, teacher support, lecture content, lecture goals and corporate support. Moreover, it was seen that the students in the blended learning environment are more satisfied with the applied approach than the students in the online learning environment. A study by Akkoyunlu and Soylu (2006) also supports these results. According to the findings of their study, it was determined that students in blended learning environments have higher rates of satisfaction. In another study, students who did not attend classes regularly stated that they learned more and had more fun studying when online and traditional learning models are used together (Lehman, 2004). At the end of the study they conducted, Edwards and Fritz (1997) stated that a harmonized learning environment that combines online training activities with face-to-face training activities may be one of the best methods for the distribution of training materials and for providing student satisfaction. In the studies where online and blended learning environments were compared in terms of teaching conditions and learning outputs; Lim, Morris and Kupritz (2006) suggested that blended learning has a positive impact on student satisfaction. In another study, where the goal was to develop a course where the blended learning model could be applied to the teaching course for trainee teachers on the English Language Teaching Program at Anadolu University, 100% of the participants stated that blended learning activities and their use in teaching processes are very effective (Caner, 2009). Moreover, in a study by Balcı (2008), it was stated that the students enjoyed a blended learning environment and adapted to the environment very easily. In a study by Şimsek (2009) that aimed to analyze the impact of blended learning on the attitudes of trainee physics teachers towards computers, the -34-

40 Impact of Blended Learning Environments M.Aygün & Ö.Korkmaz internet and web-based teaching, it was determined that blended learning had a positive impact on the attitudes towards computers, the internet and web-based teaching. Conclusion Algo-Heuristic Theory based blended learning environments have a significantly higher contribution than traditional learning environments to primary school students for acquiring skills for preparing presentations on computers. Compared to traditional learning environments, Algo-Heuristic Theory based blended learning environments provide a significantly higher contribution to the positive attitudes of students towards computers. Also, in terms of the sub-dimensions of attitudes towards the computer, while Algo-Heuristic Theory based blended learning environments increase the level of "positive attitude towards using computers", they did not have a significant impact on "positive attitude towards learning how to use computers" and "usefulness of being able to use computers." The computer lesson motivation levels of students in an Algo-Heuristic Theory based blended learning environment are higher than the level of those in a traditional learning environment. This indicates that Algo-Heuristic Theory based blended learning environments increase the motivation levels of students towards computer lessons. Recommendations It can be recommended that Algo-Heuristic Theory based blended learning environments be used in teaching skills for preparing presentations on computers, improving attitudes towards computers and increasing the motivation levels towards computer classes. This study examined the learning skills of students in preparing presentations on computers. It is recommended for the research to be repeated in a way that it will also analyze how lasting the learned knowledge will be. Similarly, it may be recommended that similar studies be repeated in different educational phases, branches and groups, in order to improve the generalizability of the study findings. Acknowledgements This study is generated from the master thesis of M. AYGÜN titled as Impact of Algo- Heuristic Theory Based Blended Learning Environment on Students Skills of Preparing Presentations, Attitudes towards Computers, and Motivation Levels for Information Technologies Lessons. References Akbıyık, C., & Seferoğlu, S. S. (2009). Opinions of information technologies teacher about student expectations and the discipline problems they face in the class. Çukurova University Journal of Education Faculty 3(36): Akıncı, A., & Seferoğlu, S. S. (2010). Informatics councils, technology politics and education. Paper presented at Academic IT 2010 Conference, Muğla University. Akkoyunlu, B., & Soylu, M. (2006).A study on students views on blended learning environment.turkish Online Journal of Distance Education 7(3): Aksoy, H. H. (2003). Eğitimkurumlarındateknolojikullanımıveetkilerineilişkinbirçözümleme [An analysis on the use of technology in educational institutions and its effects].eğitimbilimtoplumdergisi 1(4): Allan, B. (2007). Blended Learning Tools for Teaching and Training. London: Facet Publishing. Balcı, M. (2008).Students' opinions on blended learning (Unpublished Master Thesis).Hacettepe University Institute of Science. -35-

41 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 25-38, December, 2012 Bayrakçı, M. (2005).Information and communication technologies in European Union and Turkish educational policies and current practices.republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education, The journal of National Education 167. Available at: Bektaş, C., &Semerci, Ç. (2008). Teachers views on computer Lessons in Primary Schools (The Sample of Elazig Province). Fırat University the Journal of Social Science 18(1): Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2009).SosyalBilimlerİçinVeriAnalizi El Kitabı [Data Analysis Handbook for Social Sciences]. Ankara, PegemA Pub. Caner, M Astudy on blended learning model for teaching practice course in pre service English Language teacher training program.(unpublished PhD Thesis).Anadolu University Institute of Education Science. Christophel, D. M. (1990).The relationship among teacher immediacy behaviors student motivation and learning.communication Education 39: Civelek, T. (2008).Impacts of Computer-Aided Physics Experiment Simulations on Learning(Unpublished Master Thesis).Bahçeşehir University Institute of Science. Çetin, O., & Günay, Y. (2010).Fen eğitiminde web tabanlı öğretimin öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına ve tutumlarına etkisi [Impact of web based teaching on the academic success and attitudes of students in science education]. Çukurova University Journal of Education Faculty 3(38): Demirer, V., & Şahin, İ. (2008).Secondary school students attitudes toward information technology course. Paper presented at International Education Technology Conference 2008, Anadolu Üniversitesi. Driscoll, M. (2002). Blended Learning: Let's Get Beyond the Hype.Learning and Training Innovations Newsline. Available at: 07.ibm.com/services/pdf/blended_learning.pdf Edwards, C., & Fritz, J. H. (1997).Evaluation of Three Educational Online Delivery Approaches. Paper presented at The 2nd Mid South Instructional Technology Conference, Murfreesboro, TN. Ekici, M., & Karaman, M. K. (2011).Analyzing the Impact of Blended Learning Activities on Academic Achievement at Different Levels. Paper presented at Academic IT 2011 Conference. İnönü University. EU. (2006). the ICT impact report: Areview of studies of ICT impact in schools in Europe. European Schoolnet in the Framework of the European Commission s ICT Cluster. Available At: EU. (2008). The use of ICT to support innovation and lifelong learning for all a report on progress.commission Staff Working Document. Available at: Garnham, C., &Kaleta, R. (2002).Introduction to Hybrid Courses.Teaching with Technology Today, 8(6). Available at: Horton, W. (2000).Designing web based training. Toronto: John Wiley. Jones, T., & Clarke, V.A. (1994).A computer attitude scale for secondary student.computers Education 22(4): Karal, H., Reisoğlu, İ. & Günaydın, E. (2010). İlköğretim bilişim teknolojileri dersi öğretim programinin değerlendirilmesi [Evaluation of the education program of primary school information technologies course].çukurova University Journal of Education Faculty3(38): Kirişçioğlu, S. (2009).An investigation the application of blended learning instruction in science laboratory lesson.(unpublished Master Thesis).Celal Bayar University Institute of Scinece. Kozma, R. (2002). ICT and educational reform in developed and developing countries. Paper presented at Center for Technology in Learning. CA, SRI International. Available at:

42 Impact of Blended Learning Environments M.Aygün & Ö.Korkmaz Kurt, M., & Kurt, M. (1999).Öğretmenlerin sözel ve sözsüz davranışlarının güdülenme ve başarı üzerindeki etkisinin belirlenmesi [Determining the Impact of Verbal and Non-Verbal Behaviors of Teachers on Motivation and Success]. Paper presented at 4th National Education Conference,AnadoluÜniversity. Landa, L.N. (1987). Landamatics instructional-design theory for teaching general methods of thinking. In Reigeluth, C. M. (Ed.) Instructional Theories in Action, Lessons Illustrating Selected Theories and Models. ( ) London: Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hillsdale. Laurence, L. L. (2004). Landamatics in teaching computer programming.journal of Computer Science Education.January. Available at: Lehman, T. (2004). Hybrid science labs: Flexible and hands on.online Classroom. February: 1-8. Lim, D.H., Morris, M. L. &Kupritz, V. W. (2006). Online vs. blended learning: differences in instructional outcomes and learner satisfaction. Online Submission 39(1): MEB.2010a. İlköğretimseçmelibilgisayardersi (1 8. siniflar) öğretimprogrami [Curriculum of primary school elective computer course (grades 1 to 8)]. Available at: MEB. (2010b). Bilişimteknolojileri4., 5. ve 6. basamaköğrenciçalişmakitabi [Information technologies student study book steps 4, 5 and 6]. İstanbul: Bediralp Pub. MEB. (2009). Bilişimteknolojileri 4 ve 5.- 6,7, ve 8. basamaköğretmenkilavuzkitabi [Information technologies teachers manual steps 4 and 5 6, 7 and 8]. Ankara: Saray Pub. Mercan, M., Filiz, A., Göçer, İ.&Özsoy, N. (2009). Practice of computer aided education and computer aided teaching in the world and Turkey. Paper presented at Academic IT 2009 Conference. Harran University. Morisson, D. (2003). E learning strategies: how to get implementation and delivery right first time. The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8 SQ, England, John Willey & Sons Ltd. Nichols, M. (2003).A theory for e-learning.educational Technology & Society, 6(2), OECD. (2006). Are students ready for a technology rich world?: What PISA studies tell us. Paris: OECD. Osguthorpe, R.T., & Graham, C. R. (2003).Blended learning environments. Quarterly Review of Distance Education 4(3): Para, D., & Reis, Z. A. (2009).Using IT Technologies in Education: Water Cycle in Chemistry. Paper presented at Academic IT 2009 Conference. Harran University. Seferoğlu, S.S., Akbıyık,C. & Bulut, M. (2008).Elementary school teachers and teacher candidates opinions about computer use in learning/teaching process.hacettepe University Journal of Education 35: Şimşek, E. (2009).The effect of blended learning on the attitudes of the physics pre-service teachers toward the computer, internet and web-based education.(unpublished Master Thesis).Hacettepe University Institute of Science. Uluyol, Ç.,& Karadeniz, Ş. (2009). An example on blended learning environment: Student achievement and perceptions. YüzüncüYıl University Journal of Education Faculty, 6(1): Usta, E. (2007). The effects of blended learning and online learning on academic achievement and student satisfaction.(unpublished PhD Thesis), Gazi University, Institute of Education Sciences. Usta, E., & Mahiroğlu, A. (2008). The effects of blended learning and online learning on academic achievement and learner satisfaction.ahievran University Journal of Kırşehir Education Faculty 9(2): Uzunboylu, H. (1995). Relationship between Computer Knowledge Level and Attitude towards Computers (Unpublished PhD Thesis).Ankara University Institute of Social Science. -37-

43 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 25-38, December, 2012 Vaughan, N. (2003). Blended Learning Model. Available at: norm/blendeduofs2003.htm. Wilson, D., & Smilanich, E. (2005).The Other Blended Learning A Classroom Centre Approach. San Francisco: Pfeiffer Publications. Yalın, H. İ. (2003).Instructional Technologies and Material Development. Ankara: Nobel Pub

44 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 2(2), pp , 30 December, 2012 Available online at Understanding a Primary School Teacher's Life and Her School Context Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Primary teacher s life, school, challenges, hopes, aspirations Introduction: Kh. Atikur Rahman * Institute Of Education and Research, University of Dhaka This article is a by-product of a qualitative study, which focuses on understanding the organisation of a teacher's professional life, understanding the organisation of her school's professional life and understanding her as a practitioner and as a person. The study was conducted in an ethnographic style of research. To carry out the investigation a teacher of a primary school of Laxmipur, Bangladesh was selected purposively. Data for the study were gathered through shadowing the teacher for three consecutive days, classroom observations, collection of artefacts, interviews with the teacher, with her students, informal discussion with the teacher and the Headteacher. The general findings reveal that the teacher has a huge work-load which poses a challenge for her. Yet because of her passion for teaching and supports from her family and school, she never loses interest in teaching. Until the 1990s focusing on teachers lives and telling their stories was not thought of as serious scholarship (Bullough, 2008, p.11). Because of such ignorance, for the most part teaching remains an unexamined life (Floden & Huberman, 1989, p.458). In the last few decades, however, there has been a shift towards exploring their lives and their professional knowledge and experiences, although in Bangladesh, still there is hardly any literature which can feed us to understand teachers' lives, their choice of career, job satisfaction, motivation and commitment etc (Haq & Islam, 2005). This article is an attempt to fulfil our obligation as researchers to assure that teachers voice is heard, heard loudly, heard articulately (Goodson, 1992, p.112). In general, the objective of the study presented in the article was to understand a Bangladeshi primary school teacher's life. In particular, it focuses on understanding the organisation of a teacher's professional life, understanding the organisation of the school's professional life and understanding the teacher as a practitioner and a person. Methodology: This article is the by-product of a qualitative study done as a part of an intervention project, English-In-Action (EIA). In order to conduct the study, a primary school teacher of Laxmipur district of Bangladesh was selected purposively. The author as a researcher of the project had to spend more than a year, though not ceaselessly, with the teacher for his professional purpose. Consequently, he had opportunities to observe her personal life partly and professional life very closely. However, data for the study derived from: (1) direct timed observation of the teacher s activities * Correspondence: Department of Language Education, Institute of Education and Research, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh, Phone: , [email protected]

45 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 39-49, 30 December, 2012 throughout three consecutive days (i.e. shadowing the teacher), (2) classroom observations, (3) collection of artefacts, (4) teacher interviews, (5) interviews with students, (6) informal discussion with the teacher and the Headteacher. Understanding the organization of the school's professional life Literature shows that school climate affects not only learners' academic achievement (e.g. Blum et al., 2002; Rutter et al., 1979) but also teachers and their working lives just as a positive organisational climate benefits employees, ensures job satisfaction and increases their productivity (OECD, 2009; Lazear, 2000). So for understanding professional life of the teacher (mentioned in the study) we need to understand her school, its professional life and its climate. The name of the school, where the teacher teaches is LC Govt. Primary School. It is situated at the core of Laxmipur Sadar in Bangladesh. The Government of Bangladesh (GoB) defrays the expenses needed for infrastructural facilities, salaries of teachers and all other expenses of the school. It is administered according to the regulation of Directorate of Primary Education, GoB. There is, however, an elected School Management Committee (SMC) which monitors progress, attendance and other sides of the school. The school is a single shift-school, which runs from 9:30 am to 4:15 pm on Saturdays to Wednesdays and 9:30 am to 2:30pm on Thursdays. It teaches students of Pre-primary and primary (i.e. Class/Grade- 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5) sections. There are eleven teachers (including the Headteacher) teaching in the school. All of them hold a bachelor degree (BA/BSS/BCom) along with a Certificate in Education (C-in-Ed). Besides these, all the teachers underwent a basic in-service training, different subject-based trainings and other professional development trainings and workshops during their service-life. They teach different subjects at school. These are Bangla, English, Mathematics, Social Studies, Science, Islamic/Religious Studies and Fine-Arts (Charukaru). They were found to have co-operative and congenial relationships among themselves. They talk extensively about their activities related to their profession. During the off-period or leisure they discuss their lesson plans, students' progress, students' absence, other challenges and opportunities they face. The Headteacher of the school is also very friendly and cooperative which is a vital factor for teacher performance since teachers working life is influenced by the administration and leadership provided by Headteacher (Ingersoll, 2001; Rosenholtz & Simpson, 1990). The school has two brick-built two-storied buildings where the lessons of grades-1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are held. The buildings are situated closely to each other. There is another tin-shed building where the lessons of Pre-primary students are held. All the classrooms of the school are quite spacious. They are well equipped and well decorated. They are well lighted, ventilated and aired. The school is a big school with 555 students. The table below shows the school's number of students by grade and gender. Table 1: Number of Students; (Source: School Monitoring Board-2) Grade Girls Boys Total Attendance (%) Pre-Primary % % % % % %

46 Understanding a Primary School Teacher's A.Rahman The school has a playground in front of it. It also has a pond. Though the school is funded and operated by the GoB, the land of the school was donated by a local philanthropist. The school maintains certain policies. These are listed in the following table. In the table, we can see deviations also exist in maintaining the policies. Table 2: School Policies Policy Differences between policy and actions Increasing the number of students' admission Maintained satisfactorily Providing various in-service trainings. Maintained satisfactorily Following daily class routine Because of absence of any office-attendant/clark, the bells marking the end of class/lesson are not rung. So teachers often miss exact time of lesson Using textbook and taking class according to lesson plan Teachers used textbook but in case of following lesson plans they were a bit slack. Mother Assembly (Once a month) Maintained satisfactorily Annual work plan for every teacher. Maintained satisfactorily Teachers of this school have to involve themselves in a number of professional activities outside classrooms. These activities include meeting with SMC / guardians (done on a monthly basis), Mother Assembly (done on a monthly basis), and preparing monthly attendance report for the Education Office (done on a monthly basis) etc. According to the opinion of teachers, students and their guardians, the school-community relationship is good. There are various community activities in which the school takes part in. For example, on nationally announced day camp is set in the school for giving doses for various fatal child diseases. Secondly, teachers take part in children survey and other such works. The researcher had been informed that parents come to school for various purpose like inquiring about the progress of their children, for taking Transfer Certificate or Charpotro (Release letter). Mothers attend assembly once a month to know about their children's study. Teachers, however, also informed that though the school is in Sadar (Town), the parents of the students are grossly indifferent to their children's education. Because children of conscious parents usually attend private schools. Only those who are less fortunate send their children to this school. Although most of the aspects of the school are quite impressive, there is one gap. There is no officeassistant/clerk in the school to help teachers. As a result, when all the teachers are in the classrooms for taking their lessons, there exist none to ring the bell when the lesson-time is over. Consequently, at times teachers miss the time and it hampers the maintenance of class-schedule properly. Yet, as a whole, the school can be mentioned as a better place to work in. Understanding the Organization of the Teacher's Personal life: Ms. Jobaida Afsari (pseudo-name) was born on January 01, 1974 at Sonapur in Laxmipur. She is a married lady with a husband and three sons. Her husband runs a small business. Their eldest son studies at grade-ix majoring in Science. The second one studies at grade-5. He is going to appear in the national (public) examination which is termed as PSC (Primary School Certificate) examination. Her youngest one is four and a half-year old. -41-

47 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 39-49, 30 December, 2012 Her Typical Day at Home: Her typical day starts at 5.30am when she gets up and doing ablution says her morning prayer (Salatul Fazr). Then she wakes up the maid-servant who also lives in her house. Then they start preparing breakfast and lunch. At 7.00am one of her sons leaves for school while the other son leaves at 8.00am. Before their leaving she has to put tiffin in their tiffin-box. Then they (her husband, her youngest son and the maid) have their breakfast. Thus in the morning she spends very hectic hours at home. At 9.00am she leaves for school. From 9.15am to 4.30pm she spends time in her school. Usually around 4:45pm she arrives at her home. Reaching home she at first hugs her four and a halfyear old son who waits eagerly for her. She gets fresh and takes an hour's rest. During this one hour she usually talks to her three sons about their lunch and their schools. On the eve of the evening, they have a light food. The menu varies day to day. Having heard the Azan (call of prayer) of Magrib prayer, she does ablution and performs the prayer. Then she sits with her sons to look after their study. She helps her sons in doing their lessons. At home she is even busier, because during these hours (6:30pm to 10:00pm) she has to do several tasks. She says, I have to look after my sons, prepare foods for the night and for the next afternoon as I have to go out early in the morning for the school...ah! one more thing, I have to get prepared for the next day's class, especially for the English classes, because after getting involved with 'English In Action' project I have to work harder as the audio and other materials are new to me. However, Ms. Afsari and her family members usually have their dinner at 9:30pm. After having dinner she watches TV for an hour or so. At about 11:00pm she goes to sleep. Understanding the Organization of her Professional Life: Although people these days hardly opt for teaching as a profession especially considering the financially factor (Tasnim, 2006; Haq & Islam, 2005; Ingersoll, 2001; Murnane & Olsen, 1990), for Ms. Afsari it was her aim in life. Her childhood experiences affected her decision to become a teacher (Knowles, 1992). Her family members had great influence on her choice. There was a school on the land of her forefathers. Her grandfather was the president of that school. Besides, two of her paternal uncles were teachers by profession. All these family factors (Goodson & Numan, 2003) fascinated her in her early years to be a teacher. Moreover, when she was a 12th Grade student, she was married to a highly educated family where all the members have postgraduate degrees. It also worked as an impetus to her further education and career in teaching. She says, my family environment encouraged me. The school was on the land of her forefathers. My grandfather was the president of that school. You can say, teaching was my aim-in-life. Two of my uncles (her father's brothers) were teachers. I was inspired by their profession. I am very glad to receive teaching a profession. All the members of my in-laws have postgraduate degrees. When I was married, I was a student of 12th Grade. Then I studied for my bachelor degree. During the interview with her, she shared how hard she worked for qualifying in the recruitment test and how much shocked she was when she failed to qualify the Viva-Voce after being qualified in the written test. She was disheartened especially because she even studied those books which are usually read by the applicants aspiring to be recruited as 1 st class Government officer (BCS Cadre Officer). Secondly, many of her friends qualified but she failed! She was disheartened at this, but she did not left -42-

48 Understanding a Primary School Teacher's A.Rahman it altogether, nor did the God kept her waiting for a long time. Though she was not offered job as a candidate from the first selection list, within a short interval she had been sent letter of appointment. With the researcher she also shared the excitement of her hearing the news that she had been sent the letter of appointment. She says, It's a pathetic story!... One day I came across a teacher recruitment advertisement in a newspaper. Then I applied for it and qualified in the written test but could qualify the Viva-Voce in the first chance, I qualifies in the next round. Many of her friends qualified. I was very shocked internally. Because for getting the job, I even studied the BCS guide book. Then one day to my surprise, my sister-in-law phone me to inform that my letter of appointment for the job came. Then I along with my children went to Laxmipur. I was very excited but I was careful lest out of excitement there should occur no accident. Then I returned home. It was a very happy day, indeed! She started her career as a teacher on November 17 th, The following data gives a picture of her profession. Title Name of School Designation Table 03: Teacher's Professional Information Information LC Govt. Primary School, Laxmipur Assistant Teacher Date of Joining : a) Present School b) Initial School Tentative Retirement Date 01/01/31 Educational Qualification Grade/Subjects She teaches Lessons attended per week 34 BSS, C-in-Ed Class-1 and 3 (English), Class-5 (Social Science Studies/Shomaj), Class-4 (Islam Studies), Class-3 (Fine Arts/Charukaru) She has undergone various training which she believes is important for her professional development. For her this is a pathway to increase competence and greater professional satisfaction (Guskey, 2002). So far she attended the following trainings. Name of the Trainings Certificate In Education (C-In-Ed) Basic In-service Training Table 04: Trainings attended by Ms. Afsari Institutes/Providers Primary Teachers' Training Institute/GoB Upazilla Resource Centre/GoB Training On Sub-Cluster Meeting Subject Based Training On English and other subjects English-In-Action (CPD Training on English) Upazilla Resource Centre/GoB Upazilla Resource Centre/GoB English-In-Action (EIA)/Non-Govt Her Typical Day at School: Everyday during the school hour eight lessons are held. Out of eight, she takes six -43-

49 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 39-49, 30 December, 2012 lessons/classes everyday (with an exception on Thursdays when she takes four lessons). Among these, she has to attend four lessons at a stretch before lunch hour and two after lunch. The following table captures the scenario well. Class Routine: Saturday to Wednesday (9:55 am to 4:15 pm) Lesson 1 9:55-10:50 am (55 min) Subject: Bangla Grade:3 Room: Polash Lesson 2 10:51-11:35 am (45 min) Subject: English Grade:3 Room: Polash Lesson 3 11:36-12:20 am (45 min) Subject: English Grade:1 Room: Shapla Lesson 4 12:21-1:15 pm (45 min) Subject: Shomaj Grade:5 Room: Rajaniga ndha Lunch 1:16-1:44pm (30 min) Lunch Hour Lesson 5 1:45-2:25 pm (40 min) Off-period Lesson 6 2:26-3:05 pm (40 min) Subject: Islam Grade:4 Room: Jui Lesson 7 3:06-3:40 pm (35 min) Subject:Fi ne-arts Grade:3 Room: Polash Lesson 8 3:41-4:15 pm (35 min) Offperiod Class Routine: Thursday (9:55 am to 2:30 pm) Lesson:1 9:55-10:50 am (55 min) Lesson:2 10:51-11:35 am (45 min) Lesson:3 11:36-12:20 am (45 min) Lesson:4 12:21-1:15 pm (45 min) Lunch 1:16-1:44pm (30 min) Lesson 5 1:45-2:25 pm (40 min) Subject: Bangla Grade:3 Room: Polash Subject: English Grade:3 Room: Polash Subject: English Grade:1 Room: Shapla Subject:Shomaj Grade:5 Room: Rajanigandha Lunch Hour Off-period Actual time versus planned time: The teacher was found to follow the schedule of class routine according to the school policy. The deviations, however, were found in two areas. First, she was not taking Bangla lesson which is her first lesson of the day. The reason is it was taken by 2 trainees of C in Ed programme. She just went to the class only to oversee the trainees. During the period, she remained in the teachers' room. Secondly, absence of any office-attendant/clerk, the bells marking the end of class/lesson did not rung. So she at times missed exact time of lesson. For comprehensive detail on it read below where her activities during the lesson hours has been captured. Day 1 Lesson 1: actual time: 3-4 minutes; Teacher did not take the class though it was her class because then it was taken by a trainee of C in Ed programme. She just went to the class only to oversee the trainee. During this period she remained in teacher room. Lesson 2: actual time: 43 minutes; the gap is here of 2 minutes when teacher stayed in the teachers' room. Rest of the time, teacher stayed in class. Lesson 3: actual time: minutes; Teacher took 0.30 minute to move to the class. Rest of the time, teacher stayed in class. -44-

50 Understanding a Primary School Teacher's A.Rahman Lesson 4: actual time: 44 minutes; Teacher took 1 minute to move to the class. Rest of the time, teacher stayed in class. Lesson 5: actual time: 00 minutes; teacher had no class/lesson for this period. She came 7 minutes late from lunch (she goes to her house for lunch). Rest of the time she remained in the teacher room. Lesson 6: actual time: 40 minutes; teacher stayed in class. Lesson 7: actual time: 35 minutes; teacher stayed in class. Lesson 8: actual time: 00 minutes; teacher had no class/lesson for this period. She remained in the teacher room. Day 2 Lesson 1: actual time: 00 minutes; Teacher did not take the class though it was her class because then it was taken by a trainee of C in Ed programme. During this period she remained in the teachers' room. Lesson 2: actual time: 49 minutes; Teacher went to class 4 minutes extra as the bell rang 4 minutes later. Teacher stayed in class. Lesson 3: actual time: 44.3 minutes; Teacher took 0.30 minute to move to the class. Rest of the time, teacher stayed in class. Lesson 4: actual time: 44 minutes; Teacher took 0.55 minute to move to the class. Rest of the time, teacher stayed in class. Lesson 5: actual time: 00 minutes; teacher had no class/lesson for this period. She came 10 minutes late from lunch. Rest of the time she remained in the teacher room. Lesson 6: actual time: 40 minutes; teacher stayed in class. Lesson 7: actual time: 35 minutes; teacher stayed in class. Lesson 8: actual time: 00 minutes; teacher had no class/lesson for this period. She remained in the teacher room. Day 3 Lesson 1: actual time: 5-6 minutes; Teacher did not take the class though it was her class because then it was taken by a trainee of C in Ed programme. She went to the class twice to oversee the trainees. During this period she remained in the teachers' room. Lesson 2: actual time: 42 minutes; the gap is here of 3 minutes when teacher stayed in teacher room. Rest of the time, teacher stayed in class. Lesson 3: actual time: 44 minutes; Teacher took 1 minute to move to the class. Rest of the time, teacher stayed in class. Lesson 4: actual time: 44 minutes; Teacher took 1 minute to move to the class. Rest of the time, teacher -45-

51 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 39-49, 30 December, 2012 stayed in class. Lesson 5: actual time: 00 minutes; teacher had no class/lesson for this period. She remained in the teacher room. Lesson 6: actual time: 45 minutes; teacher stayed in class. Teacher stayed 5 minutes extra as the bell rang 5 minutes later. Lesson 7: actual time: 30 minutes; teacher stayed in class. Lesson 8: actual time: 00 minutes; teacher had no class/lesson for this period. She remained in the teacher room. Understanding Her as a Practitioner: Typical sequence of her lessons Ms. Afsari was found to start her lessons with greetings. Then she moves on to main lessons using different types of materials. It was observed that the nature of interactions in her lessons took different forms. For example, interactions between teacher-students where the teacher interacted with the students asking different questions, giving instructions etc; interactions between students-teacher where students took the lead. And in case of students-students interactions, they were found to do pair works and group works etc. Closing the lessons In the later part of the lessons, it was observed that the teacher evaluated the learning of her students and tries to check their understanding. She was also found to give home works more often. Finally she ended her lessons with a good-bye. Her Professional Practice: Ms. Afsari was found to create a congenial classroom-climate. During observing her lessons, it has been observed that she delivered her lessons lucidly, which helps the kids follow her. Her quality of instruction has been found appreciable. She manages her lessons and the kids very aptly and is able to hold the attention of her students. She used various activities in her lessons. These activities include pair-works, group-works, responding in chorus etc. Students were also seen to answer individually to teacher's questions in some cases. During the interview with her students, the author has been informed that they enjoy her lessons. They love to do pair-works and group-works and like listen to audios (provided by EIA as materials to develop students' listening skill of English). During observing her lessons, it was found that each of her lessons were very interactive and collaborative. Now we are revising previous lessons (as term final is approaching) and students are also very enthusiastic. If they are given group-works, they become even more excited... The students do not show interest in the lesson when they are given individual works. They remain indifferent (to works). So I do it (engage them in group-works and pair-works) so that they find interest in the -46-

52 Understanding a Primary School Teacher's A.Rahman lessons (tasks). She maintains a healthy communication between her and her students (YOK, 1998). She was found to encourage students to participate in the lessons actively. Most of the students did not hesitate in interacting with the teacher. She says, Sometimes, I carry on lessons through games. Today in Grade-5, For example, I did so. Two groups would have marks. The group which will gain more marks will be victorious. (At times,) I invite students to come in front and tell a story. In such case, a kind of excitement works in them considering who would get opportunity to come first. Thus she is found to be providing more responsibility and freedom to her students (Oord & Brok, 2004). Not only that, she involves herself in communicating high expectations, providing constructive feedback, delivering content in small and structured units to her students (Creemers, 1994; Lowyck, 1994; Scheerens & Bosker, 1997) I inspire them by telling them that one day you will be in greater position than us, you will be great human being. And I approach those who are unable to do their tasks and inquire about the problem they are facing (in doing the tasks). Her Professional Activities Outside Classrooms: Teachers today do not act only in the classroom. They perform professional activities on the school level, such as co-operating in teams, building professional learning communities, participating in school development, and evaluating and changing working conditions (Darling-Hammond et al. 2005). Ms. Afsari is also found to perform a few professional activities outside classrooms. She says, I maintain the daily attendance. I collect the average from the teachers and make the percentage. I prepare the report to be submitted to the Upazilla Education Office. She also attends SMC meetings, Ma Somabesh (Mother Assembly), Uthan Boithak (Field-Meeting), counselling, social works etc. She meets the guardians to give information about their children s attendance, homework, school dress or any other problems faced by the children and their educational progress etc. Most of those works occur in one month interval. In the beginning of the year, teacher also participates in the field survey. Her inspiration as a teacher Although literature confirms that the prestige and status of teachers is falling to a great extent, many teachers (especially female teachers primary schools outside Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh) join teaching considering it honourable and prestigious profession (Tasnim, 2006; Haq & Islam, 2005). This particular aspect inspires Ms. Afsari also. She values the respect the guardians show towards her. She feels proud that her students show her great respect even after completing their studies. As an example she mentioned an incident when an adult student who passed out successfully from her school long ago saluted her when he came across her on the street, even though she herself could not recognise him at the first glance. -47-

53 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 39-49, 30 December, 2012 Her Hopes and Aspirations: During interviews and informal discussions with the author, Ms. Afsari frequently referred to her eagerness to ongoing learning (Kelchtermans, 1993a). She is very motivated to participate in continuous self-improvement and has willingness to break out of the comfort zone in order to make needed changes" in her professional skills (Malone &Tulbert, 1996, p. 46). She wants to earn an MA degree and make herself more competent. She wants more training like EIA. The government of Bangladesh is implementing National Education Policy-2010 where the free primary education will cater up to Grade-8. In such case this particular school having sound infrastructural facilities has a fair chance of being enlisted in the list of those schools, which will teach up to Grade-8. For teaching the students of grade-8, she thinks she should have more education and self-development. So, by having an MA she wants to make herself competent enough to teach even at Grade-8. Conclusion: Teachers are the crucial elements of any educational system. They are the public face of education, and their direct actions influence school characteristics, such as student achievements and school enrolment numbers (Beijaard, Meijer & Verloop, 2004). Their actions, on the other hand, are influenced by different events, experiences, and other people in their lives (Knowles, 1992).Thus, it is essential to understand their personal and professional lives. This article, which is a little stride made in this regard, has explored a Bangladeshi primary school teacher's life and her school context. At the same time, it has revealed the impact of the personal life of the teacher on her professional life and vice-versa. The general findings show that the teacher has a huge work-load which poses a challenge for her. Yet because of her passion for teaching and supports from her family and colleagues, she never loses interest in teaching. References: References: Beijaard, D., Meijer, P. C. and Verloop, N. (2004).Reconsidering research on teachers professional identity. Teaching and Teacher Education.20, Blum, R.W., C.A. McNeely and P.M. Rinehart (2002).Improving the Odds: The Untapped Power of Schools to Improve the Health of Teens. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Bullough, R. (2008). The writing of teachers lives: Where personal troubles and social issues meet. Teacher Education Quarterly. 35, 7-26 Creemers, B.P.M. (1994). The effective classroom. London: Cassell. English-In-Action (2012). http// Accessed: January 10, 2012 Darling-Hammond, L., Holtzman, D.J., Gatlin, S.J., & Heilig, J.V. (2005). Does teacher preparation matter? Evidence about teacher certification, Teach for America, and teacher effectiveness.education Policy Analysis Archives, 13(42), 1-47 Floden, R. &Huberman, M. (1989). Teachers professional lives: The state of the art. International Journal of Educational Research, 13 (4), Goodson, I. (1992). Sponsoring the teacher s voice: Teachers lives and teacher development.in A. Hargreaves & M. G. Fullan (Eds.), Understanding teacher development, pp New York: Teachers College Press. Goodson I. & Numan U. (2003). Life histories and professional development. Lund: Student Literature. Guskey, T. R. (2002). Professional Development and Teacher Change. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 8 (3), Haq. N. M.,& Islam. M. S. (2005). Teacher motivation in Bangladesh: a situation analysis, Retrieved -48-

54 Understanding a Primary School Teacher's A.Rahman 06 January, 2012 from Ingersoll, R. M. (2001). Teacher turnover, teacher shortages, and the organization of schools. Seattle, WA: Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy. Kelchtermans, G. (1993a). Getting the story, understanding the lives: From career stories to teachers professional development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 9(5-6), Knowles, J.G. (1992). Models for understanding pre-service and beginning teachers biographies: Illustrations from case studies. In I.F. Goodson (Ed.), Studying teachers lives (pp ). New York: Teachers College Press. Lazear, E.P. (2000). The Future of Personnel Economics.The Economic Journal. 110(467), Lowyck, J. (1994). Teaching effectiveness: an overview of students. 19, Malone, L. D., & Tulbert, B. L. (1996). Beyond content and pedagogy: Preparing centered teachers. Contemporary Education, 68(1), Murnane, R. J., & Olsen, R. J. (1990). The effects of salaries and opportunity costs on length of stay in teaching Evidence from North Carolina. The Journal of Human Resources, 25(1), OECD (2009). Creating Effective Teaching and Learning Environments. OECD, Paris. Oord, L. V, & Brok, D. P. (2004). The international teacher: students and teachers perceptions of preferred teacher-student interpersonal behaviour in two United World Colleges. Journal of Research in International Education, 3, Rosenholtz, S. J., & Simpson, C. (1990).Workplace conditions and the rise and fall of teachers commitment. Sociology of Education, 63, Rutter, M., Maughan, B., Mortimore, P. & Ouston, J. (1979). Fifteen Thousand Hours: Secondary Schools and their Effects on Children. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Scheerens, J. and Bosker, R.J. (1997). The Foundations of Educational Effectiveness, Pergamon, Oxford. Tasnim, S. (2006). Job Satisfaction among Female Teachers: A study on primary schools in Bangladesh. Unpublished MPhil Thesis.University of Bergen, Norway. Yok, D. B. (1998).Cooperation of faculty and school. Ankara: YÖK -49-

55 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 2(2), pp , 30 December, 2012 Available online at Article history Received: Achievement Gaps Between Different School Types and Regions in Turkey: Have They Changed Over Time? Sedat Gumus * Ministry of National Education, Ankara, Turkey Erkan Hasan Atalmis Department of Educational Psychology, University of Kansas, Lawrance, USA Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: PISA, achievement gap, Turkey, regional differences, types of schools Introduction Common international student assessments have become a global phenomenon in recent years. Accordingly, there has been significant emphasis on students performances on international assessments in Turkey. This study investigates the changes in Turkish students achievement in PISA assessments between 2003 and 2009, with specific attention paid to the achievement gaps between students who reside in different regions and who attend different types of schools in order to explore the areas that policy makers need to focus on. The results indicate that the situation in terms of the achievement gaps between different types of schools does not seem very promising, although there are some positive signs regarding closing the achievement gaps between different regions. In this context, there is a need for special attention toward improving the quality of education at the lowest performing high schools, such as general high schools and vocational high schools, in order to increase Turkish students average achievement. Beginning with the emergence of human capital theory, which emphasizes the importance of education and training for socio-economic well-being (Becker, 1993), the effect of educational attainment on both individuals income and their countries economic growth has been paid great attention in the literature. This attention, however, has recently switched from educational attainment to educational achievement because the cognitive skills that individuals possess are seen as a more direct measure of human capital (Hanushek & Woessmann, 2010). Recent literature has indicated that there is a strong link between student achievement and economic well-being at both the individual and national levels (Barro, 2001; Hanushek & Kimko, 2000; Hanushek & Woessmann, 2008; Tyler, Murnane, & Willett, 1999). It is further observed that the impact of students achievement in international assessments on economic growth is stronger than the impact of educational attainment (Barro, 2001). As a result, the value of assessing students cognitive skills has been realized by many countries around the world, and the idea of what students know has started to get more attention in comparison with knowing how long students spend in schools (Hanushek & Woessman, 2010). Common international student assessments, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), and the * Correspondence: PhD. Ministry of National Education, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected]

56 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 50-66, 30 December, 2012 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), therefore, have become a global phenomenon because these assessments provide reliable data, which makes it possible to conduct various statistical analyses with the aim of understanding both the determinants of student achievement and its socio-economic outcomes. Thus, many countries around the world have increasingly participated in international assessments of math, science, and reading to better understand their students performances in these important subjects and compare their achievement with the rest of the world (Hanushek & Woessmann, 2010). For example, the number of countries that participated in the last three PISAs was 41 in 2003, 57 in 2006, and 65 in Turkey has also participated in some of the well-recognized international student assessments. So far, Turkey has participated in TIMSS (1999 and 2007), PIRLS (2001), and PISA (2003, 2006, and 2009). In these international student assessments, Turkey often places among the lowest performing countries. In addition to the low performances of Turkish students in general, significant inequalities between different student groups were also illustrated in the results of these assessments (Aksit, 2007; Dinçer & Kolaşin, 2009). Therefore, Turkey s disappointing performance in these assessments has become an important subject in educational policy debates and has been reported on intensively by media (Gür, Celik, & Özoğlu, 2012), similar to what happened in many other low-performing countries (Hanushek & Woessmann, 2010). The Turkish government was also displeased with this situation and responded quickly by changing the long-held curriculum in 2005 (Gür, et al., 2012). In addition, several educational projects with different goals, such as increasing secondary education from three to four years and promoting technology integration into education, have been initiated during the last decades in order to increase Turkish students achievements in general and eliminate the achievement gaps between different student groups (Celen, Celik, & Seferoglu, 2011). In this context, this study aims first to report the changes in Turkish students achievements in mathematics, science, and reading over time by using the data from the first and last PISA studies (PISA 2003 and PISA 2009) in which Turkey participated. Second, it explores the achievement gaps between students who live in different regions and students who attend different types of schools in both assessments, and investigates how these gaps have changed over this period. Results of the study make it clear if the Turkish government s educational interventions in recent years have been successful in terms of increasing general student achievement and closing the achievement gaps between different student groups. The results will also explore the areas that need to be focused on by policy makers and researchers. Achievement Gaps between Different Student Groups in Turkey Beyond student achievement in general, the level of equality in the education sector is also recognized as an important factor that can facilitate the development of countries (Barro & Lee, 2000). Education is seen as one of the most effective ways by which the socio-economic disadvantages that children carry from their families can be eliminated. However, if the education sector in a country cannot provide equal educational opportunities to different socio-economic groups, it is hard to ensure social mobility in the society (Dinçer & Kolaşin, 2009). Therefore, education can play an important role in the economic development of countries, not only because it enhances the human capital, but also because it can either diminish or strengthen the social inequalities (Lee, 2002). Hence, in addition to their efforts to increase general educational achievement among their students, governments should also work hard to provide quality education equally to every child in their societies. While the crucial nature of providing a high-quality education to every student regardless of their socio-economic background is well accepted and defended, it does not seem to be happening in -51-

57 Achievement Gaps Between Different School Types Sedat Gumus & Erkan Hasan Atalmis many countries. There is a large body of existing literature that uniformly suggests a strong link between students socio-economic backgrounds and their academic achievement in many developing and developed countries (Chudgar & Luschei, 2009; Sirin, 2005). In this regard, Turkey is not an exception. According to the results of PISA 2009, for example, Turkey is among the OECD countries that show the highest variation between low and high socio-economic groups in terms of students performances in math, science, and reading (OECD, 2010). Studies that have investigated the factors associated with Turkish students performances on both national exams and international assessments have also found a significant relationship between students socio-economic characteristics, such as parental education, parental occupation, home environment, distance from school, sibling size, etc., and their academic achievement (Anıl, 2009; Gelbal, 2008; Mohammmadi, Akkoyunlu, & Seker, 2011; Yalcin, Aslan, & Usta, 2012). In addition, regional and school-based inequalities in terms of students academic performances are explicit in Turkey (Alacaci & Erbas, 2010; Berberoğlu & Kalender, 2005; Dinçer & Kolaşin, 2009; Erberber, 2009). There have been significant disparities between regions of Turkey in terms of many educational indicators, such as average educational attainment, adult literacy, and school enrollment rates (MoNE, 2010; Tomul, 2007; UNESCO, 2010). Beyond the inequalities in these quantitative indicators, differences in the quality of education between Turkish regions are also verified by the current literature. The results of international student assessments have indicated great disparities between regions of Turkey in terms of student achievement. It has been observed that while Marmara, Aegean, and Central Anatolia regions have enjoyed with the highest average scores in these assessments, two eastern regions, Eastern Anatolia and Southeastern Anatolia, have experienced the lowest average scores. These results also perfectly align with the results of national exams, such as the secondary school selection and university entrance exams (Berberoğlu & Kalender, 2005; Karip & Apaydin, 2007; Sarier, 2010). In addition to regional disparities, there are also massive achievement gaps between students who attend different types of schools in Turkey. Turkey had the largest variance internationally between schools in terms of students performances in PISA 2003 (Alacaci & Erbas, 2010). Given the tracking system, which is based on a highly competitive selection exam after primary education, this result is not surprising. It has been observed that science high schools and Anatolian high schools, which generally accept the highest ranked students in the secondary school selection exam, perform best in both international assessments and national university entrance exams. On the other hand, the performances of students who attend general or vocational high schools are dramatically lower (Alacaci & Erbas, 2010; Berberoğlu & Kalender, 2005; Demir, Depren, & Kilic, 2010). It is also noteworthy that there is a strong association between students socio-economic status and the types of schools that they attend in Turkey (Alacaci & Erbas, 2010). The reason for this situation might be that parents have to spend significant amounts of money and time on private schooling, tutoring, text books, etc., in order to have their children be successful in selection exams and attend better secondary schools. This, of course, gives an undeniable advantage to children who have more educated and affluent parents, and children who live in urban areas and more developed parts of the country. Methodology Data Source PISA focuses on the capabilities of 15-year olds in three main subjects: mathematics, science, and reading. While the Turkish data for PISA 2003 had a sample of year-old students (2090 girls and 2765 boys) attending 7 th (n=27), 8 th (n=92), 9 th (n=191), 10 th (n=2863), 11 th (n=1670) and 12 th -52-

58 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 50-66, 30 December, 2012 (n=12) grades, PISA 2009 was collected from a sample of year-old-students (2418 girls and 2578 boys) attending 7 th (n=35), 8 th (175), 9 th (n=1259), 10 th (n=3327), 11 th (n=190), and 12 th grade (n=10). Research Questions and Empirical Strategy This study examines three main research questions: Have Turkish students achievements on international assessments changed significantly from 2003 to 2009? Has the achievement gap among students from different regions changed significantly over this period in Turkey? Has the achievement gap among students from different types of schools changed significantly over this period in Turkey? In order to answer these questions, an independent sample t test, Cohen-d effect size, and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were conducted. In this study, t test evaluates the changes in the mean scores of each subject (math, reading, or science) from 2003 to 2009, as well as the mean differences between a pair of regions and between a pair of types of schools in both 2003 and Cohen-d effect size is applied to calculate the magnitude of the mean difference. ANOVA is conducted to examine the relationship between a subject and regions, and subject and types of schools. To do these analyses, SPSS and Microsoft Excel are used. Findings Changes in Students Achievements in Turkey Table 1 indicates whether students achievements in math, reading, and science have changed over time in Turkey. Table 1. Mean of Students Achievement Scores in 2003 and 2009 Subjects PISA-2003 PISA-2009 T-test d-effect size Math Mean SD Reading Mean SD Science Mean SD *p<0.01, 1 Small effect size 10.56* * * We conducted an independent sample t test to examine whether the students achievements in math, reading, and science have significantly changed from PISA 2003 to PISA 2009, as shown at Table 1. The test results indicated that students achievement in each subject significantly increased in PISA 2009 (t math =10.56; t read =13.56; t science =11.84). However, their magnitude of increase is small, since the Cohen-d effect size was around 0.2 (d math =0.21; d reading =0.27; d science =0.24). Achievement Gap among Students from Different Regions over Time This section focuses on the regional differences in student achievement in Turkey. We began by analyzing how students achievements in the same region changed from 2003 to Then, we -53-

59 Achievement Gaps Between Different School Types Sedat Gumus & Erkan Hasan Atalmis investigated whether the achievement gaps between students from different regions changed over this period or not. Within Group Analyses First, an independent sample t test was applied to investigate the changes in students achievement in each region between PISA 2003 and PISA 2009, as indicated at Table 2. The findings showed that while students achievements in Marmara Region had significantly increased only in reading, students achievements in the other six regions had increased in at least two subjects from 2003 to According to Cohen-d effect size, the magnitudes of increase are small in all regions but Eastern Anatolia. Students achievements in all three subjects have significantly increased with medium effect size from 2003 to 2009 in Eastern Anatolia region. Table 2. Mean of Students Achievement Scores among Regions Regions Subjects PISA 2003 PISA 2009 T-test d-effect Size Marmara Aegean Mediterranean Central Anatolia Black Sea Eastern Anatolia Southeastern Anatolia Math Reading * Science Math * Reading Science * Math * Reading * Science * Math * Reading * Science * Math * Reading * Science * Math * Reading * Science * Math Reading * Science * *p< Small effect size (d~0.2), 2 Medium effect size (d~0.5), 3 Large effect size (d>0.8) Between Group Analyses Math Achievement. A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to evaluate the relationship between students math achievement and their regions in 2003 and The results of analyses showed that there was a significant relationship between students performance in PISA and their regions of residence in both 2003 and 2009 (F (6, 4848) = 64.75, p< and F (6, 4989) = 39.88, p<0.0001, respectively). -54-

60 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 50-66, 30 December, 2012 The strength of the relationship between math achievement and region, as assessed by ƞ², is medium, accounting for 7% and 4% of the variance of math achievement in 2003 and 2009, respectively. This indicates that the impact of region on math achievement diminished from 2003 to 2009 in Turkey. More detailed analysis is given below to comprehend the difference of variance over time between regions. Table 3 shows independent t test results, which illustrate the achievement gaps in math between different regions in both PISA 2003 (lower triangle) and PISA 2009 (upper triangle), whereas Table 4 indicates the magnitude (d-effect size) of the students math achievement gaps in these assessments Table 3. T-test for Students Math Achievement Gaps between Different Regions 2009 Ma. Ae. Me. C. A. B. S. E. A. S. A. Marmara (Ma.) 2.92* 3.32* 3.43 * * * Aegean (Ae.) * * Mediterranean (Me.) * * * -6.41* * Central Anatolia (C.A.) * -2.14* -6.54* * Black Sea (B.S.) * * * -4.50* * Eastern Anatolia (E.A.) * * * * * -4.93* Southeastern Anatolia (S.A) * p< * * * * * 2.67 * There are 21 pairs of comparison for mean differences in students math achievement between regions. Mean differences between four pairs of comparisons [(Ma., Ae.), (C.A., Ma.), (C.A., Ae.), (B.S., Me.)] were not significant in PISA 2003, while five of them [(Ma., B.S.), (Ae., Me.), (Ae., C.A.), (Ae., B.S), (Me., C.A.)] were not significant in PISA According to these results, the earlier interpretation is confirmed, and it seems that regional differences in student achievement have decreased, but have not completely been eliminated. Additionally, the students math achievements in Eastern Anatolia and in Southeastern Anatolia, the two lowest performing regions, were statistically lower than all other regions not only in PISA 2003 but also in PISA Although Eastern Anatolia increased its performance in math with a medium effect size, it was not enough to close the achievement gaps between any region, but Southeastern Anatolia. The Eastern Anatolia region, in fact, has closed its achievement gap in Math with the Southeastern Anatolia region and even significantly outperformed it in

61 Achievement Gaps Between Different School Types Sedat Gumus & Erkan Hasan Atalmis 2003 Table 4. Magnitudes of Regional Differences in Math Achievement 2009 Ma. Ae. Me. C. A. B. S. E. A. S. A. Marmara (Ma.) Aegean (Ae.) Mediterranean (Me.) Central Anatolia (C.A.) Black Sea (B.S.) Eastern Anatolia(E.A.) Southeastern Anatolia (S.A) 1 Small effect size, 2 Medium effect size, 3 Large effect size The differences in students math achievement had small effect size among seven pairs of comparisons, had medium effect size among seven pairs of comparisons, and had large effect size among three pairs of comparisons in PISA In PISA 2009, twelve pairs of comparisons had small effect size, five of them had medium effect size, and no pairs of comparisons had large effect size. As seen, the magnitudes of the mean differences between regions also decreased from 2003 to This was mostly caused by the significant increase in the performance of the Eastern Anatolia region. The magnitudes of mean differences in students math achievement between Eastern Anatolia and each of the other individual regions decreased significantly (from medium or large to small) from 2003 to Reading Achievement. A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to evaluate the relationship between students reading achievement and their regions in 2003 and The relationship between students performance in PISA and their regions of residence was significant in both 2003 and 2009 (F (6, 4848) = 89.8, p< and F (6, 4989) = 35.24), p<0.0001, respectively). In addition, ƞ² was calculated to find the strength of the relationship between reading achievement and region. The results show that regions accounted for 10% and 4% of the variance of reading achievement in 2003 and 2009 respectively. It can be interpreted that the impact of region on students achievement in reading also significantly decreased from 2003 to 2009, similar to the math achievement. Table 5 presents students achievement gaps in reading between different regions in PISA 2003 (lower triangle) and PISA 2009 (upper triangle), while Table 6 shows the magnitude (d-effect size) of these achievement gaps. -56-

62 2003 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 50-66, 30 December, 2012 Table 5. T-test for Students Reading Achievement from Different Regions 2009 Ma. Ae. Me. C. A. B. S. E. A. S. A. Marmara (Ma) * * * Aegean (Ae.) * * * * Mediterranean (Me) * * 2.57 * * * Central Anatolia (C.A.) * * * Black Sea (B.S.) * * * * * Eastern Anatolia (E.A.) * * * * * * Southeastern Anatolia (S.A) * p< * * * * * 3.09 * Mean differences in students reading achievements among three pairs of comparisons [(C.A., Ma.), (C.A., Ae.), (B.S., Me.)] were not significant in PISA 2003, while seven of them [(Ma., B.S.), (Ma., Me.), (Ma., BS.), (Ae., Me.), (Ae., B.S.), (Me., B.S.), (C.A., B.S.)] were not significant in PISA As seen, the effect of region on students reading achievement also decreased. Similar to the results of the students math achievements, their reading achievements in Eastern Anatolia and in Southeastern Anatolia were significantly lower than the other individual regions in not only PISA 2003 but also in PISA Table 6. Magnitude of Regional Differences in Reading Achievement 2009 Ma. Ae. Me. C. A. B. S. E. A. S.A Marmara (Ma.) Aegean (Ae.) Mediterranean (Me.) Central Anatolia (C.A.) Black Sea (B.S.) Eastern Anatolia (E.A.) Southeastern Anatolia (S.A) 1 small effect size, 2 medium effect size, 3 large effect size Table 6 shows the magnitudes of mean differences in reading between regions over time. Mean differences in students reading achievement among eight pairs of comparisons had small effect size, three pairs of comparisons had medium effect size, and seven pairs of comparisons had large effect size in PISA In PISA 2009, five pairs of comparisons had small effect size and ten of them had medium effect size, while no pair had large effect size. Similar to the findings related to math achievement, the magnitudes of mean differences in students reading achievement between regions significantly diminished. Specifically, students reading achievement between Eastern Anatolia and -57-

63 Achievement Gaps Between Different School Types Sedat Gumus & Erkan Hasan Atalmis each of the other individual regions decreased significantly (from large to medium) from 2003 to 2009, and Eastern Anatolia started to outperform Southeastern Anatolia in Science Achievement. A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to evaluate the relationship between students science achievement and their region in 2003 and The relationship between students science achievement and their regions of residence was significant in both 2003 and 2009, (F (6, 4848) = 66.34, p< and F (6, 4989) = 37.74), p<0.0001, respectively). The strength of the relationship between science achievement and regions is assessed by ƞ². Results indicated that regions accounted for 7% and 4% of the variance of science achievement in 2003 and 2009, respectively. Again, it seems that the effect of region on students achievement in science decreased from 2003 to Table 7 presents achievement gaps between students from different regions in PISA 2003 (lower triangle) and PISA 2009 (upper triangle), while Table 8 shows the magnitude (d-effect size) of the students science achievement gaps in PISA 2003 (lower triangle) and PISA 2009 (upper triangle) Table 7. T-test for Students Science Achievement from Different Regions 2009 Ma. Ae. Me. C. A. B. S. E. A. S. A. Marmara (Ma.) * * * Aegean (Ae.) * * * Mediterranean (Me.) * * 2.81 * * * Central Anatolia (C.A.) * * * * Black Sea (B.S.) * * * * * Eastern Anatolia (E.A.) * * * * * * Southeastern Anatolia (S.A) * p< * * * * * 2.29 * The mean differences in students science achievement (Table 7) are very similar to the ones in their math achievement (Table 5). The mean difference in students science achievement among four pairs of comparisons [(Ae., Ma.), (C.A., Ma.), (C.A., Ae.), (B.S, Me.)] were not significant in PISA 2003, while six of them [(Ma., Ae.), (Ma., Me.), (Ma., BS.), (Ae., Me. ), (Ae., B.S.), (Me., B.S.)] were not significant in PISA Additionally, similar to students math and reading achievements, their science achievement in Eastern Anatolia and in Southeastern Anatolia was statistically lower than all other regions in both PISA 2003 and PISA

64 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 50-66, 30 December, 2012 Table 8. Magnitude of Regional Differences in Science Achievement Ma. Ae. Me. C. A. B. S. E. A. S. A. Marmara (Ma.) Aegean (Ae.) Mediterranean (Me.) Central Anatolia (C.A.) Black Sea (B.S.) Eastern Anatolia (E.A.) Southeastern Anatolia (S.A) 1 small effect size, 2 medium effect size, 3 large effect size Table 8 illustrates the effect size of mean differences in students science achievement between regions. While mean differences in students science achievement among seven pairs of comparisons had small effect size, six pairs of comparisons had medium effect size, and three pairs of comparisons had large effect size in PISA In PISA 2009, seven pairs of comparisons had small effect size, seven of them had medium effect size, and one had large effect size. The magnitude of mean differences in students science achievement between Eastern Anatolia and other individual regions also decreased (from large to medium or medium to small) from 2003 to This result is also similar to those regarding to students math and reading achievements. Achievement Gaps among Students from Different Types of Schools over Time This section examines whether the achievement gaps among students from different types of schools has changed over time in Turkey. There are eight types of Turkish schools in PISA data. While only one is a junior high school, the others are different types of high schools. We began with analyzing how students achievements from the same type of school have changed over time. Within Group Analyses An independent sample t test was applied to investigate the achievements of students from different types of schools in PISA 2003 and PISA 2009, as indicated at Table 9. The findings showed that while students achievement in junior high school and Anatolian Vocational high school significantly increased in only one subject (math), students performances from General high schools, Anatolian high schools, Anatolian technical high schools, and Vocational high schools increased at least in two subjects. However, performances from students in Science high schools significantly decreased in all three subjects, while performances from students in Technical high schools decreased in two subjects and performances from students in Anatolian vocational high schools decreased in one subject. -59-

65 Achievement Gaps Between Different School Types Sedat Gumus & Erkan Hasan Atalmis Table 9. Changes in Students Achievement in Different Types of Schools Type of School Subject PISA-2003 PISA-2009 T-test d-effect Size Junior High School General High School Anatolian High School Science High School Vocational High School Anatolian Vocational High School Technical High School Anatolian Technical High School Math * Reading Science Math * Reading * Science * Math * Reading * Science Math * Reading * Science * Math * Reading * Science * Math * Reading Science Math Reading * Science * Math * Reading Science * *p< Small effect size, 2 Medium effect size, 3 Large effect size Between Group Analyses Math Achievement. A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to evaluate the relationship between students math achievement and the type of school that they attended in 2003 and The relationship between math scores and type of school was significant in both 2003 and 2009 (F (7, 4223) = , p< and F (7, 4688) = ), p<0.0001, respectively). The strength of the relationship between math achievement and type of school, assessed by ƞ², is large, with type of schools accounting for 34% and 53% of the variance of math achievement in 2003 and 2009 respectively. The effect of the type of school that students attend on their achievement has significantly increased in Turkey. More detailed analysis is given below to comprehend the difference of variance for math achievement over time among different types of schools. Table 10 shows independent t test results to investigate the achievement gaps in math between students from different types of schools in PISA 2003 (lower triangle) and PISA 2009 (upper triangle), whereas Table 11 indicates the magnitudes (d-effect size) of these gaps. -60-

66 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 50-66, 30 December, 2012 Table 10. T-test for High Schools (HS) Differences in Math Scores Junior HS (1) 20.34* 42.68* * * 19.31* 14.48* * General HS (2) * * * * 2.44* 3.90* 5.58 * Anatolian HS (3) * * 7.39 * * * * * Science HS (4) * * * * * * * Vocational HS (5) 7.38 * * * * 13.8* 8.78* * Anatolian Vocational HS (6) 18.7 * * * * * 2.73* 3.51 * Technical HS (7) * 8.75 * * * * Anatolian Technical HS (8) * p< * * * * * There are 28 pairs of comparison for type of school differences in students math achievement. The mean differences among three pairs of comparisons [(6, 7), (6, 8), (7, 8)] were not significantly different in PISA 2003, while only one of them [(7, 8)] was not significantly different in PISA Thus, it seems that the achievement gaps between different types of schools in Turkey have not decreased and even became larger in 2009 compared to Table 11. Magnitude of High Schools (HS) Differences in Math Scores Junior HS (1) General HS (2) Anatolian HS (3) Science HS (4) Vocational HS (5) Anatolian Vocational HS (6) Technical HS (7) Anatolian Technical HS (8) 1 small effect size, 2 medium effect size, 3 large effect size Table 11 shows the magnitude of mean difference in math scores between different types of schools over time. While the mean difference in students math achievement among four pairs of comparisons had medium effect size [(5, 1), (5, 2), (8, 2)], all other comparisons had large effect size in PISA For PISA 2009, two pairs of comparisons had small effect size [(6, 7), (6, 8)], three of them had medium effect size [(2, 5), (2, 7), (2, 8)], and all others had large effect size. -61-

67 Achievement Gaps Between Different School Types Sedat Gumus & Erkan Hasan Atalmis Reading Achievement. A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to evaluate the relationship between students reading achievement and type of school that they attended in 2003 and The relationship between reading scores and type of school was significant in both 2003 and 2009 (F (7, 4223) = , p< and F (7, 4688) = ), p<0.0001, respectively). The strength of the relationship between reading achievement and type of schools, assessed by ƞ², is large, accounting for 30% and 41% of the variance of reading achievement in 2003 and 2009 respectively. The effect of the type of school students attend on their reading achievement increased from 2003 to 2009, similar to results regarding math achievement. Table 12 shows independent t test results to investigate students reading achievement gaps between different types of schools in PISA 2003 (lower triangle) and PISA 2009 (upper triangle), whereas Table 13 indicates the magnitude (d-effect size) of the students reading achievement gap between different types of schools in PISA 2003 (lower triangle) and PISA 2009 (upper triangle) Table 12. T-test for High Schools (HS) Differences in Reading Scores Junior HS (1) 24.96* 39.08* * * 25.47* 11.09* * General HS (2) * * * * 6.08* -2.98* 0.60 Anatolian HS (3) * * 2.92 * * * * * Science HS (4) * * * * * * * Vocational HS (5) 9.55 * * * 17.8* 1.85 * 8.09 * Anatolian Vocational HS (6) * * * * * -5.20* * Technical HS (7) * 6.48 * * * * * 2.89 * Anatolian Technical HS (8) * p< * 8.29 * * * * * The mean differences between only one pair of comparisons was not significantly different in both PISA 2003 and PISA 2009 [(7, 8) and (2, 8), respectively)]. Table 13 shows the magnitude of mean differences in reading scores among the different types of schools over time. While the mean differences in students reading achievement among two pairs of comparisons had small effect size and three of them had medium effect size, all other comparisons had large effect size but (7, 8) in PISA For PISA 2009, three pairs of comparisons had small effect size, five of them had medium effect size, and all others had large effect size, but (2, 8). -62-

68 2003 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 50-66, 30 December, 2012 Table 13. Magnitude of High Schools (HS) Differences in Reading Scores Junior HS (1) General HS (2) Anatolian HS (3) Science HS (4) Vocational HS (5) Anatolian Vocational HS (6) Technical HS (7) Anatolian Technical HS (8) 1 small effect size; 2 medium effect size; 3 large effect size Science Achievement. A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to evaluate the relationship between students science achievement and type of school in 2003 and There was a significant relationship between science scores and type of school in 2003 and 2009 (F (7, 4223) = , p< and F (7, 4688) = ), p<0.0001, respectively). The strength of the relationship between science achievement and type of school, assessed by ƞ², is large, with type of school accounting for 35% and 46% of the variance of science achievement in 2003 and 2009 respectively. More detailed analysis is given below to understand the difference of variance for science achievement over time among types of schools. Table 14 shows independent t test results to investigate students science achievement gap from different types of schools between PISA 2003 (lower triangle) and PISA 2009 (upper triangle), whereas Table 15 indicates the magnitude (d-effect size) of the students science achievement gap between PISA 2003 (lower triangle) and PISA 2009 (upper triangle) Table 14. T-test for High Schools (HS) Differences in Science Scores Junior HS (1) 22.99* 41.42* * * 23.41* 12.09* * General HS (2) * * * 5.51* * Anatolian HS (3) * * 5.07 * * * * * Science HS (4) * * * * * * * Vocational HS (5) 7.06 * * * * 15.01* 3.59 * * Anatolian Vocational HS (6) 8.95 * * * * * -2.70* 0.64 Technical HS (7) 4.77 * 7.33 * * * * * Anatolian Technical HS (8) * p< * 8.59 * * * * *

69 Achievement Gaps Between Different School Types Sedat Gumus & Erkan Hasan Atalmis Mean differences among three pairs of comparisons [(6, 7), (6, 8)] were not significant in PISA 2003, while only one of them (6, 8) was not significant in PISA Table 15 shows the magnitudes of mean differences in students science achievement between different types of schools over time. The mean differences in students science achievement among three pairs of comparisons [(6, 7), (6, 8), (7, 8)] were not significant, five of them had medium effect size, and all others had large effect size in PISA For PISA 2009, only one pair of comparisons (6, 8) was not significant, four of them had small effect size [(2, 6), (2, 8), (6, 7), (7, 8)]; three of them had medium effect size [(2, 5), (3, 4), (5, 7)], and all other comparisons had large effect size Table 15. Magnitude of High Schools (HS) Differences in Science Scores Junior HS (1) General HS (2) Anatolian HS (3) Science HS (4) Vocational HS (5) Anatolian Vocational HS (6) Technical HS (7) Anatolian Technical HS (8) 1 small effect size; 2 medium effect size; 3 large effect size Conclusions It is verified by extant research that the quality of education people receive has prominent impacts on their own economic well being as well as on their country s economic growth. Thus, both researchers and policy makers have started to pay special attention to students achievement in their countries. In addition, the importance of closing the achievement gaps between different student groups is well-recognized. In this context, this study investigates the changes in Turkish students achievement on PISA assessments between 2003 and Specific attention was also paid to the achievement gaps between students who reside in different regions and who attend different types of schools. Changes in these achievement gaps from 2003 to 2009 were also investigated. In general, Turkish students performances in all three subjects Math, Science, and Reading, were significantly increased in PISA 2009 compared to PISA 2003, but the magnitudes of these increases were small. This result suggests that although there are some positive signs of improvement, there is a need for more effort to increase students achievement in Turkey since Turkey is still among the lowest performing countries in international student assessments. According to the results of the further statistical analyses, the regional differences regarding students achievement in all three subjects have started to diminish in Turkey. Interestingly, students from the Eastern Anatolia region, which was the lowest performing region in PISA 2003, show the highest increase in their performances. The Eastern Anatolia region not only outperformed the Southeastern Anatolia region, but also started to decrease -64-

70 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 50-66, 30 December, 2012 the magnitudes of the achievement gaps with the western regions of Turkey in PISA Although there are small increases in their performances, students from the Southeastern Anatolia region could not show enough improvement to close the extensive achievement gaps that they have had with the other regions of Turkey. Beyond this, the results of the analyses related to achievement gaps between students from different types of schools are not encouraging at all. There is not enough evidence to suggest that the achievement gaps between different types of schools are going to diminish in the near future. Interestingly, however, students achievement in Science high schools, which had the highest average scores in all three subjects, significantly decreased with large effect sizes in PISA This result can be explained by the increase in the numbers of Science high schools in Turkey during the last decade. Many new Science high schools were opened, especially in less developed parts of Turkey. Thus, it is reasonable to see these decreases in their average score. In sum, it can be concluded that Turkey has been making strides in increasing students achievement during the last several years. However, significant achievement gaps between different student groups, specifically between regions and different types of schools, still exist. Although there are some positive signs regarding closing the achievement gaps between different regions, the situation in terms of the achievement gaps between different types of schools does not seem very promising. In this context, it is important for policy makers to take necessary actions to provide quality education to all students regardless of their region of residence and types of school that they attend. Specifically, there is a need for special attention to be paid to the quality of education at the lowest performing high schools, such as general high schools and vocational high schools, in order to increase Turkish students average achievement. In addition, the situation in the Southeastern Anatolia region should be more closely investigated and necessary supports should be provided to increase student achievement in this region. References Aksit, N. (2007). Educational reform in Turkey. International Journal of Educational Development, 27(2), Alacaci, C., & Erbas, A. K. (2010). Unpacking the inequality among Turkish schools: Findings from PISA International Journal of Educational Development, 30(2), Anıl, D. (2009). Uluslararası Öğrenci Başarılarını Değerlendirme Programı (PISA) nda Türkiye deki Öğrencilerin Fen Bilimleri Başarılarını Etkileyen Faktörler. Eğitim ve Bilim, 34(152), Barro, R. J. (2001). Education and economic growth. In J. Helliwell (Ed.), The contribution of human and social capital to sustained economic growth and well-being (pp ). Quebec: OECD/Human Resources Development Canada. Barro, R. J., & Lee, J. W. (2000). International data on educational attainment updates and implications: National Bureau of Economic Research Cambridge, Mass., USA. Becker, G. S. (1993). Human capital: The University of Chicago Press Chicago, IL. Berberoğlu, G., & Kalender, İ. (2005). Öğrenci başarısının yıllara, okul türlerine, bölgelere göre incelenmesi: ÖSS ve PISA analizi. Eğitim Bilimleri ve Uygulama, 4(7), Celen, F. K., Celik, A., & Seferoglu, S. S. (2011, 2 4 February). Türk Eğitim Sistemi ve PISA Sonuçları. Paper presented at the Akademik Bilişim, Inonu University, Malatya. Chudgar, A., & Luschei, T. F. (2009). National income, income inequality, and the importance of schools: A hierarchical cross-national comparison. American Educational Research Journal, 46(3),

71 Achievement Gaps Between Different School Types Sedat Gumus & Erkan Hasan Atalmis Demir, I., Depren, O., & Kilic, S. (2010). Measuring the Efficiency of Secondary Schools in Different Regions in Turkey Using Data Envelopment Analysis. The International Journal of Research in Teacher Education, 1(1), Dinçer, M., & Kolaşin, G. (2009). Türkiye de Öğrenci Başarısında Eşitsizliğin Belirleyicileri. Istanbul: Eğitim Reformu Girişimi. Erberber, E. (2009). Analyzing Turkey's data from TIMSS 2007 to investigate regional disparities in eighth grade science achievement. Unpublished Doctorate Dissertation, Boston College. Gelbal, S. (2008). Sekizinci Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Sosyoekonomik Özelliklerinin Türkçe Başarısı Üzerinde Etkisi. Egitim ve Bilim, 33(150), Gür, B. S., Celik, Z., & Özoğlu, M. (2012). Policy options for Turkey: a critique of the interpretation and utilization of PISA results in Turkey. Journal of Education Policy, 27(1), Hanushek, E. A., & Kimko, D. D. (2000). Schooling, labor-force quality, and the growth of nations. American Economic Review, 90(5), Hanushek, E. A., & Woessmann, L. (2008). The role of cognitive skills in economic development. Journal of Economic Literature, 46(3), Hanushek, E. A., & Woessmann, L. (2010). The economics of international differences in educational achievement: National Bureau of Economic Research Cambridge, Mass., USA. Karip, E., & Apaydin, C. (2007). İlköğretimde Erişim ve Eşitlik. Paper presented at the 1. Ulusal ilkogretim Kongresi, Ankara. Lee, W. O. (2002). Equity and access to education: Themes, tensions, and policies. Manila, Philippines: Asian Development Bank. Mohammmadi, H., Akkoyunlu, P., & Seker, M. (2011). School Resources, Family Characteristics and Student Performance: Evidence from Secondary School Entrance Exam in Turkey. Education and Sience, 36(159), MoNE. (2010). National Education Statistics. Retrieved from Sarier, Y. (2010). Ortaöğretime Giriş Sınavları (OKS-SBS) ve PISA Sonuçları Işığında Eğitimde Fırsat Eşitliğinin Değerlendirilmesi. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 11(3), Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), Tomul, E. (2007). The change in educational inequality in Turkey: A comparison by regions. Educational Planning, 16(3), Tyler, J. H., Murnane, R., & Willett, J. B. (1999). Do the cognitive skills of school dropouts matter in the labor market? : National Bureau of Economic Research Cambridge, Mass., USA. UNESCO. (2010). Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2010: Reaching the Marginalized. Paris: UNESCO. Yalcin, M., Aslan, S., & Usta, E. (2012). Analysis of PISA 2009 Exam according to some variables. Mevlana Intenational Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(1),

72 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 2(2), pp , 30 December, 2012 Available online at The Examination of Pre-school Teacher Candidates Academic Locus of Control Levels According to Gender and Grade Hakan Sarıçam * Kilis 7 Aralık University, Muallim Rıfat Education Faculty, Kilis, Turkey, Ayşe Duran Kilis 7 Aralık University, Muallim Rıfat Education Faculty, Department of Pre-School Teacher, Kilis, Turkey, Mehmet Çardak Phd, Sakarya University, Faculty of Education, Sakarya, Turkey Medera HALMATOV Phd, Agri Ibrahim Cecen University, Faculty of Education, Department of Pre-School Teacher Agri, Turkey Article history The aim of this study is to examine the level of academic locus of control of the students who study pre-school education program. The sample of study is Received: 329 students selected randomly in Faculty of Education from a mid-sized state University. In the study, Personal Information Form and Academic Locus of Received in revised form: Control Scale prepared by researchers were used. Academic Locus of Control Scale includes two sub-dimensions; internal locus of control and external locus of control. Independent samples t test was used to show differences Accepted: between variables and sub-dimensions. According to findings, there is a significant difference between scores of internal and external locus of control Key words: of females and scores of internal and external locus of control of males. Academic locus of control, Whereas the average score of external locus of control of female is lower than achievement, pre-school teacher male, point average of internal locus of control of female is high. There is a significant difference between scores of internal and external locus of control of 1 st grade students and scores of internal and external locus of control of 4 st grade students. According to results, females find themselves in origin of success and males attribute the success to other causes. In conclusion, before teaching their students to find the origin of success in themselves, candidates of preschool teacher should learn that they are the origin of success. Introduction Pre-school years, including important years in our lives, are the foundation of personality and self- confidence (Oktay, 2005). In this period, parents attitudes and important others behaviors to children are critical in terms of development of children. During this time, after parents, teachers have important effects on development of children. Especially in this period, students take teachers as example by characteristics, behaviors and attitudes (Zembat, 2005). Henderson (2001) characterized noble teachers as a person who is internal locus of controlled, having roles in social activities, having respect and sense of responsibility. The main purpose in education of teachers is to guide internal locus of controlled teachers. If teachers have internal locus of control, they show and teach these to their students (Bozkurt, Serin & Emran, 2004; Garcia, 2005). For instance, teachers who have the internal locus of control, they increase the creativity of children during their works and support them in terms of different activities (Walden & Ramsey, 1983). Internal locus of control is very essential structure for sense of responsibility. Especially, preschool teachers must * Correspondence: Kilis 7 Aralık University, Muallim Rıfat Education Faculty, Kilis, Turkey, [email protected]

73 The Examination of Pre-school Teacher Candidates H. Sarıçam, A. Duran, M. Çardak & M. Halmatov have internal locus of control because their children are in critical period for origin of responsibility and to obtain internal locus of control (Sarıçam & Duran, 2012). The means of locus of control is a belief system regarding causes of person s experiences and factors affecting success or failure (Barzegar, 2011). Feldman, Saletsky, Sullivan, and Theiss, (1983) said that locus of control shows person the extent of his/her in terms of controlling what happens. Locus of control is seen as a predictor of many behaviors (Dilmaç, Hamarta & Arslan, 2009; Tella, Tella & Adeniyi, 2009; Atik, 2006; Chubb, Fertman, & Ross, 1997; Jorgenson, 1981; Lefcourt, 1976). In addition, the predictor of academic and social behaviors is locus of control (Deniz, Traş & Aydoğan, 2009; Tella & Adika, 2008; Park & Kim, 1998; Walden & Ramsey, 1983). Bostic (2010) defined locus of control as effects on life events. Locus of control theory comes from the social learning theory of Rotter and that is personality is the result of interaction of individual and environment (Yates, 2009). In addition, the foundation of locus of control is expectancy- value theory describing human behaviors with perceiving likelihood of an event and the value placed on this event (Yates, 2009; Dağ, 2002). According to Rotter (1966), locus of control includes two parts: internal locus of control and external locus of control. Person who has internal locus of control believes that his/her success /failure are reason of his/her efforts and abilities. If she/he has external locus of control, s/he thinks that her/his success or failure is because of fake or luck (Sarıçam & Duran, 2012). Yeşilyaprak (1990) said that students having internal locus of control would be successful at distance learning because this type of learning situations requires independence from learner. The type of locus of control has effects on reason of concerning a specific event of a person. When people are successful, they have internal locus of control and when they are failure, they have external locus of control (Daum & Wiebe, 2003). Academic locus of control is the same structure like locus of control (Sarıçam & Duran, 2012) and it shows the control of beliefs in terms of achievement and academic contexts (Daum & Wiebe, 2003; Auer, 1993; Trice, 1985). Persons prefer to be internal academic locus of control at the situations of being successful and prefer to be external academic locus of control during being failure (Sarıçam & Duran, 2012). There is a relationship between academic achievement and locus of control (Uguak, Habibah, Jegak, & Turiman, 2007). Students who have high internal control score showed better performance than students who have high external control score (Gordon, 1977; Brown, Fulkerson, Furr, Ware & Voight, 1984). Daum and Wiebe (2003) found that students in their first year in university have a high score in external academic locus of control regardless of their success or failure in their midterm-exams results. Crandall & Katkovsky (1965) and Tella, Tella & Adeniyi (2009) found that there is a significant correlation between locus of control and academic achievement. Another research showed that high-achieving students have high score in internal locus of control than low achieving students (Shepherd, Owen, Fitch & Marshall, 2006; Yates, 2009). According to the study of Bostic (2010), there is a significant difference in academic achievement of students who have internal locus of control between students who have external locus of control. This research showed that students having internal locus of control are more successful than students having external locus of control are and this difference changed when gender is considered; the score of female is higher than male in terms of locus of control. Another study showed that students who have higher locus of control have high score on standardized test (Sterbin & Rakow, 1996; Yates, 2009). The relationship between locus of control and gender was studied and according the results women having external locus of control have less involvement in career planning and lower expectations than women having internal locus of control ( Marecek & Frasch, 1977; Bostic, 2010). However, Yates (2009) found that there is a significant relationship between gender and academic -68-

74 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 67-74, 30 December, 2012 achievement but there is no effect of gender on locus of control. In addition to this, Sterbin and Rakow (1996) cite a few studies that found no relationship between the locus of control and success. Early childhood is the most important part of the childrens' life. People, who together with children, attitudes and personality are very important at this period. In early childhood progress, teachers are one of the most important person together with parents. That is why preschool teachers attitudes and characters are very important. According to Çinko (2009) academic locus of control is effective on teachers attitudes. The basic aim of this study is to examine pre-school teacher candidates internal and external academic locus of control levels according to gender and grade. Sub-aims: 1. Are there any statistical differences between male and female preschool teacher candidates internal and external academic locus of control levels? 2. Are there any statistical differences between 1 st grade and 4 th grade preschool teacher candidates internal and external academic locus of control levels? Method Participants The general research model was adopted for this study. Although independent variables are gender and grade, dependent variable is academic locus of control. Participants were 329 university students at pre-school education program 224 (68%) were female, 105 (32%) were male and 168 (51%) were 1 st grade, 161 (49%) were 4 th grade who were enrolled in Sakarya University Faculty of Education and Kilis 7 Aralık University Muallim Rıfat Education Faculty, in Turkey. Their ages ranged from 18 to 31 years and the mean age of the participants was 22.9 years. Participants took part in the study on a voluntary basis. Measures Academic Locus of Control Scale: Academic Locus of Control Scale was developed by Akın (2007), it consists of two subscales (academic external locus of control and academic internal locus of control) account for the 71.7 % of the total variance. This instrument is a 5 point Likert type scale consisting of 17-items providing separate scores for Internal Academic Locus of Control and External Academic Locus of Control (score range = 6-30 for internal academic locus of control and for external academic locus of control sub-scales). In the concurrent validity, significant relationships were found between The Academic Locus of Control Scale, which was developed in this study, and Locus of Control Scale (Dağ, 2002). The internal consistency reliability coefficients were.94 for internal academic locus of control and.95 for external academic locus of control. Findings also demonstrated that item-total correlations ranged from.57 to.92. Test-retest reliability coefficients were.97 and.93 for two subscales, respectively. The item-total correlations ranged from.57 to.92. Procedure Permission for participation of students was obtained from related chief departments and students voluntarily participated in research. Completion of the scales was anonymous and there was a guarantee of confidentiality. The scales were administered to the students in groups in the classrooms. The measures were counterbalanced in administration. Prior to administration of scales, -69-

75 The Examination of Pre-school Teacher Candidates H. Sarıçam, A. Duran, M. Çardak & M. Halmatov all participants were told about purposes of the study. In this study, Independent samples t-test was used for examination differentiate between variables. These analyses were carried out SPSS 17. Results The results of analysis are presented in tables 1 (Independent samples t-test results about Academic Locus of Control s Scores According to Gender) and tables 2 (Independent samples t-test results about Academic Locus of Control s Scores According to Grade) in below. Table 1. Independent samples t-test results about Academic Locus of Control s Scores According to Gender Sub Dimension Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Academic External Locus Of Control Female ,30 5,90,46 Male ,47 9,44 1,49 Academic Internal Locus Of Control Female ,62 3,84,30 Male ,55 3,13,49 t p -5, ,16.00 As shown in Table 1, academic external locus of control mean scores of male (30.47) students were higher than those of female students (24.30), (t= 5.20) with a significance level of.05. Internal locus of control mean scores of female students (24.62) were higher than those of male students (22.55), (t= 2.16) with a significance level of.05. Table 2. Independent samples t-test results about Academic Locus of Control s Scores According to Grade Sub Dimension Grade N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Academic External Locus Of Control ,11 9,32, ,17 5,80,48 Academic Internal Locus Of Control ,82 3,48, ,64 3,71,30 t p 6, ,03.00 As shown in Table 2, Academic External Locus of Control mean scores of 1. grade students (30.11) were higher than those of 4. grade students (24.17), (t= 6.31) with a significance level of.05. Internal Locus of Control mean scores of 4. grade students (24,64) were higher than those of 1. grade students (22.82), (t= 4.03) with a significance level of.05. Discussion and Recommendations According to first finding of this study, there are relationship between gender, academic external locus of control and internal locus of control. In other words, academic external locus of control of male students higher than female students and according to the score of academic internal locus of control, the scores of female students is higher than the scores of male students. This situation may be due to several reasons. Firstly, pre-school education programs at university are -70-

76 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 67-74, 30 December, 2012 generally preferred by females (Kızıltaş, Halmatov & Sarıçam, 2012) and there are very few male students and this situation may cause male students feel alone. They need others (friends, teachers) in order to study lesson and make presentations and so they may have academic external locus of control. Secondly, there are stereotypes about male pre-school teachers in Turkey. For example, pre-school teacher is suitable for women, not men. That's why, male university students are afraid of being preschool teacher. For example, when they make preschool activities with small girl students, they hesitate about how they will do. Therefore, they may need others (co-worker, servant girl and etc.). Finally, despite many female students prefer pre-school education program willingly, male students prefer this program willingly and only to be a teacher easily (Girgin, Özyılmaz Akamca, Ellez & Oğuz, 2010; Kızıltaş, Halmatov & Sarıçam, 2012). However, they don t estimate difficulties of pre-school education program. Therefore, they do not overcome difficulties alone and they need others (classmates, teachers and etc.). Because of all these reasons, males may think that their successes are based on others. By means of these hypotheses, researchers can examine students academic locus of control levels at different departments and faculties in terms of gender. YOK and MEB may take some precautions by concerting. For example, courses of teaching practice can be increased (Girgin et al., 2010), so male students may like their vocation. If they like their vocation, they may have internal academic locus of control. Similar results are included in some studies, namely there are differences between the scores of internal-external locus of control in terms of gender (Tella & Adika, 2008), but external locus of control of female students higher than male students and according to the score of academic internal locus of control, the scores of male students is higher than the scores of female students (Maqsud & Rouhani, 1991; Wehmeyer, 1993; Salman, 2007). In contrast, there are no differences between males and females internalexternal locus of control (Özer & Altun, 2011; Serin & Derin, 2008) in some studies. For example, the study of Yates (2009), gender has effects on academic achievement but there is no relationship between gender and academic locus of control. Gülveren (2008) examined 12 th grade high school students locus of control levels when students were making career and future plan. No differences were found in the scores of internal-external locus of control with respect to gender. Findley and Cooper (1983), Landine and Stewart (1998), Deryakulu (2002), Daum and Wiebe (2003) found that academic locus of control and locus of control have effects on achievement and academic contexts. Results of this study contribute to the research of Knoop (1981), Daum & Wiebe (2003) and Deryakulu (2002) which is about relationship between grade level and academic locus of control. External academic locus of control of students who are in first grade is higher than external academic locus of control of students in fourth grade. Content of pre-school education program in Sakarya University and Kilis 7 Aralik University may be effective in improving internal academic locus of control and reducing external academic locus of control. Same studies can be made in different universities. References Akın, A. (2007). Akademik Kontrol Odağı Ölçeği: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Çukurova Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 34(3), Atik, G. (2006). The role of locus of control, self-esteem, parenting style, loneliness, and academic achievement in predicting bullying among middle school students. Unpublished Master Thesis. METU, Ankara. Auer, C. J. (1993). A comparison of locus-of-control of first-and second-grade students in whole language, basal reader, and eclectic instructional approach classrooms (Ed.D. dissertation, Northern Illinois University, 1992). Dissertation Abstracts International, 53 (11), 3856A. Barzegar, M. (2011). The relationship between learning style, locus of control and academic achievement in Iranian students, nd International Conference on Education and Management Technology IPEDR vol.13, IACSIT Press, Singapore. -71-

77 The Examination of Pre-school Teacher Candidates H. Sarıçam, A. Duran, M. Çardak & M. Halmatov Bostic, M.N. (2010). Locus of control and academic achievement among first-generation and second-generation college students. Master thesis of Arts, Tennessee Technological University. Bozkurt, N., Serin, O., & Emran, B. (2004). İlköğretim birinci kademe öğretmenlerinin problem çözme, iletişim becerileri ve denetim odağı düzeylerinin karşılaştırmalı olarak incelenmesi. XII. Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi Bildiriler, Cilt I1 Ankara: Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Brown, D., Fulkerson, K., Furr, S., Ware, W., & Voight, N. (1984). Locus of control, sex role orientation, and self-concept in black and white third and sixth grade male and female leaders in a rural community. Developmental Psychology, 20, Chubb, N. H., Fertman, C. I., & Ross, J. L. (1997). Adolescent self-esteem and locus of control: A longitudinal study of gender and age differences. Adolescence. 32(125), Crandall, V., & Katkovsky, W. (1965). Children s beliefs in their own control of reinforcements in intellectual-academic achievement situations. Child Development, 36, Çırakoğlu, O. C. (2006). Role of locus of control and critical thinking in handling dissatisfactions in romantic relationships of university students. Unpublished Master Thesis. METU, Ankara. Çinko, S. B. (2009). The Relationship between Locus of Control and Type of Teachers' Attitude for The Preschool Teacher. Master Thesis. Marmara University, Istanbul. Dağ, İ. (2002). Kontrol Odağı Ölçeği (KOÖ): Ölçek geliştirme, güvenirlik ve geçerlilik çalışması, Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 17(49), Daum, T.L., & Wiebe, G. (2003). Locus of control, personal meaning, and self-concept before and after an academic critical incident. Unpublished Master Thesis, USA: Trinity Western University. Deniz, M., Tras, Z., & Aydoğan, D. (2009). An investigation of academic procrastination, locus of control, and emotional intelligence. EducationalSciences: Theory & Practice, 9(2), Deryakulu, D. (2002). Denetim odağı ve epistemolojik inançların öğretim materyalini kavramayı denetleme türü ve düzeyi ile ilişkisi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 22, Dilmac, B., Hamarta, E., and Arslan, C. (2009). Analyzing the trait anxiety and locus of control of undergraduates in terms of attachment styles. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 9(1), Feldman, R., Saletsky, R., Sullivan, J., and Theiss, A. (1983). Student locus of control and response to expectations about self and teacher. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75(1), Findley, H.J., & Cooper, H. M. (1983). Locus of control and acedemic achievement: A literatüre Review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(2), Garcia, E. E. (2005). The effects of student perception of teacher communication, teacher encouragement, and locus of control on achievement, attendance, and behavior (Ph.D. dissertation, Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi, 2005). Dissertation Abstracts International, 66 (14), 1283A. Girgin, R. G., Özyılmaz Akamca, G., Ellez, A. M. & Oğuz, E. (2010). Okul öncesi öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumları, mesleki benlik saygıları ve mesleki yeterlik inançları. Buca Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 28, Gordon, D. (1977). Children s beliefs in internal-external control and self-esteem as related to academic achievement. Journal of Personality Assessment, 41(4), Gülveren, H. (2008). Investigation of the relation between internal-external locus of control, trait anger, anger expression styles and intelligence in the 12th grade high school students. Unpublished Master Thesis, Maltepe University, Istanbul. Henderson, J. G. (2001). Reflective teaching professional artistry through inquiry. New Jersey: MacMillan Publishing Company. -72-

78 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 67-74, 30 December, 2012 Jorgenson, D. O. (1981). Locus of control and perceived causal influence of the lunar cycle. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 52, 864. Keleş, P. (2009). Öğretmen adaylarının alan eğitimi ve bazı psikososyal değişkenlere göre denetim odağı eğilimleri ile öğrenme stilleri tercihleri. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Denizli. Kızıltaş, E., Halmatov, M., & Sarıçam, H. (2012). Okul öncesi öğretmenliği öğrencilerinin öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumları. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 12(23), Knoop, R. (1981). Age and correlates of locus of control. Journal of Psychology, 108, Landine, J., & Stewart, J. (1998). Relationship between metacognition, motivation, locus of control, self-efficacy, and academic achievement. Canadian Journal of Counseling, 32 (3), Lefcourt, H. (1966). Internal-external control of reinforcement: a review. Psychological Bulletin, 65, Maqsud, M., & Rouhani, S. (1991). Relationships Between Socioeconomic Status, Locus of Control, Self- Concept and Academic Achievement of Bastwana Adolescents, Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20(1), Marecek, J., & Frasch, C. (1977). Locus of control and college women's role expectations. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 24(2), Oktay, A. (2005). Okul öncesi eğitimin önemi ve yaygınlaştırılması. Okul öncesi eğitimde güncel konular (Yayıma Haz: Oktay, A; Unutkan, Ö.P.). Istanbul: Morpa Kiiltiir Yayınları. Özer, A., & Altun, E. (2011). Üniversite öğrencilerinin akademik erteleme nedenleri. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 21(1), Park, Y., & Kim, U. (1998). Locus of control, attributional style and academic achievement: comparative analysis of Korean, Korean-Chinese and Chinese Students. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 1, Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological monographs: general and applied, 80(1), Salman, S. (2007). The predictors of attitudes toward sexual harassment: locus of control, ambivalent sexism, and gender differences, Master Thesis, METU, Ankara. Sarıçam, H., & Duran, A. (2012). The Investigation of The Education Faculty Students' Academic Locus Of Control Levels June 15th Balkan International Conference, Bucreast, Romania. Serin, N.B., & Derin, R. (2008). İlköğretim öğrencilerinin kişilerarası problem çözme becerisi algıları ve denetim odağı düzeylerini etkileyen faktörler. International Journal of Human Sciences, 5(1), Shepherd, S., Owen, D., Fitch, T., & Marshall, J. (2006). Locus of control and academic achievement in high school students. Psychological Reports, 98, Sterbin, A. & Rakow, E. (1996). Self-esteem, locus of control, and student achievement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No: Ed ). Tella, A., Tella, A., & Adeniyi, O. (2009). Locus of control, interest in schooling, self-efficacy and academic achievement. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences 4, Tella, A., & Adıka, L.O. (2008). Self-efficacy and locus of control as predictors of academic achievement among secondary school students in Osun State Unity Schools. IFE PsychologIA 16(2), Trice, A. D. (1985). An academic locus of control scale for college students. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 61, Uguak, U.A., Habibah, Bt. E., Jegak, U., & Turiman, S. (2007). The Influence of Causal Elements of Locus of Control on Academic Achievement Satisfaction. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 34, 2, pp

79 The Examination of Pre-school Teacher Candidates H. Sarıçam, A. Duran, M. Çardak & M. Halmatov Yates, R. (2009). Locus of control and academic achievement: a study of gender and grade level differences among low-income African-American students in a middle school. Phd thesis, Southern Illinois State University. Yeşilyaprak, B. (1990). Gençlerde denetim odağı ve önkoşulları. V. Ulusal Psikoloji Kongresi. Izmir: Ege Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayınları. Walden, T., & Ramsey, C. (1983). Locus of control and academic achievement: Results from a preschool s intervention program. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, Wehmeyer, M.L. (1993). Gender differences in locus of control scores for students with learning disabilities, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 77, Zembat, R. (2005). Okul öncesi eğitimde nitelik. Okul öncesi eğitimde güncel konular (Yayıma Haz: Oktay, A; Unutkan, Ö.P.). İstanbul: Morpa Kultur Yayınları. -74-

80 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 2(2), pp , 30 December, 2012 Available online at Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Who helps an online facilitator to learn with students in a day? Key words: Active students, Awareness Learning, Coincidental Learning, facilitator, online resources Simon B Khoza * School of Education, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa This article draws on a case study of one facilitator with eight postgraduate students who uses online resources in teaching a Curriculum module at one of the universities in South Africa. The facilitator uses an online chat, discussion forum, blogs and Facebook to learn with his students in a form of blended learning. This article does not only give this facilitator and his students a voice but it also encourages them to reflect from their experiences in the teaching and learning of this module. The facilitator claimed to be using these online resources in promoting active students because his students had to learn with these online resources as opposed to learning from these online resources. A guided analysis theory was used as a framework for data production and this produced four themes for presenting the findings, while this article itself is framed by Entertainment Education theory. Online document analysis, observation and semi-structured interviews were used for data generation. This article prioritises the facilitator s claim that students should learn with resources. The article concludes that Coincidental Learning was utilised for this module. Therefore, the article is proposing the utilisation of Awareness Learning in the teaching and learning of this Curriculum module. Introduction Any person or thing that communicates learning becomes a teaching and learning resource. Online teaching and learning resources like off-line teaching and learning resources are divided into Technology in Education (TIE) and Technology of Education (TOE) (Percival & Ellington, 1988). TIE is any teaching / learning resource that one can see and touch. TOE is any teaching / learning resource that one cannot see and touch. TIE is further divided into hardware and software. Hardware is any machine or tool used in teaching and learning but in terms of online teaching and learning they are used to access the internet (e.g. desktop computers, laptops, cellular phone and others). Hardware is the same for both online and off-line contexts. Software is any material that is produced for the hardware to display information or communicate learning (e.g. for off-line transparencies for Overhead Projector or for online PowerPoint slides and others). This suggests that while the hardware component is the same for both the online and off-line teaching and learning, the software component is not directly the same. For example, one can see and touch the transparencies but one can only see the PowerPoint slides but cannot touch them unless one prints them. This means that almost all online software resources are different from the off-line version because one can see them but one can only touch them if they are reproduced as a hard copy. On the other hand almost all the off-line software components come in the form of hard copies. TOE, also known as ideological-ware of teaching and learning resources, are almost the same for * Correspondence: School of Education, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa 42 Meranti Street, Mobeni Heights, 4092 [email protected]

81 Who helps an online facilitator to learn Simon B Khoza both the online and off-line contexts (e.g. teaching / learning strategies, theories of teaching / learning, research findings, experiences and others). In both the online and off-line contexts, one cannot see and touch these TOE resources. Therefore, the next section will be opening a discourse around the four commonly used online teaching and learning resources. These online resources are discussed under TIE and TOE. Although both the TOE and TIE online teaching and learning resources are discussed, TIE is only discussed as a software component because almost all the commonly used online teaching and learning resources come from this software component. Even though the hardware components such as computers, digital cameras and the like are important in teaching and learning, this study goes beyond the hardware and concentrates on the software component of TIE and TOE (ideological-ware). Four popular online teaching and learning resources (tools) Online synchronous discussion (Online chat) is an online resource or tool used to conduct a real time discussion from different locations, the same location or from both of these conditions. According to Holmes and Gardner (2006) online chat promotes effective interaction and collaboration between students as well as between students and their facilitators. A study conducted by Bowler (2009) concludes that students enjoy the use of online chat in learning because their queries are answered quickly and those who are shy to contribute in the face-to-face discussion can contribute and participate in the online chat. As much as they enjoy the online chat they do not want it to replace the face-to-face discussion which has more social elements than the online chat. However, the same study reveals that the online chat is not effective if one has large groups. This suggests that online chat should only support face-to-face activities instead of trying to replace them because face-to-face discussion is not affected by the size of groups. As a result Lytras, Gasevic, De Pablos and Huang (2008) believe that online chat has to enhance face-to-face discussions. Online asynchronous discussion (Discussion forum) is an online resource or tool used to conduct threaded discussion (not real time) from different locations or the same location. A study conducted by Macdonald (2006, p.47) concludes that online discussion presents opportunities to develop independent self-directed learners. Facilitators need to build students confidence because learning online requires students to study more independently than they may previously have been used to (Macdonald, 2006, p.115). This suggests that facilitators have a long way to go in preparing students for online discussion. This may include using s so that students become familiar with online discussion environments because s work in a similar way as the online discussion. Facebook is one of the Web 2.0 resources which was extended to anyone who wanted to used it in September 2006, after it was created in February 2004 for Ivy League University students by Mark Zuckerberg at Harvard University (Ivala & Gachago, 2012, p.153). Facebook is a platform used by internet users to create a simple and friendly webpage. When they design these webpages it is not necessary for them to understand any internet programming language like HTML because they do not use any language. A study by Ivala and Gachago (2012, p.164) concludes by indicating that Facebook enhanced by cell phones, should be utilised in higher education to promote student interaction and greater engagement with learning materials. This suggests that Facebook is important in teaching and learning if it promotes interaction and student engagement which is becoming the backbone of any student-centred learning environment. This becomes possible when considering that most students have cell phones today to access the internet. Therefore, Facebook can enhance students means of communication and their identities. Online Web Logs are called Blogs. Web Logging is called blogging and a person who uses the -76-

82 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 75-84, 30 December, 2012 blogs is called a blogger. The Blogs are also one of the Web 2.0 resources used by the internet users to create webpages without any understanding of internet programming language. In most cases they work as an online reflective journal when blog users present activities that reflect on their experiences. The study by Ivala and Gachago (2012, p.163) recommends that lecturers should embed the use of Facebook and blogs in their teaching into the larger curricular framework and not see the use of technology as another tool to fit into an already full curriculum. This suggest that these online resources (TIE) should combined well with TOE in order to promote learning because learning is not only about TIE but it is about both TIE (hardware & software) and TOE (ideological-ware). Theoretical lens or framework Most of the online teaching and learning resources are used for both entertainment and education purposes. Students even identify themselves as other famous people whom they like. As a result Entertainment-Education Theory (EET) was used to frame this study. Singhal and Rogers (1999, p.xii) state that Entertainment-education is the process of purposely designing a media message to both entertain and educate, in order to increase the student s knowledge, about an educational activity, create favourable attitudes and change overt behaviour. Mateas and Lewis (1999) argue that any line that separates learning and play has to be blurred so that play and work are viewed as being an integral part of the learning process. According to Moyer-Guse (2008, p.408) EET has certain important constructs that need to be considered in terms of following EET message. The constructs are identification, wishful identification, parasocial interaction (PSI) or liking, similarity and transportation. Identification is when a student takes another person s position in order to learn from the person s perspective. Students in this state forget their reality and image themselves as other important people and enjoy usage of different online teaching and learning resources (Cohen, 2001). Identification is popular when students are working on Facebook, Blogs, online chat and discussion forums. According to Moyer-Guse identification involves the cognitive and emotional parts of the students, whereas Cohen (2001) suggests that it involves cognitive, motivational, empathic and absorption parts of the students. While these online resources are mostly designed for teaching and learning they mostly bring the element of entertainment where the students can socialize with their friends. Therefore, the environment encourages identification where students create electronic mails ( s) using false identification in order to access other people s Facebook pages or Blogs. They also use search engines to search and download videos from YouTube and get absorbed by this information and identify themselves with the new, ideal, good people of their imaginations (cognitively, emotionally, empathically & socially). Wishful identification is when students are trying to imitate certain people of their choice but not trying to become like them as in the case of identification. It is only a desire to be like those people without changing their own identities or reality (Moyer-Guse, 2001). Parasocial interaction (PSI) or liking refers to a situation where students identify powerful people in their field of study and socialize with them. Students even connect their Facebook page or Blogs to these powerful people in their field. When they do this they develop certain features that are similar to those of these powerful people. Similarity, according to Moyer-Guse (2008, p.410), refers to the degree to which [a student] perceives that he or she is similar to a [powerful person in his / her field of study]. In other words students identify their own qualities that are similar to other powerful people in their field of study which may lead to the identification construct (Cohen, 2001). -77-

83 Who helps an online facilitator to learn Simon B Khoza Transportation refers to a situation where students are absorbed into their entertainment or learning activities in such a way that they accept anything from their ideal specialists in their field of study or from their courses without any counterargument (Knowles & Linn, 2004). It shares some similar elements with identification. Research objective and research questions This article intended to explore the use of the four popular online teaching and learning resources (online chat, discussion forum, Facebook and Blogs) used by a university facilitator to teach a curriculum studies module with the aim of understanding how and why these resources were being used by both the facilitator and students, framed by Entertainment Education theory. This article may help higher education institutions answer the question of who helps an online facilitator to learn with students in a day? One possible answer to this is: I the online chat, I the online discussion forum, I the Facebook and I the Blog. The data production was organised to respond to the following research question: Who helps an online facilitator to learn with students in a day? How do they help in learning with students? Why do they help in learning with students? Research design and Methodology This is an interpretive qualitative case study of one university lecturer (facilitator) and eight students from one of the universities in South Africa. The interpretive qualitative approach is important for this study because it is more descriptive, holistic, explorative and contextual in its design and aims to produce rich descriptions of investigated phenomena (Creswell, 1994). For this study qualitative case-studies have helped to understand the deeper meaning of the facilitator s and students experiences and challenges through their use of online teaching and learning resources in teaching and learning their curriculum module. Sampling Participants of this study consist of one most accessible Curriculum Studies lecturer (facilitator) with his most accessible eight postgraduate students from one of the universities in South Africa (Convenience sampling). The study focussed on the experiences of this Curriculum Studies lecturer with his eight most accessible students out of eighteen students in his class that use the four popular online teaching and learning resources for teaching and learning the Curriculum Studies module. The researcher is also from the same discipline (Curriculum Studies). This means that both purposive and convenience sampling were used in selecting the most accessible group that use the four most popular online resources. Purposive is suitable for this study because this group has rich data in terms of the topic and this study does not intend to generalise (Christiansen, Bertram & Land, 2010). The eight participants were given new names for the purpose of ethical considerations as suggested by Rand Afrikaans University (2002). The new name for the lecturer is F1 and the new names for the students are from P1 to P8 because they were eight in number in a class of eighteen students. Informed consent and ethical considerations were acquired in terms of confidentiality, voluntary participation and anonymity as per Rand Afrikaans University (2002) principles of ethics. Data generation and data analysis Instruments used in this study for data generation were the facilitator s online module space analysis (online document analysis), participant observation and individual semi-structured interviews. The three instruments were used for the purpose of triangulation of data to achieve a -78-

84 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 75-84, 30 December, 2012 measure of trustworthiness (Krefting, 1991). Observation was done once (one lesson for 2 hours) of the facilitator together with his students. Observation of the facilitator s online module space analysis was conducted four times for about two hours per session. Interviews were conducted after observations for a maximum of thirty minutes per participant. An audio-tape was used to record the interviews for ease of transcription. In terms of data analysis this study used guided analysis where the researcher had categories that can be modified through interaction with the data (Samuel, 2009). The findings are exploratory in nature: four online resources as themes were generated from the data with EET principles (Moyer-Guse, 2008) and followed by discussion and conclusion with recommendations. Findings Findings are presented under each theme in some cases by means of direct quotations and substantiated with discussions to re-contextualise them within the relevant literature. Who is the first one to learn with the students? I, the Online Chat! The first fifteen minutes for the two hour lesson started with online chat. All eighteen students with their facilitator start the lesson by logging in to the online chat for fifteen minutes. Five students were not in the same venue with the other thirteen students who were in the classroom for the module. The facilitator was in his office asking the students some questions. The first statement / question from the facilitator (F1): Welcome to the module today, are you all in and well? Most of them responded and said Thank you sir / Doc we are all in and well. P1 who was one of the fifteen students in the classroom added to the students responses and said as you can see our names on the screen'. F1 said I mean physical. P8 who was not in the classroom said I am in Doc but I am not well because of the traffic in front of me, as a result I had to join the chat session through my BlackBerry cell phone but I will be there by 16h15. P2 s second message said at what time are we leaving today Doc?. F1 said Ok P8 I don t have an answer to your question, yet, why do you ask?. P3 s second statement Sir its P2 s birthday today but her boyfriend did not buy anything for her, can you please buy a cake for her?. F1 said sorry to hear that, but why me?. P1 s third statement said Doc has to look after his beau wife so that P2 will come to me and leave her boyfriend. F1 said enough about your friends now, did you all prepare your PowerPoint presentation on CAPS and Activity Theory?. F1 had to send this statement / question five times (same statement / question after every minute) before the students started to respond to it because they were responding to one another s statements or questions. Only four of them responded to the facilitator s statements or questions. After fourteen minutes of this chat activity the facilitator s name disappeared from the screen while the students were not aware and he appeared physically in the classroom to students and asked who is presenting first today?. Students did not have answers to this question because most of them were still preparing the PowerPoint presentations parallel to the chat activity. They were supposed to upload / post their PowerPoint presentations to the discussion forum before they come to the module classroom but only eight presentations were ready on the discussion forum (the eight students with presentations became the eight participants). It was interesting to see that each of the eighteen students had at least four posts (statements / questions) on the online chat space by the end of fifteen minutes. F1 indicated that he uses the online chat to break the ice or keep his students relaxed by taking away any fear of his presence from his students, reminding the students about the lesson activity for the day and to mark the register. The following list is a summary of what came out of the online chat: All students participated, even shy students were communicating with the facilitator freely but when he appeared in the classroom they became shy again; -79-

85 Who helps an online facilitator to learn Simon B Khoza All students wanted the facilitator s attention, they even send social issues to get the facilitator s attention; Other students pretended as if they were participating by sending their comments on the chat while they were busy preparing their PowerPoint presentation for the day; The facilitator achieved his aim of marking the register and of attracting students to relax and send some statements / questions that helped him to pick up any problematic areas before the class began; It was not easy for the facilitator to control a large class of eighteen students; All students seemed to be capable of writing in English using grammatically correct statements / questions (they all indicated that they are computer literate, so it was easy for them to chat); It was possible that students could ask other people to login using their names if they were not in the same classroom with their facilitator, and it would be difficult for the facilitator to pick it up. The findings suggest that the online chat resource was dominated by the parasocial interaction (PSI) or liking construct because the students seemed to enjoy their interaction with the facilitator about social issues (Moyer-Guse, 2008). The online chat was observed to be powerful in dealing with social or entertainment issues but not powerful in motivating students with issues of education (module / course). With eighteen students the chat environment became busy and students failed to concentrate or focus on one issue and ended up attending to different issues of interest to them even when the issues had nothing to do with their module / course. Who helps with document exchange? I, the Discussion Forum! The facilitator came to the classroom and asked them to present their online PowerPoint presentations. Eight students whose presentations were uploaded presented and they all had pictures on their first slides with the students names and other decorations that were reflecting what they wanted to be perceived as, by other student and the facilitator. For example P1 who had to present first had Dr Nelson R. Mandela s photograph (first black South African president) which had nothing to do with the theme for the lesson (the CAPS and Activity Theory). The discussion forum had other documents on the theme that were uploaded by the facilitator to support the students in their presentation preparations. F1 indicated that he always uploaded at least three documents per week to support his students before the lesson as his students were attending the module once a week (every Thursday). The PowerPoint presentations were uploaded by the students with attention seeking statements / questions that were similar to that of the chat. When the presenter was using the main screen all students had to open the same presentations on the computer screen and control the presentation appearance to suite their preference. Other students indicated that they were not comfortable with the main screen because it is controlled by the presenters. The classroom had forty computers which means there were more computers available than what the eighteen students required. Students indicated that they enjoyed and preferred the discussion forum presentation than the normal one main screen presentation because they control the presentation the way they liked. It was also noted that the discussion forum system took thirty minutes to send the uploaded documents or presentations and the facilitator indicated that the system was giving the users about thirty minutes to make sure that the uploaded presentation or document was the correct one. If it was not the correct one the users could still reverse it within the period of thirty minutes which was not good according to the facilitator as he preferred a maximum of five minutes. But he said we live with this thirty minutes period because we don t control the system like our system administrators but we sometimes use list to send if. The findings suggest that the online discussion forum is dominated by wishful identification and similarity because students presentations had pictures that were representing what the students -80-

86 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 75-84, 30 December, 2012 would like to be perceived as by others (Moyer-Guse, 2008). Online discussion was seen as a powerful resource in terms of exchanging documents and PowerPoint presentations. However, it was taking a long time to upload the documents or presentation as a result students had to use s because they were faster than their discussion forum especially for those who could not upload their presentations in advance. Who helps with friends? I, the Facebook! After sixty minutes (1 hour) of presentations the facilitator visited eight students Facebook pages where five of the eight students gave the facilitator their Facebook identifications which were totally different from their real identifications, even the pictures that were representing them. They used animals, famous people and the like. They indicated that Facebook was searched and accessed by anyone therefore; they did not want to be known yet because they felt they were not famous. They wanted to be perceived the way they were presenting themselves on their Facebook pages. They indicated that they would always avoid meeting their friends who perceived them as famous people until they became famous. They used search engines to search for wise words and jokes when they were sending comments to their friends so as to maintain their identities as famous people. They indicated that, these identities had developed them because they had to search for powerful information every time when they had to comment on their Facebook pages. They indicated that they enjoyed that style of living as they were learning a lot from it. They even had more than one false from Yahoo, Webmail, Google and Hotmail. Only three of the eight students were using their real identifications with their university s. These results suggest that Facebook is powerful in promoting identification and transportation constructs (Moyer-Guse, 2008) where students identify themselves as famous people and communicate with their friends using their new identification which helps them to learn while they are entertaining themselves using a false identification. Who helps them with reflective journal? I, the Blog! In the last fifteen minutes of the two hours the facilitator visited the eight students blogs (the same students who presented and had their Facebook pages and blogs visited). The eight students seemed to be the most active students in the class while other did not have every activity that was required by their facilitator. Five of the eight students presented in the same way on their blogs as they did on their Facebook pages. They were even referring their friends to their Facebook pages for other information; from their Facebook pages they were referring them to their blogs. Their blogs had different entertainment activities that were linked to the internet site for YouTube where different activities including sports were viewed. These students were claiming that they are training the world champions in different sports codes or they were training with them or even staying with them in some instances. The five students indicated that they would continue like this because this is how they could learn and because they became powerful by searching for relevant information about famous people whom they follow when taking any decisions. They even indicated that if these famous people that they were representing could take wrong decisions in life, they would still follow them because they knew that they would correct those wrong things later. They also indicated that their friends were responding when they raised issues as if it was a joke, yet they knew that they needed real information concerning the particular issue or concern. The other thirteen students in the class seemed to be impressed with what was presented especially from the five students blogs. They did however indicate that they also had the same types of blogs and Facebook pages where they were developing a lot of power through their powerful identification. From this discussion, it would appear that the blogs also promote identification and transportation constructs (Moyer-Guse, 2008) since students become other powerful people in terms of identifications. -81-

87 Who helps an online facilitator to learn Simon B Khoza Discussion These online resources promote what can be termed as Coincidental Learning which is in the space between Entertainment and Education. This will always happen if Technology of Education (TOE) is overpowered by Technology in Education (TIE). Coincidental Learning takes place in the absence of awareness where learning cannot be guaranteed to take place and it takes place by coincidence while students are entertaining themselves with other issues that are not related to their course or module. In highlighting this situation Amory (2010) indicates that learning is not about technology (TIE) but it is about the ideology (TOE) behind the use of these technologies. The participants were doing the opposite of this because they were enjoying the use of the online teaching and learning resources (TIE) in communicating, socializing or entertaining one another. As a result they were developing social knowledge and skills using the TIE. According to Watts and Lioyd (2000) this type of learning is good at helping students by increasing gains in TIE capabilities and presentation skills. The findings indicate that, the intended aim of using these resources according to the facilitator (F1) was to teach and learn with these resources (apply both TIE & TOE) instead of learning from them (apply TIE only). The implemented aim appeared to be using these resources with the aim of learning from them (apply TIE only) instead of learning with them (apply both TIE & TOE). As a result the attained aim was then observed as being Coincidental Learning. The following studies suggest that TIE is important in teaching and learning although it promotes Coincidental Learning: According to Tanner and Jones (2000) online resources motivate even normal passive students to contribute if there is a discussion. Pilkington (2004) observed passive students increasing their performance and participation. Holmes and Gardner (2006) concluded that online resources improve interaction and collaboration. Ivala and Gachago (2012) concluded that they are important because students get quicker answers; there is enhanced engagement and improved students motivation. Therefore, these studies suggest that learning can take place without TOE because TIE is powerful enough to improve interaction, engagement and also to bring about learning. This means more entertainment than education. On the other hand the following studies indirectly indicate the importance of TOE: According to Bowler (2009) online resources have to be used for signposting in order to open learning opportunities and save time for students and facilitators. In considering TOE Bowler (2009) indicates that it is important to invest in staff training and time taken when developing a course. Van Koller (2003) and Makoe (2012) see staff training as training that produces facilitators competencies which are defined as personal resources that promote facilitators actual performance in their jobs (experiences, knowledge and skills) (TOE). Kuh (2009) adds that what can be used to predict students learning is the time and energy they spend on educational activities. This suggests that if students want to learn they should spend more time and energy on their course activities (TOE) but for the social development they should spend time and energy on the online resources (TIE). Therefore, these studies suggest the promotion of TOE (facilitator s competencies) in using TIE. Again, this means more education than entertainment. Conclusion and recommendations In conclusion, the findings indicate that the facilitator and students utilized or applied Coincidental Learning in teaching and learning the postgraduate Curriculum module which means that the teaching and learning process was about TIE (Entertainment from hardware and software) more than TOE (Education with Ideological-ware). This study therefore recommends the utilisation or application of what can be termed Awareness Learning which takes place only when there is an appropriate balance between both TIE and TOE -82-

88 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 75-84, 30 December, 2012 in the teaching and learning environment. Awareness Learning is important in combining facilitators competencies, online resources and all curriculum issues around the module or course (TIE & TOE). Learning using Awareness Learning means students are fully aware of the module or course curriculum (MICRO teaching & module / course plan) and their own curriculum (NANO student s personal plan for learning the module / course) (Van den Akker, Bannan, Kelly, Nieveen & Plomp, 2010) in their learning process. References Amory A (2010). Education technology and hidden ideological contradictions. Educational Technology & Society, 13(1), Bowler, M. (2009). Learning to Chat in a virtual learning environment: Using online synchronous discussion to conduct a first year undergraduate tutorial. The paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, University of Manchester, 2-5 September Christiansen, I.; Bertram, C. & Land, S. (2010). Understanding Research. Pietermaritzburg: UKZN Faculty of Education Cohen, J. (2001). Defining identification: A theoretical look at the identification of audiences with media characters. Mass Communication & Society, 4, Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. London: SAGE. Holmes, B. & Gardner, J. (2006). E-Learning: Concepts and Practice. London: Sage Ivala, E. & Gachago, D. (2012). Social media for enhancing student engagement: The use of Facebook and blogs at a University of technology. South African Journal of Higher Education, 26(1) Knowles, E. S., & Linn, J. A. (2004). The importance of resistance to persuasion. In E. S. Knowles & J. A. Linn (Eds.), Resistance and persuasion (pp. 3 11). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Krefting, L. (1991). Rigor in qualitative research: The assessment of trustworthiness. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy (45) 3: Kuh, G. (2009). The National Survey of Student Engagement: Conceptual and Empirical Foundations. New Directions for Institutional Research, 141, Lytras, M.D; Gasevic, D; De Pablos, P.O. & Huang, W. (2008). Technology Enhanced Learning: Best Practices, Hershey, PA, IGI Publishing. Makoe, M. (2012). Teaching digital natives: Identifying competencies for the mobile learning facilitators in distance education. South African Journal of Higher Education, 26(1) Mateas, M and Lewis, S (1999). A MOO-Based Virtual Environment. Journal of Computer Mediated Technology. 12(3) Available online: Macdonald, J. (2006) Blended Learning and Online Tutoring: a good practice guide, Aldershot: Gower. Moyer-Guse, E. (2008). Communication Theory: Towards a theory of Entertainment persuasion, Explain the Persuasive effects of Entertainment-Education messages. The Ohio State University, Columbus. International Communication Association 18(2008) Percival, F. & Ellington, H. (1988). A handbook of educational technology (2nd Ed.), London: Kogen Page. Pilkington, R. (2004). Developing discussion for learning. Journal of Computer Assisted, 20, Rand Afrikaans University (2002). Guidline on Academics Ethics. Johannesburg: RAU. Samuel, M.A. (2009). On becoming a Teacher: Life history research and the force-field model of Teacher Development in Dhunpath, R. and Samuel, M.A. (Eds.). Life history research- Epistemology, methodology and representation. Rotterdam, Sense Publishers, pp

89 Who helps an online facilitator to learn Simon B Khoza Singhal, A and Rogers, E M (1999). Entertainment-Education: A Communication Strategy for Social Change. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate Publishers. Tanner, H. & Jones, S. (2000). Using ICT to support Interactive teaching and learning on a secondary mathematics PGCE course, WWW British Educational Research Association annual conference, Cardiff University, 7-10 September Van Koller, J.F. (2003). Professional development of distance education professional (DEPs) at TSA: A profile of functions. South African Journal of Education, 23(1) Van den Akker, J.; Bannan, B.; Kelly, A.E.; Nieveen, N and Plomp, T An introduction to Educational Design Research. Enschede: Axis Media Ontwerpers also available on Watts, M. & Lioyd, C. (2000). A classroom evaluation of Espresso for Schools, Faculty of Education, University of Surrey, Roehampton -84-

90 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 2(2), pp , 30 December, 2012 Available online at Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Attitudes, Scale, Scale Development, Tablet PC The development of a scale of attitudes toward tablet pc Aykut Emre Bozdoğan * Science Education Department, Giresun University, Giresun, Turkey Mustafa Uzoğlu Science Education Department, Giresun University, Giresun, Turkey The purpose of this study is to develop a reliable and a valid scale to determine the attitudes of the primary students towards tablet pc. The items of the scale were determined by scanning the relevant literature and taking the opinions of the experts. The first draft of the scale including 49 items as a result of content reliability was applied to 434 students chosen randomly from the 7 th and 8 th grades of schools in the city, city centre and the villages of Giresun in March It was revealed that the scale was clustered on single factor which consisted of 31 items and the factor loading values were and over. Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient was calculated to be 0.93 for the reliability of the scale. INTRODUCTION Today, the rapid developments in technology result in development of the existing tools or invention of new technological tools. Undoubtedly, computers, one of the most important technological devices which were invented and underwent a change, have been used in every field of life. Computer have become an important part of education from past to present (El-Gayar, Moran & Hawkes, 2011; Serin, 2011; Smith, 2001; Tekbıyık & Akdeniz, 2010; Teo & Lee, 2008). It has been commonly accepted by many researchers that the use of computers in education environments has positive effects on learning and teaching process (Teo, 2008; Wekesa, Wekesa, Mualuko & Julius, 2008). According to Usun (2004) the computers ; 1. are beneficial for individual and learner centred education. 2. offer to study fast and effectively. 3. help to decrease the human mistakes in work fields. 4. help the students to learn easily in the learning process. 5. increases students motivation. After the positive effects of the use of computer technology were determined, an increase in the number of computers in education teaching environments was observed. However, today computers have been replaced by tablet PCs, which are as effective as they are, due to some inconveniences such as their being big and heavy to carry (Ozok, Benson, Chakraborty & Norcio, 2008). A tablet computer, or simply tablet, is a technologic device which is easy to carry and takes a small place and it is the combination of a pocket computer and a laptop computer as a configuration. However, they do not have a keyboard like laptop computer. They have a screen and with their touch screen, any operations can be done (Enriquez, 2010). Tablet computers enable you to write or draw on their screen using digital ink. Moreover, they give opportunities to change and organize the slides composed with Power point (McCabe, 2011). Tablet computers have advantages such as being light, long battery life, being used for general purposes and not being very expensive. * Correspondence: Giresun University, Faculty of Education, Güre Campus, Giresun, Turkey. [email protected], Phone:

91 The development of a scale of attitudes Aykut Emre Bozdoğan & Mustafa Uzoğlu On the other hand, they have disadvantages such as their problematic battery life, not having CDrom drive, carrying out the operation slowly and less number of ports (Gill, 2007). Despite their disadvantages, the use of tablet computers in learning environments has just started. The use of tablet computers in learning environments is quite a new process (Fister & McCarty, 2008). However, the studies carried out with tablet computers in foreign countries revealed that tablet computers, just like the computers, increased student s interest in the lesson, provided motivation towards the lesson and made it easy for the teachers to teach the topic (Derting & Cox, 2008; Gill, 2007; Gorgievski, Stroud, Truxaw & DeFranco, 2005; Le Ber, Lombardo & Quilter, 2008; McCabe, 2011). Gorgievski et al. (2005) used a questionnaire which consisted of 13 items with 103 university students to measure their attitudes towards the use of tablet computers in arithmetic course. As a result of the study, the students stated that tablet computers helped to draw the attention on the material presented in the class, to understand the material better, and offered the teacher to explain the material in an effective way McCabe (2011), who claimed that concept maps and flow charts must be used to teach the abstract concepts and to establish connection between the subjects, determined that concept maps and flow charts would be realized more easily by using tablet computers. Moreover, he stated that the use of tablet computers provided an opportunity for the students to develop a positive attitude towards the course and get an effective educational help. Similarly, Fister & McCarty (2008) stated in their study that tablet computers enriched students learning environment and the students benefited from the archival resources and the comments of the teachers with tablet computers. Moreover, they added that the use of tablet computers motivated the students for the lesson better. Enriquez (2010) claimed that the use of tablet computer technology with wireless had many benefits. According to Enriquez (2010), tablet computers provided many benefits for the students such as making significant and sudden evaluation for the students about their learning, helping them maximise their learning, and providing necessary feedback. Fister & McCarty (2008) drew attention on two points related to the use of tablet computers by the students to examine and analyse the problems. First, tablet computers provide the students to take the responsibility of their learning. Second, the students feel excited to be in the class because of the tablet computers. Enriquez (2010) determined that the use of tablet computers provided opportunities both for the students and the teachers to analyse the problems, collect data, take notes, and connect electronic class materials and their hand-written notes. In summary, the studies carried out abroad reveal that the use of tablet computers in class environment has many advantages in terms of teachers and students. This process has just started in our country. It is very early to make predictions about what tablet computers will bring in education. However, it is a known fact that a new technology brought into the class environment will make both the teachers and the students feel uncertain and exciting. Undoubtedly, the implementation of this innovation and its contribution to education rely on the students attitudes towards this technology. Attitude which is known to be closely related to the efficiency of teaching means the individual's prevailing tendency to respond favourably or unfavourably to an object, a person or group of people, institutions or events (Aizen, 2005). Attitude is not only concerned about how the individuals see the world but also how they interpret the situation, events and the other people s actions (Fritz, 2008). According to Fritz (2008), it is important to determine the attitudes of the individuals for three reasons. First, attitude affects the individuals viewpoints, what the individuals are going to say and do. Second, it affects the opinions of the individuals physically and cognitively. Third, it affects how the individuals will be successful in obtaining their goals. Moreover, it is known that developing positive attitude is important for the students academic -86-

92 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 85-95, 30 December, 2012 achievement (Kind, Jones & Barmby, 2007). When it is considered that positive and negative attitude towards anything affect the individuals performances (Fritz, 2008), it is important to develop tablet computer attitude scale in order to determine the students attitudes towards tablet computers in learning environment. Since the use of tablet computers in education environments is a new phenomenon in our country, a scale is needed to determine the attitudes of the students towards tablet computers. This study is thought to remedy the deficiency. The study which is conducted because of that reason is thought to fulfil this gap and scale attitude towards tablet computers intended to be developed. METHOD Stage of Development of the Scale Firstly, previous studies related to the subject were examined while developing the measurement tools (Derting & Cox, 2008; Enriquez, 2010; Fister & McCarty, 2008; Gill, 2007; Gorgievski, Stroud, Truxaw & DeFranco, 2005; Hirepic, 2011; Le Ber, Lombardo & Quilter, 2008; McCabe, 2011; Uzoğlu & Bozdoğan, 2012). Then, the stages given below which are generally followed while developing evaluation tools are pursued. 1. Item Writing Stage 2. Stage of Taking the Expert s Opinion 3. Pretesting Stage 4. Stage of Calculating Reliability and Validity (Balcı, 2010; Büyüköztürk, Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz & Demirel, 2011; Karasar, 2012; Şeker & Gençdoğan, 2006). Bozdoğan & Öztürk (2008) determined the following order by going through the literature about the developing stages of the scale. This study was conducted by taking into consideration the order determined by Bozdoğan & Öztürk (2008). According to Bozdoğan & Öztürk (2008), the order of the developing stages of the scale is as follows: 1. Stage of Item Pool a. Scanning the Literature b. Examination of previously prepared measurement tools c. Collecting information from the target group to whom the final scale will be applied about the subject (open ended questions, composition and so on). d. Content analysis e. Composing candidate items f. Stage of Expert opinions ( Content Reliability) g. Analysis of the candidate items by the experts about whether they measure what is wanted or not, language and design h. Choice of suitable items among the candidate items and creating the draft scale. 2. Pretesting Stage Implementation of the developed draft scale 3. Stage of calculating reliability and validity Analysis of data obtained from the draft scale in order to obtain the final scale. 4. Reliability calculations a. Item analysis relying on lower- upper group mean difference b. Item total correlation c. Removal of unsuitable items from the draft by taking into consideration p and r values -87-

93 The development of a scale of attitudes Aykut Emre Bozdoğan & Mustafa Uzoğlu 5. Reliability calculations (Construct reliability). a. KMO and Barlett s test b. Factor analysis 1. Analysis of common factor variance values 2. Analysis of total variance values 3. Analysis of eigenvalue line graph 4. Examination of analysis results of basic components of items 6. Reliability calculations Calculating Cronbach Alpha coefficient 7. Creating the final scale as a result of the analysis done Stage of Composing the Items In this stage, literature related to developing scale was scanned (Asante, 2012; Bindak & Çelik, 2006; Teo, 2008; Yurdugül, 2005) and the measurement tools used in the previous studies were examined in order to give guidance about how to develop the scale. While the items in the scale were prepared, such things about items were taken into consideration: the negative and positive items to be expressed in equal numbers, items to be simple and understandable, an item not consisting more than one judgement/ thought/ perception. Stage of Taking the Expert Opinions Validity is a concept used to describe the validity of a measurement tool which is considered to be the degree to which the tool measures what it claims to measure. There are three types of validity: content, convergent and construct validity. One or two of the validity types might be suitable according to the features of the measurement tool used in the study. In this stage, the efficiency of the scale developed in terms of content validity was examined. Content validity is realized by taking the opinions of the experts about whether the items in the measurement tools are suitable for the measurement tool and the items represent the field which is to be measured or not. Hence, the goals of measurement and whether these goals represent the required content are discussed by a group of experts (Tyler, 1971; Yurdugül, 2005). The opinions of two science teachers, a computer expert, and a language expert were taken in the study conducted. These experts analysed whether the scale items measured the attitudes towards tablet computer and the grammar and understandability of the items. As a result of the expert opinions, 49 out of 55 items in the pool were found to be suitable and chosen to be used as an attitude expression. Thus, content validity of the measurement tool prepared was tried to be provided. Pre-testing Stage 49 items made up of 28 positive and 21 negative expressions were made a draft scale for pretesting. The items in the scale were formed in five point Likert scale type and the degree of agreement by the individuals with the items were classified as follows: 1 I strongly disagree, 2 I disagree, 3 Undecided, 4 I agree, 5 I strongly agree. For the scoring of the responses by the students, points like 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 used for positive items and points like 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 used for negative items were taken into consideration. The piloting of the draft developed was carried out with 434 students chosen randomly in the 7 th and 8 th grades of 8 primary schools located in the city centre and the villages of Giresun in March Karasar (1995) determined that pretesting to be conducted during the development stage of a scale should not consist less than 50 people. -88-

94 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 85-95, 30 December, 2012 FINDINGS Reliability Calculation Stage Reliability comes first before validity in scale development studies. Because scale which is not reliable will not be valid, there is no need to carry out a validity practise (Bindak, 2005). In the stage of calculating reliability, both item analysis relying on lower and upper group mean differences and item analysis relying on correlation were performed in order to test the internal consistency of the scale. Item Analysis Relying on Lower-Upper Group Mean Differences t values related to the significance difference between the means of the attitude scores of upper group and lower-group for each item in the scale were calculated to determine the distinctiveness of the items in the scale. Total attitude points were ranged from high to low. Lower and upper groups were made up of 117 people who forms the %27 of all questionnaires. In the analysis, t-test results for item means were presented in Table 1. Table 1. t-test results for item means of %27 of lower groups and %27 of upper group of the scale No Group N x t p No Group N x t p M1 Upper Upper M26 Lower Lower M2 Upper Upper M27 Lower Lower M3 Upper Upper M28 Lower Lower M4 Upper Upper M29 Lower Lower M5 Upper Upper M30 Lower Lower M6 Upper Upper M31 Lower Lower M7 Upper Upper M32 Lower Lower M8 Upper Upper M33 Lower Lower M9 Upper Upper M34 Lower Lower M10 Upper Upper M35 Lower Lower M11 Upper Upper M36 Lower Lower M12 Upper Upper M37 Lower Lower M13 Upper Upper M38 Lower Lower M14 Upper Upper M39 Lower Lower M15 Upper Upper M40 Lower Lower M16 Upper Upper M41 Lower Lower M17 Upper Upper M42 Lower Lower M18 Upper Upper M43 Lower Lower M19 Upper M44 Upper

95 The development of a scale of attitudes Aykut Emre Bozdoğan & Mustafa Uzoğlu M20 M21 M22 M23 M24 M25 Lower Lower Upper Upper M45 Lower Lower Upper Upper M46 Lower Lower Upper Upper M47 Lower Lower Upper Upper M48 Lower Lower Upper Upper M49 Lower Lower Upper Upper Mt Lower Lower Item Total Correlation The item distinctiveness of 49 items in the scale, in other words, item total correlation was assessed. Correlations between the scores belonging to the items and the total score of the scale were presented in Table 2. Table 2. Item Analysis Results of the Scale Item number Item Total Correlation* Item Number Item Total Correlation* Item Number Item Total Correlation* M1.508 M M M2.286** M M M3.504 M M M4.321** M M M5.555 M M M6.582 M M M7.545 M M M8.489 M M M9.626 M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M * n = 434, p < 0.01 significant values for ** Substances removed from the scale As a result of item analysis, items of the scale were calculated by using the item total correlation. Item total correlation coefficient is a very good item for r 0.40 and a good item for 0.30 r 0.39 (Büyüköztürk, 2002, 2003a). t-values of the scale developed in the study are significant and item total correlation for all the items change between After the 2nd and the 4th items were removed from the scale in this context, it can be stated that the items of the scale are intended to measure very good, distinctive, with high reliability and similar attitudes. Validity Calculation Stage In this stage of the study, the construct validity of the study was examined. Kaiser-Mayer- Olkin (KMO) and Barlett s test which are prerequisite for factor analysis were done and the results were given in Table

96 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 85-95, 30 December, 2012 Table 3. Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin (KMO) Sampling and Barlett s Test Results of the Scale Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy = Barlett s Test Approximate Chi-square value = 5,566E3 sd = 465 p = 0.000* *p<0.001 Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin (KMO) is a quantity related to the suitability of the correlation between the sampling and the items of the scale. If Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin (KMO) values are over 0.60, they include values which are acceptable. High Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin (KMO) values will cause Barlett values to be high. If both of them have high values, it will reveal the suitability of factor analysis and high correlation values between the items (Şeker, Deniz & Görgen, 2004). It was determined that the Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin (KMO) value of the scale was and Barlett s test significance value was p< The values obtained reveal the suitability of factor analysis and the significant correlation between the items. As a result of factor analysis, the items with number 3, 7., 8., 10., 11., 13., 15., 17., 24., 25., 26., 28., 42., 44., 45. and 47. in the attitude scale whose common factor variances were low were removed from the scale and they were collected under single factor. Communality of the remaining items in the attitude scale were given in the Table below. Table 4. Communality of the Items in the Scale Items Communality Items Communality Items Communality M M M M M M M M M9.555 M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M5.495 M M M M M M6.483 M1.470 As a result of factor analysis, factor loading values of the items have great importance. Büyüköztürk (2002, 2003a) determines that factor loading values of the items which are 0.45 and over are the indicators of a good result. It was found that common factor variances of the items in the scale changed between According to these results, it can be stated that common factor variances of the items were high values. When the total variance values of the items in the scale were analysed, the variance is %34.23 on condition that the items taken for analysis are clustered under single factor. Moreover, when the graph drawn according to eigenvalue was analysed, a fast drop after the first factor on the eigenvalue line was determined. This situation revealed that the scale might have a factor in general terms. -91-

97 The development of a scale of attitudes Aykut Emre Bozdoğan & Mustafa Uzoğlu Graph 1.Line Graph belonging to Eigenvalues of the Items in the Scale Variance which is %30 or more is sufficient in single factor scales (Büyüköztürk, 2003b) and total variance shown by a single factor which makes up the scale is % 34,23. Finally, in the analysis for the reliability of the scale, Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient was found to be α = RESULTS AND SUGGESTIONS Attitude scale for tablet computers which consisted of 49 items were applied to 434 students and a final scale made up of 31 items were composed. KMO value for 31 items is and Bartlett s test significance value is p< This value corresponds to very good categorization (Field, 2002). Therefore, it can be stated that factor analysis conducted on these data offered reliable results. When total variance values of the items in the scale were analysed, it was revealed that 31 items were clustered under single factor and the variance of this factor about the scale was % A fast drop on eigenvalue line after the first factor was determined in the line graph drawn according to eigenvalue. This situation revealed that the scale might have a factor in general terms. Moreover, it was found that factor loading values of the items in the test were 0,470 and over. This value provides the factor loading criteria of the item to be included in the measurement tool estimated by Büyüköztürk (2005). Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient was found to be α = 0.93 for the reliability of the scale. This value is close to 1. According to Karasar (2012), the reliability coefficient s being close to 1 is good and adequate for the measurement tool. As a result of the analysis, the significant difference between lower and upper groups proves that t values are significant and the scale is reliable due to high item total correlations. The data obtained from this study revealed that the scale developed could be used to measure the attitudes towards tablet computers. Thus, this study is a step taken to determine the attitudes towards tablet computers more healthfully. Studies conducted to enhance the students attitude levels towards tablet computers might be conducted with the data obtained about the use of this scale. REFERENCES Asante, K.O. (2012). Secondary students' attitudes towards mathematics. Ife Psychologia; 20(1),

98 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 85-95, 30 December, 2012 Aizen, I. (2005). Attitudes, Personality and Behaviour. [ /Doc?id= &ppg=16] adresinden tarihinde edinilmiştir. Balcı, A. (2010). Sosyal Bilimlerde Araştırma Yöntem, Teknik ve İlkeleri. Pegema Yayınevi: Ankara. Bindak, R. (2005). Tutum ölçeklerine madde seçmede kullanılan tekniklerin karşılaştırılması. İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 6 (10), Bindak, R., & Çelik, H.Ç. (2006). Öğretmenler için tutum ölçeğinin güvenirlik ve geçerlik çalışması. Eğitim Araştırmaları, 22, Bozdoğan, A.E., Öztürk, Ç. (2008). Coğrafya ile ilişkili fen konularının öğretimine yönelik özyeterlilik inanç ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi. Necatibey Eğitim Fakültesi Elektronik Fen Ve Matematik Eğitimi Dergisi. 2 (2), Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2002). Faktör analizi: Temel kavramlar ve ölçek geliştirmede kullanımı. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi. 32, Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2003a). Eğitim istatistiği yüksek lisans ders notları. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Ankara. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2003b). Sosyal Bilimler İçin Veri Analizi El Kitabı. Pegema Yayıncılık, Ankara. Büyüköztürk (2005). Sosyal Bilimler İçin Veri Analizi El Kitabı (5. Baskı). PegemA Yayıncılık, Ankara. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Çakmak, E.K., Akgün, Ö.E., Karadeniz, Ş. & Demirel, F. (2011). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemleri (10. Baskı). Pegem A Yayıncılık, Ankara. Derting, T. L. & Cox, J.R. (2008). Using a tablet pc to enhance student engagement and learning in an introductory organic chemistry course. Journal of Chemical Education. 85(12), El-Gayar, O., Moran, M., & Hawkes, M. (2011). Students' acceptance of tablet PCs and implications for educational institutions. Educational Technology & Society, 14 (2), Enriquez, A.G. (2010). Enhancing student performance using tablet computers. College Teaching, 58, Field, A. (2002). Discovering Statistics Using SPSS. Sage Publications Ltd., UK: London. Fister, K. R., & McCarty, M.L. (2008). Mathematics instruction and the tablet PC. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 39 (3), Fritz, R. (2008). Power of a positive attitude: Discovering the key to success. [ giresun/doc?id= &ppg=8] adresinden tarihinde edinilmiştir. Gill, T.G. (2007). Using the tablet PC for instruction. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education. 5(1), Gorgievski, N., Stroud, R., Truxaw, M., & DeFranco, T. (2005). Tablet pc: A preliminary report on a tool for teaching calculus. International Journal for Technology in Mathematics Education, 12 (3), Karasar, N. (1995). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi: Kavramlar, İlkeler ve Teknikler. Ankara: 3A Araştırma Eğitim Danışmanlık Ltd. Şti. Karasar, N. (2012). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi. Nobel Yayıncılık. Ankara. Kind, P., Jones, K. & Barmby, P. (2007). Developing attitudes towards science measures. International Journal of Science Education. 29 (7), Le Ber, J. M., Lombardo, N.T. & Quilter, J. (2008). Tablet pc use enhances teaching and student learning. Journal of Electronic Resources in Medical Libraries, 5(1), McCabe, B. (2011). An integrated approach to the use of complementary visual learning tools in an undergraduate microbiology class. Journal of Biological Education, 45 (4), Ozok, A.A., Benson, D., Chakraborty, J. & Norcio, A.F. (2008). A comparative study between tablet and laptop pcs: user satisfaction and preferences. Intl. Journal Of Human Computer Interaction, 24(3),

99 The development of a scale of attitudes Aykut Emre Bozdoğan & Mustafa Uzoğlu Serin, O. (2011). The effects of the computer-based instruction on the achievement and problem solving skills. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 10 (1), Smith, S.D. (2001). Relationship of computer attitudes to sex, grade level and teacher influence. Education, 106 (3), Şeker, H., Deniz, S., Görgen, İ. (2004). Öğretmen yeterlikleri ölçeği. Milli Eğitim Dergisi. 164, Şeker, H. & Gençdoğan, B. (2006). Psikolojide ve Eğitimde Ölçme Aracı Geliştirme. Nobel Yayınları, Ankara. Tekbıyık, A., & Akdeniz, A.R. (2010). A meta-analytical investigation of the influence of computer assisted instruction on achievement in science. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 11(2), Teo, T. (2008). Pre-service teachers attitudes towards computer use: A Singapore survey. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 24(4), Teo, T. & Lee, C.B. (2008). Attitudes towards computers among students in higher education: A case study in Singapore. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(1), Tyler, L.E. (1971). Tests and measurements. Englewood Cliffs. Prentice-Hall. N. J. Usun, S. (2004). Undergraduate students attitudes on the use of computers in education. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 3(2), Uzoglu, M. & Bozdogan, A.E. (2012). An examination of preservice science teachers views related to use of tablet pcs in science and technology course in terms of different variables. Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE). 2(1), Wekesa, D. W., Wekesa, E.W., Mualuko, N.J. & Julius, M. (2008). Students reactions to the use of computers in science education in selected kenyan secondary schools. Problems of Education in the 21st Century. 9, Yurdugül, H. (2005). Ölçek geliştirme çalışmalarında kapsam geçerliği için kapsam geçerlik indekslerinin kullanılması. XIV. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi, Eylül

100 Ek 1. TABLET BİLGİSAYAR TUTUM ÖLÇEĞİ Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); 85-95, 30 December, Madde 1 Derslerimde tablet bilgisayar kullanmak isterim. 2 Madde 5 Derslerin tablet bilgisayar ile yapılmasından mutlu olurum. 3 Madde 6 Evde tablet bilgisayar ile çalışırsam, derslerime olan motivasyonum artar. 4 Madde 9 Tablet bilgisayar başında geçirdiğim zamanları boşa geçirmiş sayarım. 5 Madde 12 Ev ödevlerimde tablet bilgisayar kullanmak benim için sıkıcı bir iştir. 6 Madde 14 Tablet bilgisayarı her kullanmak istediğimde moralim bozulur. 7 Madde 16 Tablet bilgisayar ile çalışmak zor bir iştir. 8 Madde 18 Tablet bilgisayarla araştırma yapmak sıkıcıdır. 9 Madde 19 Tablet bilgisayarın derslerde kullanılan değerli bir araç olduğunu düşünürüm. 10 Madde 20 Derslerimde tablet bilgisayar kullanmak istemem. 11 Madde 21 Tablet bilgisayarın derslerimi daha iyi anlamamı sağlayacağını bilmek hoşuma gider. 12 Madde 22 Ders kitaplarındaki bilgileri tablet bilgisayarlarda görmek güzel bir duygudur. 13 Madde 23 Tablet bilgisayarlar ile ders yaparak bir şeyler öğrenmek zaman kaybıdır. 14 Madde 27 Derslerde tablet bilgisayarlar kullanılınca kafam karışır. 15 Madde 29 Derslerimizi tablet bilgisayarla yapmak bana hiç çekici gelmiyor. 16 Madde 30 Tablet bilgisayar yardımıyla öğrenmek çok zevklidir. 17 Madde 31 Tablet bilgisayar ile ders çalışmayı düşündüğümde endişelenirim. 18 Madde 32 Derslerimde tablet bilgisayarı kullanarak konuları öğrenebileceğimi bilmek beni mutlu eder. 19 Madde 33 Tablet bilgisayar derslerde zengin bir öğrenme ortamı sağlar. 20 Madde 34 Tablet bilgisayarla yapılan dersi dinlemek hiç içimden gelmez. 21 Madde 35 Tablet bilgisayar bir konuyu öğrenmek için bana çok çeşitli fırsatlar sunar. 22 Madde 36 Tablet bilgisayardaki konu ile ilgili resimler dersleri daha eğlenceli hale getirir. 23 Madde 37 Seçme şansı verilse tablet bilgisayarı derslerimde hiç kullanmak istemem. 24 Madde 38 Tablet bilgisayardaki konu ile ilgili animasyonlar dersleri daha eğlenceli hale getirir. 25 Madde 39 Tablet bilgisayar ile ödevlerimi yapmak beni korkutur. 26 Madde 40 Derslerde tablet bilgisayar kullanılması kendimi mutsuz hissetmeme neden olur. 27 Madde 41 Tablet bilgisayardaki uygulamalarla dersi daha iyi öğreneceğimi bilmek beni mutlu eder. 28 Madde 43 Tablet bilgisayar ile ders çalışırken sinirli olurum. 29 Madde 46 Tablet bilgisayar ile ders işlendiğinde konuları anlayamayacağım korkusuna kapılırım. 30 Madde 48 Tablet bilgisayar ile bir konuyu tekrar etmek eğlenceli bir iştir. 31 Madde 49 Derslerde tablet bilgisayarı görünce içimden tablet bilgisayarı parçalamak geçer. -95-

101 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 2(2), pp , 30 December, 2012 Available online at INVITED ARTICLE LEADERSHIP ROLE of TURKEY for ICDEEEWA Leadership Role of Turkey among Distance Education Institutions From the Balkans (Southeastern Europe) to the Baltic, Turkic and Caucasian Republics, to the Middle East and North Africa Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Educational institutionalism, Anadolu University, AAOU, ABED, ACDE, ADLA, CADE, COL, DEANZ, EADTU, EDEN, EADTU, ICDE, ODLAA, SEAMEO, UNESCO, USDLA, Turkey, International DE Associations Ugur Demiray * Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey This paper will mention the distance education practices in Turkey, and will examine and discuss the role of leadership which should be undertaken by Turkey in the region of Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, Baltic, Turkic, Caucasian, the Middle East and North Africa regions. International distance education organizations in the world are not well organized and functional in this area or for the regional distance education institutions in the name of educational institutionalism. To fill this gap, it will be argued that Turkey might have a leadership role in the distance education field in this region and can be organize the practices of the regional countries in academy and practice. The structure of the potential distance education organization and the regulations of the organizations will be discussed more detailed separate article based on this argument and available at The suggested name for this regional group is ICDEEEWA (International Council for Distance Education for Eastern Europe and West Asia). A draft of the constitution of the recommended association is presented and discussed at Introduction Any Interaction is not a one-way road. Cultural interaction works both ways. Thus the use of information communication technologies in distance education (DE), making international collaboration feasible, is among the advantages of globalization. Through collaboration and projects of international organizations like the World Bank and UNESCO, the right to education can be enjoyed. The fundamental human right to education is specified in Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights says that:...everyone has a right to education...technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the UN for the maintenance of peace... (Visser, 2003). Distance education when well-equipped can serve these aims. It can be used to solve the problems of undeveloped societies. Easily accessible and multicultural approaches shall of course better serve global concerns of under development and help solve the educational problems. Modern distance education is said to have begun in 1963 (Perraton, 2007). In that year, the National * Correspondence: Professor, Anadolu University Yunusemre Campus Eskisehir TURKEY Tel: ext or 2522; GSM: Fax: or (s): [email protected] or [email protected] URL: or

102 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); , 30 December, 2012 Extension Institute was established in the United Kingdom, as a model for an open university. The methodology of DE, more recently known as distance learning, has given rise to the principle that education should and can be open to all. Open education, or open learning, is a vision of an educational system accessible to every individual with minimal restrictions. This philosophy stresses the flexibility of the system to eliminate problems caused by barriers of, for example, age, geographical location, time constraints and economic situation (Bates, 1995). Open and distance learning (ODL) is therefore a system which combines the methodology of DE with the concepts of open learning and flexible learning. ODL is, of course, a very idealistic concept which in reality is difficult to implement. DE specialists believe strongly, however, that many ODL principles can be fulfilled better by DE methods than by conventional face-to-face (f2f) educational approaches. This philosophy represents a paradigm that emphasizes access to education, and the learner s need for independence. The desire to increase educational access was the main drive for many countries to adopt DE (Garrison, 1993). Moore (1993) believed that as long as materials have been prepared, learners have full autonomy to undergo their learning process on their own terms. Based on this access paradigm, DE has been considered as an industrialized type of education, and as the product of an industrial society (Peters, 1967). According to Peters, the system of DE has many similarities with an industrial factory, with need for a clear division of labour, mechanization of activities, orientation to mass production, standardization of output and centralization of the system. Owing to these similarities, DE has been accepted by industrial society as a method of massproducing trained labour. Peters argued that DE methods should also change in response to the changing demands of post-industrial society. This is even more the case in today s information society. Whereas the DE process previously relied on the use of pre-produced learning materials and correspondence, the addition of today s ICT to the process makes it possible to make DE individualized and interactive. The educational needs of the post-industrial society are different from those of the industrial society. However, this is due to the constant changes in skill demanded by occupational and professional fields. The original correspondence-based mass-education model of DE does not meet today s demands for a one-on-one, interactive style of education capable of adjusting to educational needs and of developing an effective individualistic style of DE (Peters, 1999). The new ICTs, however, can add these features that were lacking in earlier DE models. Today s production methods, communication technologies, perceptions of problems and problem solving strategies can be overdue and obsolete tomorrow. On this basis, a DE paradigm is developing characterized by a fully effective two-way communication process between teachers and students, students and study materials and between students and the educational institutions. A one-way process (that is, presentation of learning materials in printed, recorded or broadcast form) is complemented by two-way feedback between students and the teacher/institution implementing the programme. Holmberg (1983) pointed out, that despite the fact that DE is designed for independent study, it should not be suggested that it can be implemented with no study support services. Even though interaction in the form of real conversation may be difficult to achieve in DE, much can be done to ensure that a conversational atmosphere is made available to the students. Holmberg s concept of guided didactic conversation which is related to an effective two-way conversation in, for example, prints over the telephone. The goals and spirit of this atmosphere are implemented in the sensitive design of the learning materials, assignments and study supports. Via good materials, the students can obtain an atmosphere as in a conversation with the lecturer who developed them, and this in turn helps the internalization process whereby the materials assist the students to learn. -97-

103 LEADERSHIP ROLE of TURKEY for ICDEEEWA U.Demiray According to Sewart (1984), pre-produced learning materials can not replace the functions and roles of conventional teachers entirely. Students have different needs that the learning materials may not anticipate, and which cannot be satisfied by mass-produced learning materials. Accordingly, Sewart emphasizes the importance to students of organised learning support services. One type of support is the tutor counsellor who acts as a subject matter expert (SME) responsible for guiding students academically and personally. Sewart (1984) believes that a tutor counsellor who functions as both lecturer and mentor can significantly improve the quality of the DE teaching and learning process. The development of new ICTs such as audio/video-conferencing has further enhanced this guided didactic process, by reducing the gap between the teaching act and the learning act that previously created psychological and transactional distance in the learning process (Moore, 1993). The benefits of modern ICTs have also generated a broader way of thinking about DE. Solutions to the problems of physical separation between teacher and learner in DE enable the broader use of educational facilities. When the teaching acts and learning acts can be effectively achieved in non-real time (asynchronously), two major problems are reduced: the traditional lecturer/students ratio which commonly limits the absorption capacity of education and the classroom walls that commonly limit the transmission capacity of education. Overcoming these hurdles transforms the educational process from one that is closed in nature to one that is physically more open, and education is no longer associated with the physical classroom. Sherry (1995) states that distance education technologies are expanding at an extremely rapid rate. She continues on to point out that instructional designers and curriculum developers were so captivated with the latest technologies that they were not dealing with the new roles of teacher, site facilitator and student in the distance learning process. In traditional education, teachers interact directly with their students. In contrast, distance learning teachers are not in direct classroom contact with their students. The distance-learning teacher is the common thread throughout the distance learning process. Technologies Electronic technologies have increasingly changed the interaction between instructor and student. For most of the 20th century, distance education involved pen and paper, the typewriter, and the postal service, which provided the sole link between the individual instructor and the individual student. With the development of the radio and then television, it became possible to transmit educational courses, programs and content widely using these mass media distribution channels (Moore and Anderson, 2003). Advanced countries have more opportunities for improvement than developing countries. Underdeveloped countries have some problems in utilizing a distance education system because they are handicapped population growth that overwhelms the region s carrying capacity, remote and separated rural areas, lack of enough unskilled teachers, excessive school dropouts, high illiteracy rates, and not enough resources. (Towhidi, 2010) At a time of rapid technological change, and contested, complex concepts associated with globalisation, knowledge is becoming a primary factor of production in a global economy. As knowledge is becoming a primary factor of production and competitive advantage in a global economy, universities face macro challenges in responding to the exponential growth in demand for higher education, and to the changing concepts of globalisation, commercialisation and competition. While Internet advances can theoretically support constructivist, learner-centred and interactive learning, challenges of Internet-enabled learning such as e-learning considered within the changing -98-

104 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); , 30 December, 2012 nature of knowledge, changing needs of society, changing teacher roles, and learner expectations need further investigation. These challenges go beyond innovative ICT implementations to the design and development of a holistic university system, that responds national and global needs, and to the community of demand. Answering the challenge entails a paradigm shift from the modern national university to a sustainable global higher learning system that provides rigorous quality in teaching and learning, and processing and application of knowledge to real-life problems in diverse cultural contexts. How we assess learning effectiveness, and whether we assess according to global and/or local standards will become increasingly important and contestable as universities seek to respond to the global issues of our time (Rajasingham, 2011). Institutionalism of the Organizations The international activities of universities dramatically expanded in volume, scope, and complexity during the past two decades. These activities range from traditional study-abroad programs, allowing students to learn about other cultures, to providing access to higher education in countries where local institutions cannot meet the demand. Other activities stress upgrading the international perspectives and skills of students, enhancing foreign language programs, and providing crosscultural understanding. Internationalisation, on the other hand, is viewed as a process that blends intercultural international dimensions into different academic activities, such as teaching, learning, and research, into the purpose and functions of higher education. The common feature in the narratives that define open distance learning and internationalisation is the blending of university services to achieve specific outcomes. (Msweli, 2012). International vs. Global Internationalization is often confused with globalization (Altbach, 2004). It defines that globalization as the economic, political, and societal forces pushing 21st century higher education toward greater international involvement. Global capital has, for the first time, heavily invested in knowledge industries worldwide, including higher education and advanced training. This investment reflects the emergence of the knowledge society, the rise of the service sector, and the dependence of many societies on knowledge products and highly educated personnel for economic growth (Altbach and Knight, 2007). Institutional approaches to organization studies focus attention on the relationships among organizations and the fields in which they operate, highlighting in particular the role of rational formal structures in enabling and constraining organizational behaviour. A key contribution of institutional studies has been the development of strong accounts of the processes through which institutions govern action. This has been accomplished in part through theoretical statements which have delineated key sets of concepts and relationships that tie institutional structures and logics to organizational forms conducted (Meyer and Rowan 1977; DiMaggio and Powell 1983; Greenwood and Hinings 1996). Although the traditional emphasis of institutional approaches to organization studies (Thomas and Roy, 2006) has been on the explanation of organizational similarity based on institutional conditions, there has over the past years emerged a new emphasis in institutional studies on understanding the role of actors in effecting, transforming and maintaining institutions and fields. Also key in the development of institutional understandings of organizational action has been the large set of empirical studies that have documented the connections among institutions, fields and organizations. These studies have catalogued the impact of institutional forces in a wide variety of sectors and geographic contexts, and at varying levels of analysis including intra-organizational -99-

105 LEADERSHIP ROLE of TURKEY for ICDEEEWA U.Demiray (Zilber, 2002), interorganizational (Leblebici et al., 1991) and international (Keohane 1989; Meyer et al. 1997). Finally, there has emerged an influential set of reviews of institutionalism in organization studies that have summarized and synthesized the major work in the area into coherent frameworks (DiMaggio and Powell 1991; Tolbert and Zucker 1996; Scott 2001; Schneiberg and Clemens 2006). The role of actors in creating new institutions has been examined primarily under the rubric of institutional entrepreneurship. DiMaggio (1988) argues that institutional entrepreneurs are central to institutional processes, since 'new institutions arise when organized actors with sufficient resources (institutional entrepreneurs) see in them an opportunity to realize interests that they value highly'. The concept of institutional entrepreneurship is important because it focuses attention on the manner in which interested actors work to influence their institutional contexts through such strategies as technical and market leadership, lobbying for regulatory change and discursive action (Suchman 1995; Fligstein 1997; Hoffman 1999; Garud et al. 2002; Maguire et al. 2004). The role of actors in the transformation of existing institutions and fields has also risen in prominence within institutional research. Institutional studies have documented the ability of actors, particularly those with some key strategic resources or other forms of power, to have significant impacts on the evolution of institutions and fields (Clemens 1993; Holm 1995; Oakes et al. 1998; Greenwood et al. 2002), including both institutional transformation and deinstitutionalization (Oliver 1992; Ahmadjian and Robinson 2001). Institutions, in this view, are the product of specific actions taken to reproduce, alter and destroy them. Jepperson's approach points to an emerging focus within institutional studies. Along with understanding the processes through which institutions affect organizational action, research has become increasingly concerned with the effects of individual and organizational action on institutions. The second category of institutional work pointed to by Oliver's discussion of deinstitutionalization is the work done by individuals and organizations in order to maintain existing institutions. Oliver (1992) highlights this form of institutional work indirectly when mentioned the failure of organizations to reproduce previously legitimated or taken-for-granted organizational actions. Thus, the reproduction and continuation of institutions cannot be taken for granted, even the most highly institutionalized technologies, structures, practices and rules require the active involvement of individuals and organizations in order to maintain them over time (Lawrence et al. 2001). Zucker (1988) argues that even among institutions, entropy is a natural tendency that needs to be overcome by organized action. Despite the potential importance of this category of institutional work, it has gained relatively little attention. As Scott (2001) notes, Handbook of Organization Studies 'most institutional scholars accord little attention to the issue of institutional persistence, and those who do disagree over what mechanisms underlie stability'. Of course, the articles by DiMaggio (1988) and Oliver (1991; 1992) are by no means the only ones that deal with institutional work. Beckert argues that institutions can provide actors with the ability to act when the 'complexity of the situation and the informational constraints do not allow them to assign probabilities to the possible consequences of choices'; at the same time, however, institutions come under pressure from agents who recognize their constraining qualities for more efficient outcomes (Beckert 1999: 779). As Scott (2001) notes in the Handbook of Organization Studies, most institutional scholars accord little attention to the issue of institutional persistence, and those who do disagree over what mechanisms underlie stability The concept of institutional strategy describes the manipulation of symbolic resources, particularly membership Access and the definition of standards, which are key aspects of the type of work -100-

106 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); , 30 December, 2012 necessary in the early stages of an institutionalization project. Fligstein (2001), in a related fashion, uses the construct of 'social skill' to describe the various tactics that social actors use to gain the cooperation of others. He further observes that the social skills used to reproduce fields are different from those used in conditions of crisis or change. These latter skills are used by entrepreneurs who 'find ways to get disparate groups to co-operate precisely by putting themselves into the positions of others and creating meanings that appeal to a large number of actors'. The paper entitled as How Organizations Change: The Role of Institutional Support Mechanisms in the Incorporation of Higher Education Visibility Strategies, develops the argument that institutional mechanisms support changes in organizational strategies in ways that contrast with the standard interpretation of institutional "iron cages" that pressure organizations to conform. Differences in the pattern of incorporation across the three strategies provide robust evidence for alternatives to a prevailing "iron cage" view of institutional pressures and constraints. These findings also reinforce the importance of specifying field-level mechanisms to supplement a focus on organization-level mechanisms. (Washington and Ventresca, 2004). Fostering Leadership and Education The question is how institutions of the academic community can collectively work together to transform themselves and their institutions with the aim of giving leadership development the priority it deserves. To address this challenge, this set of core leadership principles and values is suggested that faculty, students, administrators, and staff may wish to utilize as they consider how to go about the very critical and difficult work of institutional transformation. In short, our conception of leadership comprises the following basic assumptions: Leadership is concerned with fostering change, Leadership is inherently value-based, All people are potential leaders, Leadership is a group process. It requires a vision of what higher education will look like in the future, and a clear plan and methodology for transforming the institution to achieve this vision. All of the inter-related organizational aspects need to be addressed in the transformation process: management and leadership (e.g., transformational leadership issues, sound business practices), organization structure (e.g. flexible organizational structures, effective teamwork), strategy (e.g. market and needs analysis, strength, weaknesses, opportunity, and threat analysis) technology (e.g. upgrading IT infrastructure, hardware and software management), human resources (e.g. recruitment, staff development), and organization culture (e.g. changing and managing culture as a competitive advantage). Moreover, the transition depends not only on the efficiency of the transformation process itself but also on the commitment and entrepreneurial capacities of the senior and middle managers and staff. This may be particularly difficult for the traditional single-mode university; more accustomed with face-to-face contexts and client groups within readily identifiable local catchments. (Ulukan, 2005). In other words, a new organization could help bring together universities and professors in the region. The Role of Ngo s in Education NGOs are difficult to define and classify due to the term s inconsistent use. To attempt a classification of NGOs requires a framework that includes the orientation and the organization's level of operation. An NGO's orientation refers to the type of activities an organization takes on. These activities might include environmental, development, or advocacy work. An NGO's level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization works on, like the difference in work between -101-

107 LEADERSHIP ROLE of TURKEY for ICDEEEWA U.Demiray an international NGO and community or national NGO. One of the earliest mentions of the term "NGO" was in 1945, when the UN was created. The UN introduced the term "NGO" to distinguish between the participation of international private organizations and intergovernmental specialized agencies. According to the UN, all kinds of private organizations that are independent from government control can be recognized as "NGOs." "NGOs" cannot seek to diminish a nation's government in the shape of an opposing political party; NGOs also need to be non-criminal and non-profit. Rapid development of the non-governmental sector occurred in western countries as a result of the processes of restructuring of the welfare state. Further globalization of that process occurred after the fall of the communist system and was an important part of the Washington consensus. Globalization during the 20th century gave rise to the importance of NGOs. Many problems could not be solved within a nation. International treaties and international organizations such as the World Trade Organization were centred mainly on the interests of capitalist enterprises. In an attempt to counterbalance this trend, NGOs have developed to emphasize humanitarian issues, developmental aid and sustainable development Before the restoration of democracy, NGOs were not allowed to be registered and operate. After reestablishment of democracy NGOs, could play an effective role in many people oriented programs such as health, family planning, environment, formal and non-formal education. At present NGOs are playing a very important role to provide helpful services to the population in rural areas. Similarly it has done remarkable work in the field of literacy, family planning, population, environmental conservation and development of formal and non-formal education. Since 1950s, many many educational institutions such as schools and colleges are opening. But still more than 50 percent of the adult population is illiterate in the world. It is a fact that Education For All (EFA) could not be provided through schools alone. After 1970s, formal, non formal education and distance education should be developed to provide literacy education combined skill training to all from primary to PhD level around the world beside trainin teaching and vocational education. As a matter of fact the NGOs have shown that they are more effective and efficient role and function to provide education for all especially through traditional, formal, non-formaland distance education applications. Over the past decade the development education sector has undergone a process of change that has strengthened its policy framework and consolidated its shift from the periphery to the centre of mainstream education provision. In the mid-1990s, practitioners debated development education s position in mainstream delivery and its capacity to address key learning needs within formal and non-formal education. That debate seems far removed from today s more dynamic framework for delivery. The language of education used by nation-states as well as international intergovernmental organizations, non-governmental organizations NGO (both transnational and national), and agents of civil society (many of which belong to the aforementioned categories) contributes heavily to the self-identification of individuals. By understanding the language of each, we can reach a greater understanding of the multiple, conflicting, and overlapping educational ideologies employed across the globe. Education has played a major role in the creation of the current world in which we live, mainly because it allows us to conceptualize our surroundings as well as our interactions with those -102-

108 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); , 30 December, 2012 surroundings. Today s multicultural learning environment (online or on campus) accelerates the number of web-based programs and this shows the magnitude of the growing demand. Distance Education in the Globalization Despite the numerous and volatile changes we have undergone as a society and civilization, education still remains the most powerful force for individual and collective transformation. Change dominates our world and education is a major vehicle for initiating, managing, and sustaining or stabilizing our environments affected by change. It is through educational value that we develop the understanding and knowledge to effectively craft strategies for leading change (Kotter, 1996). Globalization and the revolution in technological communications are major forces of change in higher education. This environment, when coupled with the needs of adult learners and the rising costs of tuition at traditional and distance colleges and universities, has stimulated the emergence of for- profit, degree-granting higher education in the United States. Paper which is entitled Globalization and the Emergence of For-Profit Higher Education examines the growth of for-profit higher education, provides a cost/profit analysis, and gives examples of for-profit universities that are increasing international in scope and concludes with a discussion of the implications of these developments for colleges and universities (Morey, 2004:131). Globalization and effects of ICT specifically the Internet are criticized for cultural monopolization due to hegemony of certain states mainly the US and the UK. The critics have certain arguments that have to be taken seriously in the name of democracy and equal rights of peoples. Because ICT are an important political mean and education can be a powerful political tool; that can be used for both assimilations and/or for developing societies that are in need of such opportunities. Though there are two sides of the coin, it should be stated frankly that ICT narrow gaps and brings understandings closer. People are closer to different societies values and realize that they have more to share. Collaboration in distance education is possible as a result of development of this common understanding. But this process works both ways, in this study it is underlined that international applications of distance education can serve to further connect peoples and help promote new common values. One of the repercussions of globalization; increasing number of nonstate entities in IR is effective for education too. These organizations deal with distance education institutions with/without government support. Of course universities have welcomed distance education ahead many institutions and offer domestic and international online courses. The increasing number of open universities is academically an advantage. This is because distance education is not just a product for the global market some times; and it s pedagogic and quality related issues are very important. The learning communities that the ICT create and international channels sustaining collaboration can lead to high quality distance education programs. Globalization has affected many areas of society and will continue to shape the future of education and content delivery indefinitely. The impact of globalization has led to exceedingly higher enrollments for many universities and colleges. It has become increasingly apparent that individuals need to consistently learn new skills in order to remain employed and competitive in a knowledge and digital economy. Those individuals who cannot or will not learn new skills will have more difficulty finding employment and remaining competitive (Portugal, 2006). Distance education institutions have always managed to teach students beyond the frontiers of the jurisdiction within which they exist as physical entities. The development of Information and Communication Technologies has greatly expanded the number of institutions offering programmes on a regional or global basis. The developments of modern Information and Communication Technologies have greatly helped the emergence of global distance education systems

109 LEADERSHIP ROLE of TURKEY for ICDEEEWA U.Demiray Global web-based learning models are spreading mainly developing countries such as the US, the UK, Canada, Australia and Europe; they influence the trends, causing international relations (IR) to be influential in managerial decisions and institutional structures of cooperation. International education necessitates multidisciplinary approaches to construct better contexts for learning. Education is now more essential for people to realize their dreams and survive, especially in a global society where education is no longer an option, but a must to enter the highly competitive labor market. (Demiray and Sever, 2009, Demiray and Sever, 2011). Distance learning has become a major force by which individuals all over the world are acquiring the necessary training, skills, and education required to enter the job market. This has led to an unprecedented growth in all aspects of the distance learning industry, from the number and types of schools to the variety of technology and programs being offered. This teaching and learning modality makes time and space the regulating variables between teachers and students located anywhere, yet interacting through powerful and speedy information and communication technology systems and processors. Recent studies have indicated that, while there is a great deal of interest among both governments and institutions in inter and international institutional cooperation, the terminology of cooperation is confused and imprecise. Mergers are sometimes characterized as being an extension of inter and international institutional cooperation such as associations, sometimes they are regarded as separate, unique, and situated on a plane or continuum different from that of such structures as federations and consortia. Yet, in generic terms, mergers share a number of characteristics with other forms of cooperation, and are often pursued for the same reasons. This study investigates the origins and motivations of inter-international institutional cooperation in order to show that the various forms of cooperation, including mergers, are part of a single evolutionary continuum. This inclination toward a broader worldview, and the need for greater and more knowledge to facilitate survival amidst competition and change, has led to increased demand for education by people and nations in all corners across the globe. In turn, this need and the availability and use of information and communication systems made available through constantly increasing technologies have facilitated the increased use of Computer Mediated Learning CML, to support teaching and learning, especially via distance educational opportunities. Although the economic benefits of collaborative schemes and transfer of courses in distance education are clear, examples of collaboration between distance education institutions are rare. A reason is sought in the "organizational climate" or "ethos" of each institution engaged in distance education, which inhibits joint design and use of courses or the transfer of a course from one institution to another. This theme is examined in relation to distance education in the integrated mode system of Australian and New Zealand universities, six in all. The universities are compared in terms of six features of organizational climate of particular relevance to distance education: physical characteristics, academic organization, involvement in distance teaching, organization of distance teaching, components of distance teaching and staff attitudes to distance education. It is concluded that the considerable variation between institutions, with respect to these features, creates difficulties for collaboration. The best prospect for collaborative schemes in distance education therefore may have to lie in the use of national or international agencies to validate courses as part of a national or international higher education programme along the lines of Britain's CNAA (Bynner, 1985). Transformation as a general concept refers to some degree of change, usually significant, observed in the quality of a situation, or in the nature and trend of a phenomenon. Lippit (1973) has observed that nothing could be measured that would not display some notable difference at least between -104-

110 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); , 30 December, 2012 two successive points in time where the time interval is long enough. In distance education, transformation would refer to dimensions or levels of change over a period that has become significant in practices in the field. For example, the use of more sophisticated media, or the noticeable change in the range of programmes represents issues that would fit within a period. Rapid technological growth and advances in computer technologies have contributed to increasing use of the Internet in higher education. To remain competitive, educational institutions are pressured to embrace DE. Distance learning has changed dramatically since the 1990s to become a dominant part of the landscape of the higher education global industry of the 21st century. Today we have mega-distance learning corporations, colleges, and universities operating on all continents and offering training, continuing education, and academic degree programs in various fields. As such, many distance learning institutions have emerged to become major players in education, some becoming complements, alternatives, and even replacements to the traditional or on-campus programs and schools or educational formats. Teaching and learning modes where teachers and students or educators and learners are separated by time, distance, and location have become the most convenient and fastest, easiest ways to meet the growing demands for degrees, education, certification, and training. Distance learning opportunities respond effectively to the demands of individuals in the fast-paced globally competitive world of the 21st century. In this environment, administrators, teachers, and learners must attend to multiple tasks and responsibilities in personal and professional lives while providing and pursuing education. Despite the great convenience and benefits of distance learning opportunities, there are problems and challenges that DLAs must face in leading units, departments, and institutions offering distance education (McFarlane, 2011a). The existing body of literature is limited in coverage of faculty DE issues and presents no comprehensive theoretical base. Instead it adapts several existing theoretical frameworks. The constant evolution of globalization creates the need for entrepreneurial leaders and learners who have a strong ability to look to the future, which requires a holistic approach to innovation and change. Entrepreneurial leaders are needed to help foster a global mindset throughout institutions characterized by innovation, change and risk taking propensity while valuing social responsibility. Innovation is more than being creative or coming up with ideas. It is the ability to do things differently, which generates change and pioneers new paradigms (Engle, Mah & Sadri, 1997; Kirton, 1976, 1978). Innovation is about coming up with new ideas, products, collaborations, services and solutions that can be implemented and used. According to a study conducted by IBM s Global Business Services (2006), innovation is vital to growth and sustainability in the current era of rapid change and globalization. Innovation has become essential to the success of individuals as well as new and existing organizations. Innovation is not a new or mystical concept. An organization should have a unique vision as well as a unique innovation strategy. Innovation strategy should match the culture of an organization (Davila, Epstein & Shelton, 2006). Further, leaders must work to integrate innovation into the very core of an organization (Skarzynski & Gibson, 2008). Educational leaders, including administrators, instructors and staff members, must integrate innovation into their organizations, programs and courses to grow and maintain enrollments and programs. Further, students must be taught the importance of innovation and have the opportunity to innovate in educational settings. There are many aspects of innovation, which include fun, creativity, diversity, collaboration and the ability to trust intuition. Time must be dedicated to the -105-

111 LEADERSHIP ROLE of TURKEY for ICDEEEWA U.Demiray innovation process. However, one of the most essential elements of innovation is risk taking. The ability of distance learning administrators to effectively address these problems and challenges will significantly shape the future of online or virtual distance education. The new leader will be willing and able to; manage change and innovation; listen to and assist stakeholders, maintaining and enhancing relationships between the institution and relevant partners; embrace the realities of network environments; and ensure transformation to a new model of teaching and learning (Cleveland-Innes, 2012, 233). The Leadership Roles of De/Distance Learning Associations Similar to traditional educational administrators, distance education/learning associations DLAs or leaders must meet a variety of problems and challenges in ensuring the effective and efficient operation of distance learning schools. Valentine (2002) has identified five major problems and challenges to distance learning that administrators must deal with: quality of instruction, cost effectiveness, misuse of technology, role of technicians, and problems with equipment. One of the greatest and most complex of the problems and challenges faced by distance learning administrators is that of quality assurance in terms of the value and quality of distance learning programs. This mainly stems from the long-standing debate regarding traditional versus distance education programs and schools. The key problems-challenges among these five factors seem to be the quality of instruction, misuse of technology, and costs effectiveness, and distance learning administrators can follow several recommendations in order to deal effectively with these issues Dede (1993) also supports the idea of leadership in distance education being different from traditional education leadership, "Creating and conveying technological visions powerful enough to displace traditional educational models is one of the most challenging aspects of leadership." Care and Scanlan (2001) add, "There is a general lack of understanding regarding the experiences of administrators, faculty, and staff from other departments in the development of distance education courses." The roles and goals of DE associations need to be clear in order to get some sense of their views about the associational umbrella in general. International cooperation in DE is a very popular phenomenon today. International collaboration and integration initiatives have increased in the framework of organizational cooperation at different levels and in different issue areas. The European Union (EU) and cooperation in its different policy areas: projects for both member and non-member states are examples of how ICT can ease and facilitate interactions (Wendt, 1994: 384). Thus, an effective distance learning association should make curriculum planning and quality assurance important factors. This is where a responsibility over institutional planning and effectiveness comes into play. Despite the virtual side of distance learning, administrators still need to carry out the managerial role of controlling and monitoring for standards, whether that standard is in reference to programs, curriculum, or instructors. They need to work hard, not only in obtaining, but also maintaining relevant state and agency approval for programs. This requires DLAs to keep abreast of new developments in the fields. This can be accomplished by being members of distance learning organizations and agencies. Additionally, effective DLAs will view themselves as part of a global trend in education and seek to be actively visible and participating subscribers and members in conferences in the industry, and read and subscribe to academic and professional journals and magazines. Training and education -106-

112 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); , 30 December, 2012 are also important in dealing with these problems and challenges as DLAs further their knowledge of distance learning technologies and their leadership skills. In proving themselves to be exemplary leaders who are able to meet the challenge of 21st century leadership, DLAs must now model the way for educational value and quality that enables faculty and students to meet their goals (Kouzes & Posner, 2003). This requires effective delivery of skills and training using appropriate technology and pedagogical approaches (Entz, 2006). As effective leaders, DLAs are expected to design, implement, and maintain both value and quality in distance teaching and learning programs. The call for higher standards and quality from various stakeholders and demands for increased accountability from educational leaders and institutions stemming from the need for and attempt at educational reform (McFarlane, 2010b; Hale, 1999) have also added pressure to DLAs to create value and quality at both the beginning and end-stage of instructional programs. Moreover, the competitive market for educational credentials, students satisfaction, continuous governmental regulation and monitoring, criticisms from education watchdogs, increased number of institutions offering distance learning programs, accreditation diversity, competition and employment prospects relative to perceived degree value and quality - are demanding more and more from distance learning institutions and programs in terms of value and quality. Distance learning programs must be managed and led effectively by administrators with broad knowledge and understanding of the education industry and these regulating variables. Leaders in distance learning must constantly be aware of how to adjust, evaluate, and assess the validity of programs, content, and emerging technologies to remain competitive and viable in this new society. Educational leaders will benefit from collaboration with business and industry leaders and vice versa. Beaudoin (2002) states that education has benefited from insight and inquiry but might adopt practices from business and industry. In addition, faculty and administrators should work collaboratively in the practice and theory of online delivery methods. With the increasing changes happening throughout the world, higher education leaders need to be aware of these mutable circumstances and influence their colleges and universities to be able to adapt and transform accordingly. Higher education will need to service more individuals and educate them based on the skills necessary for employment and success (Portugal, 2006). DLAs must embrace their managerial-leadership roles that are informational, interpersonal, and decisional (Mintzberg, 1973). They manage people, systems, and processes and should take a true systems thinking approach in the distance learning. Mintzberg s model is further broken down into ten leadership responsibilities or functions with activities that DLAs can effectively apply to their duties and responsibilities. DLAs must deal effectively with information by being monitors, disseminators and spokespersons by effectively managing the flow and transfer of information to produce knowledge and ideas that effectively communicate rules, policies, and expectations. They must be able to motivate their staff and faculty members and lead organizational activities and programs as figureheads, leaders, and liaisons. Effective DLAs plan effectively in order to improve teaching and learning by preparing schedule, budget, setting priorities, and acquiring and distributing resources as needed by faculty and staff to respond to students needs. DLAs can best ensure quality of instruction by having the right people, administrator, instructional and technology experts, right technology, quality and well-designed and organized curriculum, appropriate materials, textbooks and other media sources. Effective DLAs are happy to represent their schools and programs at conferences, through media and community contact, and they identify new opportunities and projects for growth and success that will positively impact all members of the organization in their capacities as entrepreneurs, disturbance handlers, resource allocators, and -107-

113 LEADERSHIP ROLE of TURKEY for ICDEEEWA U.Demiray negotiators. Effective DLAs will understand and apply the guidelines of exemplary leadership as they seek to inspire a shared vision within the organization, unit or department. They must model the way by being examples of effective leaders and managers, and challenge others to think and work hard. They must enable others to act through empowerment and participatory leadership, and encourage faculty and staff to take a servant leadership approach to teaching and caring for students who are the ultimate customers and reason for being (Kouzes & Posner, 2003). Emerging leaders in distance education will need to be well versed in the business functions of their universities and colleges so that online systems and structures operate smoothly and effectively for students, faculty, and support staff. The move to distance education requires that institutions effectively utilize business plans to a greater extent than many administrators are used to doing (Folkers, 2005). The implementation of online distance programs can be daunting when considering the areas necessary for support that will incur additional costs such as on-going faculty support/training, course delivery, course design, student support services such as billing/accounting, library services, advising, IT support systems, online processing, online registrations, and course management software (CMS). The 2002 National Survey of Information Technology in Higher Education, conducted by the Campus Computing Project, found that only 40.5% of the colleges and universities surveyed were capable of processing credit card payments from campus Web sites (Folkers, 2005). Course management software (CMS) should be carefully considered since this expense can increase substantially over time. Developing one's own proprietary program or using systems such as ANGEL, WebCT or Blackboard can become more costly than an institution originally presumed, especially when support systems need to be developed campus wide. Another consideration for distance education leaders is that these support systems are able to interface with existing IT systems throughout the institution whereby adding to the value relating to these expenses. Emerging leaders in distance education not only must be transformational leaders but must also become situational leaders who are innovative visionaries that can motivate, energize, inspire, and induce others to move forward while fully articulating a shared and competitive distance learning agenda. Beaudoin (2002) states that emerging leaders in distance education need a variety of skills that are constantly refined and those include resource mobilization, needs assessment, fitting technology to needs, program evaluation and accreditation, policy formulation, strategic planning, operationalizing ideas, market analysis, implementing online infrastructure, collaborating with partners, training and support for faculty, and mentoring the next generation of leaders. The move towards e-learning along with emerging leaders whom assess the effectiveness of distance education modalities will continue to offer education to a broader market share. (Portugal, 2006). Leaders create and convey compelling images of how our reach is much less than our potential grasp; they redefine people's paradigms about what is possible. In contrast, competent managers are adept at organizing operations so that an institution's efficiency in accomplishing plans is optimized. This is a vital task often neglected by leaders who do not understand management, to their later regret, for good administration involves both envisioning and operationalizing. Leadership requires developing both instruction-oriented technologies and technology-intensive learning-by-doing approaches; applying this combination of pedagogical strategies necessitates numerous assumption-breaking changes in the organizational context of the classroom and the roles of teachers, parents, and students. Creating and conveying technological visions powerful enough to displace traditional educational models is one of the most challenging aspects of leadership. In conclusion, leadership is a role fraught with difficulties, requiring both wisdom and maturity. In -108-

114 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); , 30 December, 2012 articulating the requirements of leadership is to encourage everyone to lead, always. If each of us were to act in the ways described above-every day, however imperfectly-educational technology and distance education application could be the driveshaft for restructuring education and shaping a bright future for our society (Dede, 1993). The most radical implication of the model concerns the relative role of those whose work has not traditionally been seen as essential to continuing education practice: this includes administrative, marketing, finance, and IT staff, among others. The model reveals opportunities for leaders and managers in these areas to assert themselves in new ways throughout the organization. Significant professional growth and evelopment on their part will be required to understand how their practices merge and blend with other domains and to establish their credibility in those domains (Moroney, 2007). Major Associations in Distance Education and Open and Distance Learning (Odl) Around the World Major professional associations in distance education (DE) and open and distance learning (ODL). International organisations include the: 1. Commonwealth of Learning (COL); 2. International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE); and 3. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). Regional organisations are include the: 4. African Distance Learning Association (ADLA); 5. African Council of distance education (ACDE) 6. Asian Association of Open Universities (AAOU); 7. Canadian Association for Distance Education (CADE); 8. European Association of Distance Teaching Universities (EADTU); 9. Open and Distance Learning Association of Australia (ODLAA); 10. Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organisation Regional Open Learning Center (SEAMOLEC); 11. United States Distance Learning Association (USDLA). 12. Brazilian Association for Distance Education (ABED) Recognition has been expanding rapidly of the major role that DE and ODL can play in the development of human resources. The establishment of single- and dual-mode DE institutions and consortia demonstrates that DE and ODL are now perceived as acceptable and reputable means for providing education to all. The increasing number of institutions offering DE programmes has increased the need for institutions to share their experiences and to collaborate. Regional, national and international organisations are continually under development in the field, and are playing significant roles in developing DE concepts and implementation methods. Analysis of the data revealed that the participants believed that DE associations contribute to the professional lives in a number of ways. Close examination of this data indicated that while the participants identified a number of institutional and individual benefits, each of these benefits could be assigned to one of three subcategories: benefits to members, benefits to the field of DE, and benefits to education as a whole. What is ICDEEEWA is? ICDEEEWA is suggested as the association for the region Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, Baltic, Turkic, Cacousian, Middle East, Arab Peninsula and North Africa which are included the countries asuch as Algeria, Azarbaijan, Belarus, Bulgaria, Egypt, Estonia, Finland, Greece, Georgia, Jordan, Hungary, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, -109-

115 LEADERSHIP ROLE of TURKEY for ICDEEEWA U.Demiray Macedonia, Moldova, Morocco, Norway, Oman, Palestine, Poland, Romania, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Syria, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, Turkey, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan and so on. Why ICDEEEEWA is Needed This study is mentioning the distance education practices in Turkey, and will examine and discuss the role of leadership which should be undertaken by Turkey patronage in the region of Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa regions countries. Figure 1: Regional Map of ICDEEWA It is a well-known fact that the international distance education organizations in the world are not well organized and functional in this area or for the regional distance education institutions. To fill this gap, it will be argued that Turkey might have a leadership role in the distance education field in the region and can organize the practices of the regional countries in academy and practice. Based on this argument, the structure of the potential organization and the regulation of the organization will be discussed. And also, the draft of the constitution of the recommended association will be presented, which will be regulated and redesigned in accordance with the others. Thanks to this council, nearly 50 countries will have the chance to introduce their distance education practices to the world. These countries can use ICDEEWA to discuss practical and scientific issues via conferences or journals, and they can even establish sub-distance education associations in their region or in their countries. Some of those countries are Algeria, Azarbaijan, Belarus, Bulgaria, Egypt, Estonia, Finland, Greece, Gorgia, Jordan, Hungary, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Moldova, Mogolia, Morocco, Norway, Oman, Palestine, Poland, Romania, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Syria, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, Turkey, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan and so on

116 Leadership Role Of Turkey for ICDEEEWA Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); , 30 December, 2012 Turkey is a developing country located between Europe, Middle East and Asia. Turkey s highly strategic geopolitical position gives the country the role of a mediating bridge of culture and facilitator of regional trade and politics. The roots of distance education in Turkey can be traced back to early 1920s. Correspondence study was considered one of the main solutions for neverending demand for formal higher education in Turkey. After several unsuccessful attempts, Anadolu University was established a solid distance education system in 1982 that has been helping governments meet quite a big portion the demand for higher education in Turkey. Anadolu University was established in 1981 from an older institution, the Academy of Eskisehir, Economics and Commercial Sciences (EAECS). In accordance with the Higher Education Act of 1981, it was also authorized to provide distance education in Turkey on a national scale. As a result in 1982 the former Faculty of Communication Sciences of the EAECS was transformed to become the Faculty of Open Education, or, as it is called commonly, the Open Education Faculty (OEF) (McIsaac, Murphy and Demiray, 1988). Anadolu University is one of the pre-eminent innovative universities in Turkey. Anadolu University houses 12 faculties, 3 of which are distance education, 7 schools, 4 vocational schools, 9 institutes (4 graduate schools, 5 institutes) and 28 research centers and units. The University is proud to have implemented one of the most successful distance education programs in the world, which is taken as a model by many institutions. Today, the number of students in the 3 distance education faculties are 930 thousand for BA and totally 1,6 million has. One of the major strengths of the University is the academic staffs who are committed to excellence in teaching and research in an academically and technologically enhanced environment. They in return, strive to pass on their knowledge and skills to their students in a dynamic and creative teaching environment. Anadolu University Rectorate (Left) Open Education Faculty (Right) Anadolu University, a state university, houses 12 faculties (first cycle), 3 of which are distance education, 1 State Conservatory and 6 schools (first cycle), 3 vocational schools (short cycle), 5 graduate schools (second & third cycle) and 38 research centres and units. Besides providing new capacities for the demands in Turkish Higher Education, Anadolu University Distance Education System distributes the associate degree, bachelor s degree and degree completion programs for the personal in the national education, health, theology, horticulture, police, the Turkish Air Force, Army, Navy and Gendarme via its distance education -111-

117 LEADERSHIP ROLE of TURKEY for ICDEEEWA U.Demiray model. Moreover, Anadolu University provides many people with large contributions by training human resource for prestige and international organizations thus helping raise the educational levels of Turkish citizens. Anadolu University Distance Education System has 35 bachelors and associate degree programs with the enrolled Turkish students, who live in Turkey and also Turkish Republic of North Cyprus and 6 Western Europe Countries and provides these students with educational services via a coeval distance education system. Today, 40% of the students, who attend their education, in Turkey is the students of Anadolu University and Open Education Faculty. The majority of them are the students who cannot find a change to attend traditional higher education. In this aspect, Open Education Faculty is proud of itself to provide educational opportunities to students with physical, hearing and visually impaired disabilities and people in prisons without making discriminations. Anadolu University is the dominant distance higher education provider; other higher education institutions have been showing a great interest in offering distance education especially since late 1990s as a result of advancement in computers and computer networks. Sakarya University, Ankara University, Ahmet Yesevi University, and some others are offering e-learning solutions to overcome huge demand for higher education for some years. These efforts will be detailed further sections of this chapter. Finally, in terms of higher or even primary and secondary education, distance education seems as a convenience in many countries where there is enough number of seats for every individual who would like to get in a formal educational institution. However, for countries like Turkey distance education, or e-learning can be considered as a necessity to meet the education demand of large amounts. So, we would like to take this chance to express that e-learning in Turkey should be evaluated this nature is in mind. Transition to Information Society and the Importance of E-Learning By the same token, education proves to be an important mean of achieving this type of interaction. Here, distance education via ICT, is the appropriate mean of reaching communities far away and creating relations with them despite long distances and limitations of traditional methods of education. It is then possible to be in contact with masses and share information, values and world view. Countries should be ready to use ICT for the transition to the information society. E-readiness is one of the important aspects of the E-learning. E-readiness is the ability to use Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) to develop one s economy and to foster one s welfare. In Turkey, all classes in formal education are offered as face to face, and distance learning is almost inexistent in the practice. Face to face learning, despite many positive aspects, is among the main reasons of the limited capacity. This may be overcome through conducted certain classes in formal education through e-learning. (Demirci, Yamamoto, and Demiray, 2011). Depending on the quality of programs and characteristics of the classes, if 10-30% of the program was made through e-learning, a noteworthy capacity increase may be obtained at the universities. The Higher Education Strategy of Turkey, as the preference was made for distance learning and increasing the capacity of higher education, Turkey must take new steps to develop e-learning applications. (Demiray, 2010) -112-

118 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); , 30 December, 2012 Although an Informatics National Committee was established in Turkey in 1999 under the body of Board of Higher Education (YOK) and certain applications were attempted in the area of e-learning, a development as quick as expected could not be obtained. The required initiatives should be taken to revive this learning channel by evaluating this experience and by providing the necessary resources for making the payments that might encourage those who would prepare classes with this program. Special pedagogic approaches and design are required to obtain a successful result in open learning. E-learning is not a cheap substitute of formal programs. These programs should be designed as specifically based on pedagogical knowledge and have the required support systems. In the transition process the information about programs undergo constant reevaluation and change. With the conditions that the changes are updated on Anadolu Information Package to ensure students reception of correct and current information Open and Distant Education Programs have been excluded from ECTS Label Application. The present rules and regulations exclude students enrolled in Open and Distance Education from participating in European Student Mobility Programs. Given the above mentioned factors, the exclusion of Open and Distance Education Programs from the ECTS Label Application need not present a problem. Conclusion and Recommendations DLAs must lead faculty to achieve established program goals and objectives by providing access to training in the use of technology, development of pedagogy, increased interaction with students, coordination with faculty development staff and administrator, and continued education and training to sharpen skills in teaching. DLAs must provide faculty members with definitions concerning standards, value, and quality. Some practical methods that DLAs can use in developing faculty skills and effectiveness include: assisting faculties in the use and application of technologies in the teaching process, developing a faculty newsletter which provides tips and guidelines as well as up-to-date knowledge and information on distance learning, creating a faculty research and writing department or center that oversees faculty publications in professional and peer-reviewed journals, attendance and participation in conferences, and developing high collaborative efforts between and among faculty, staff, and administrator to create common value and agreement. Effective DLAs understand that the environment in which they lead is a rapidly changing one demanding continuous learning and adaptation. They see the need for managing and dealing with change, and through flexibility, share their leadership responsibilities and rewards. DLAs must ensure that their staff and faculty are qualified both academically and professionally, and that these professionals are keen on delivering only quality instructions and high customer value. According to the authors every organization should have required resources, skills and attitudes to be able to implement e-learning. A similar approach with several changes can be used in educational settings. One of the important differences is that the educational institutions should focus on learners and -113-

119 LEADERSHIP ROLE of TURKEY for ICDEEEWA U.Demiray instructors. For instance, in terms of technology, administrators of educational institutions should ask themselves whether learners they targeted have access to computers and Internet to be able to attend the online courses. Also they have to be sure that their instructors are able to access the technology to be able to implement and produce instructional materials. In summary, an educational institution may assess its readiness for e-learning by analyzing the resources it possesses, and the skills and attitudes of its learners, instructors, staff, as well as administrators. In addition available vendors and/or strategic partners might be very beneficial for the success of an e-learning initiative. These resources, skills, and attitudes are related to technology, innovation, and people factors. In the light of these factors and constructs to assess e-learning initiatives in Turkey we can easily identify several trends and issues. For instance, in terms of resources, a big majority of the educational institutions as well as corporations heavily rely on vendors management, design and development capabilities. Although they wish to have their own resources, for example learning management systems (LMSs), due to shortage of qualified technical staff they are having difficulty to build new systems or adapt available ones. The shortage of staff and technology as well as knowhow force them work with limited number of vendors who usually prefers to sell one product to many and to keep close ties with the institutions to be able to make as much profit as they can. Therefore we see same course materials offered by different universities under different or same courses. Limited number of educational institutions and corporations are able to establish better relationship with the vendors. Another issue is about the instructional strategies employed in e-learning courses. The majority of the learning environments are still designed to promote traditional one-way communication flow as a result of computer-based instruction tradition. And a big number of those who were able to shift their design do nothing but imitating face-two-face strategies into online environments. A good evidence of this trend can be observed in the activities done by using synchronous communication tools. In quite a number of institutions these tools are being used to lecture or to conduct question and answer session. On the other hand, learning in networked era is not same as in industrial and information eras. It requires a different perspective to design learning environments. Authentic tasks, ongoing assessment, respect to preconceptions, differentiated learning are some of the components educators should consider designing e-learning environments that really work. The vendors limited background in learning theories also does not help institutions and corporations offer effective learning experiences. Additionally seeing e-learning as an opportunity to make (or cut) more money rather than a way to help learners learning is one of the major issues. This belief leads institutions and corporations kick off e-learning initiatives without starting a cultural change in institution, careful planning and budgeting, quality in the LMSs and ICT, adequate training, support and time-release for teaching staff, and experienced instructional design and ICT support personnel. As a conclusion, dissatisfaction and frustration usually appears among learners and society in general. Education is a field of social responsibility from the point of the government and very important for the countries. The government should intend to improve citizens with these educational efforts. Besides the business approach to education is individual or institutional. This also enhances value creation policies with its educational system. E-learning brings a lot of educational opportunities to the people who are living in rural areas, workers who can not able to attend face-to-face courses, people who have some limitations and women who encourage improving themselves

120 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); , 30 December, 2012 In the last 20 years, with the introduction of the existing information on electronic environment to the economy and the business world, and as a result of their direction in this way, individuals also perceived the importance of E-learning in a short time (Yamamoto, 2009). Turkey is a country between three continents and several cultures. Some descriptive information about Turkey in general and the education system has provided and background of today s e- learning approaches of Turkey has also explained in this chapter. Since e-learning is still in infancy stage in Turkey, there are a lot of issues to be solved. Dependence to the vendors, shortage of qualified staff as well as instructors, exaggerated expectations, unappealing and ineffective learning materials, preconceptions about learning at a distance, and lack of legislations are some of the significant issues that should be taken into account. It has been mentioned here that, e-learning is one the fastest growing innovation in Turkey same as all around the world. Since early 2000 quite a number of Turkish companies and especially higher education institutions have been literally jumping into e-learning wagon without any frontend analyses. The results are not promising: only limited number of companies have reached or approached their expectations from their e-learning initiatives (mainly providing cost-effective training) and still Anadolu University, a long time distance education provider, is the dominant e-learning provider along with only couple of others such as Sakarya University and Ankara University. Not to mention primary and secondary education: there is almost no successful initiative about integration of e- learning into classrooms. On the other hand e-learning is increasingly diffusing in corporate settings as well in Turkey. The most significant reasons for e-learning are related to the cost cutting for the companies. However some banks and retail companies has started to give more importance to e- learning to educate their staff and customers. On the other hand, social networking, mobile learning, Web 2.0, open courseware, communities of practice, informal and non-formal learning, standard-based learning, user-generated content, ongoing assessment are among the major trends in e-learning implementations all over the world. In Turkey, unfortunately we do not observe these trends. Instead extensive use of self-study materials and synchronous communication tools as well as large number of classes, degree or certificate programs on very specific fields, blending with face-to-face lectures can be seen as major trends. Governments have a very crucial role for encourage these kinds of programmes. E-learning should be used primary, secondary, tertiary and higher education. There should be an e-learning readiness scale for the needs and future plans for e-learning. On the other hand there is also a social resistance for this new kind of systems. Since 1980 s Anadolu University s Open Faculty s efforts are significant. Also with the new technologies there is a great tendency towards Internet and mobile Internet which is also very important for eliminate the resistance for distance education. Based on this information, it is clear that a regional organization, tentatively called ICDEEEWA, can serve the needs of the region's 50-plus countries. A centrally located country like Turkey with a history of involvement with distance education is a logical place to situate a regional organization to foster better distance education. If we are to reduce illiteracy substantially, we must look to regional cooperation in addition to national and local initiatives. Acknowledgement: My special sincerely thanks go tomy dear colleagues Dilek Alyunay, Ilknur Istifci, Günseli Ozkan, Paul Kawachi, Steve McCrea Wolfram Laaser entina Valuezfor their valuable contribution, giving their thoughts by reading, making a criticism during this study and for proof readings

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125 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE) Vol. 2(2), pp , 30 December, 2012 Available online at Teaching Methods and Techniques Used By Teaching Staff during Lectures As Seen By Candidate Teachers (The Example of Bayburt) Article history Received: Received in revised form: Accepted: Key words: Constructivism, teaching methods and techniques, teaching staff, candidate teachers Sema ALTUN YALÇIN * Department of Science Education, Erzincan University, Erzincan, Turkey Sinan YALÇIN Science Institute, Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey Sakıp KAHRAMAN Çanakkale 18 Mart University Department Of Science Education, Çanakkale, Türkiye Sibel AÇIŞLI Artvin Çoruh University, Department Of Science Education, Artvin, Türkiye Zeynel Abidin YILMAZ Kilis 7 Aralık University, Department Of Science Education, Kilis, Türkiye The purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which teaching staff are using constructivist approach in teaching methods and techniques they employ during lectures. Sample group of the study is provided by 389 students, 190 of which are enrolled at Science Teaching Department and 199 of which are enrolled at Class Teaching Department of Bayburt Faculty of Education. Measuring device developed by (Sözbilir, Şenocak and Dilber, 2006) was used during the study. Measuring device, consisting of 28 items, was examined by experts in the area and reliability test was conducted. At the end of the study, it has been determined that candidate teachers do not sufficiently employ their activities based on constructivist approach in their teaching methods and techniques that they use during their lectures. Introduction The newest and the most up-to-date teaching method of today is considered to be the constructivist approach. This approach emphasizes the process of construction which means constructing the knowledge and rebuilding the information (Zhao, Zhang, Wang and Chen, 2005). According to the constructivist approach, knowledge is constructed through the individual s own way of living, observation, commentary and mental thinking processes (Horstman and White, 2002; Aslan, 2003; Plourde and Alawiye, 2003; Balım, Aydın and Evrekli, 2006; Adams, 2006; Saunders, 2009). That is, the individual intends to constitute a meaning related to the information on his/her mind and to ascribe the meaning s/he constitutes to her/himself. In other words, individuals construct learning not in its form presented to them but in a form they build within their mind (Yaşar, 1998; Driscoll, 2000; Chen, Burry-Stock and Rovegno, 2000;Kıvınen and Pekka, 2003; Plourde and Alawiye, 2003; Özmen, 2004; Pesen, 2005; Balım, Aydın and Evrekli, 2006; Bonner and Chen, 2009). * Correspondence.: Erzincan University, Department of Science Education, Erzincan, Turkey, [email protected]

126 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); , 30 December, 2012 The constructivist approach paves the way not for the learners to remember the information but for developing various scientific process abilities such as learning by experience, self-renewal, doing scientific research, logical thinking, critical thinking, understanding and using the information, self-regulation, mental projection, problem solving, establishing hypothesis by dynamic and logical thinking and producing possible solutions (Akgün, 2000; Ray, 2002; Austin, 2004; Adams, 2006; Altun, Turgut and Büyükkasap, 2008). Also, in addition to its supporting the mental development of the students, it also assists the students for gaining the responsibility of self-learning with the help of the teachers support (Akdeniz and Devecioğlu, 2001; Warwick and Stephenson, 2002; Baylor and Kitsantas, 2005; Altun, 2008). It is inevitable to see the changes in teachers roles in learning environments where constructivist approach which anticipates radical changes in teachers roles is applied (Richetti and Sheerin, 1999 ; Good and Brophy, 2000; Bay, 2008; Yeşilyurt, 2011). In courses which are carried out according to the constructivist approach, the teacher is not the one who transfers information but s/he instead carries the feature of being an individual taking the responsibility of directing or guiding the student (Vermette and Foote, 2001; Evrekli and et al ). This approach gives the teacher the environmental organiser, the director and the guide roles, not the role of the teacher (Terhart, 2003; Bukova and Alkan, 2005; Bay, 2008; Yeşilyurt, 2010). Also, in this approach, in addition to the fact that the teacher takes the role of a mentor for the students configuration of the information, s/he gives examples from daily life and makes them find correlations between the new information they encounter and their previous knowledge. In short, according to the constructivist approach, the teacher s role is to be a mentor for the students and provide them with proper opportunities for the construction of the information (Taber, 2000; Horstman and White, 2002). Ministry of National Education has given up its conventional understanding and has put into practice a new program based on the constructivist approach which matches up with the modernisation process (Arslan, 2005). If real applicators are not reached in a recently applied program, the program may fail and there may be great loss of time and labour (Semerci, 2007). As one may understand, it is necessary for the teachers who are going to apply this program to have high-level theoretical information about the program and to be able to apply the program well enough so that this program can be performed successfully. This means that the teachers should know the program very well, internalize it, and they should be capable of applying this program (Akgün and et al, 2005; Arı and Bayram, 2011). But teachers fall behind those changes in education and they demand education for themselves about this issue in order to solve this problem (Akpınar and Aydın, 2007). This mission belongs to pre-service and in-service educational programs which educate the teachers (Richardson, 1999), and it is thought that it is necessary today to carry out the teachers education in accordance with the constructive method (Richardson, 1999). The reason is that it is an absolute necessity for the teachers and teacher candidates to be in a position to apply the constructivist method and to have the capacity to solve problems faced during the application of the program (Richardson, 1999; Casas, 2004). There is a positive change in the opinions of the teachers about teaching, who were given in-service education in accordance with the constructivist approach, compared to the ones who were not given this education. In this educational process, the teachers are able to see how to perform the application and what kind of mistakes they made when they applied the constructivist approach in their courses in a better way. Furthermore, by seeing the problems faced during the application of the constructivist approach, teachers can find better and different solutions to the problems in their classes (Kıldan and Temel, 2008). It is also necessary to give importance to pre-service university education of the teacher candidates just like their in-service education (Cochran-Simith, 2001; Matthews, 2002; Lunenberg, 2002; Akar, 2003; Oğuz, 2009; Arı and Bayram, 2011). Taking pre-service education into consideration, it is thought that it is necessary to educate the teachers of the future in accordance with the constructivist approach if they are going to apply a teaching based on the constructivist approach in schools in the future (Abdal-Haqq, 1998; Arslan, 2007; Arı and Bayram, 2011). The teachers of the future who have been educated in a constructivist environment can form a meaningful link between theories and practice (Kesal and Aksu, 2005). The constructivist activities in teacher training programs provide the teacher candidates with the possibility of -121-

127 Teaching Methods and Techniques Used By Teaching S.ALTUN YALÇIN, S.YALÇIN, S.KAHRAMAN, S.AÇIŞLI & Z.A.YILMAZ improving their abilities in concepts, planning, teaching and reflecting (So and Watkins, 2005). Indeed, the teacher candidate who has been involved in constructivist learning environments knows better the application steps of the constructivist approach, the role of the teacher and the student, what kind of problems a student might have in what type of situations and how these problems can be dealt with. This provides them with the possibility of empathizing with the student s situation and guiding them more easily in their future career (Yanpar Şahin, 2003; Altun, 2008). The teacher candidates who got their education in constructivist learning environments do not only improve themselves in the constructivist approach but they can also improve their knowledge necessary for their future career, pedagogical formation and general culture. For instance, thanks to the active learning which is one of the basics of the constructivist method provided for them, there can be a meaningful learning in their field knowledge (Berry and Loughran, 2002; Akar and Yıldırım, 2004) and they can learn how to learn (Pankratius andyoung, 1995; Cook, Smagorinsky, Fry, Konopak and Moore, 2002; Gürol, 2002). At the same time, they may gain high-level thinking abilities such as scientific process abilities (Gürdal, Şahin and Yalçınkaya, 2002; Altun, 2008). Additionally, teacher candidates who are educated through the constructivist approach learn how to measure their students performance and there may be positive changes in their attitude towards being a teacher (Bay, 2010). When we analyse teaching education programs, we see that the education given to teacher candidates is generally from theory towards application (Kesal and Aksu, 2005) and these programs are not able to provide the teacher-candidate students with necessary knowledge and ability so that they can apply the teaching programs in their working experiences (Doğan, 2005; Arı and Bayram, 2011). Moreover, educational faculty students are not qualified enough with the constructivist approach, which is the basic of contemporary teaching programs (Arı and Bayram, 2011). Teacher candidates are taught information types about how to teach and then they are expected to use this information in schools where they work. However, these information types are forgotten by the teacher candidates at the end of the educational process or they are not used at all (Kroll, 2004 ; Kesal and Aksu, 2005). Various studies have begun in our country in order to reconsider the educational system. Especially, Council of Higher Education has started a study about teacher training and reconstructing the educational faculties since A reconstruction has been made as an outcome of the studies conducted altogether by the Ministry of National Education, educational faculty representatives of the universities and the Council of Higher Education, and some changes have been made in the names of the departments and programs as well as the names of the courses and their contents (Şişman and Acat, 2003). Because what is expected from the universities in the information age is that instead of being institutions generating information for specific groups behind closed doors, they should be able to produce information, keep it, make it common and help the ones using this information (Çağıltay et al., 2007). Therefore, the universities should stick into their duties in order to construct a more effective educational environment (Çelikten, Şanal and Yeni, 2005; Sadi et al., 2008). In order to do this, it is necessary to make the qualities and capacities of some factors such as the teaching staff better (Aydın, 1998). It is obvious at the same time that it is necessary to reorganise the teaching programs and course contents of the educational faculties in accordance with the new program and with the intention of introducing the philosophy and general approach of the developed programs (Erdoğan, 2007; Arslan, 2007). Especially, it is necessary to focus on the teaching staff of the educational faculties in order to have good teachers in the future. Nevertheless, there is not enough teaching staff which is qualified enough in order to be able to create qualified teacher candidates in educational faculties (Aslan, 2003). To have qualified teachers, it should be kept in mind that it is very important to have a teacher educating teacher type (Küçükahmet, 1992; Nas, 1992; Semerci, 1998; Doğan, 2005). Because these teacher candidates are affected a lot by their teachers behaviours and approaches rather than what they tell them and their way of teaching (Gözütok, 1988). The applications made by the teachers in class and their behaviours draw the attention of the students and they can be taken as models (Köseoğlu, 1994; Taşpınar and Tuncer, 2002). Also, teachers usually use the -122-

128 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); , 30 December, 2012 methods that have been used by their own teachers in their classes (Pankratius and Young, 1995; Korthagen and Kesel, 1999 ; Woolley and et al., 2004). Therefore the teaching staff members are expected to have the qualities necessary to be found in the teachers educated by them and they are expected to show this within their own behaviours (Bilen, 1992; Köseoğlu, 1994; Semerci, 2007). In this respect, constructivist roles are expected from the constructivist teaching staff (Rainer and Guyton, 1999; Goubeaud and Yan, 2004). The teaching staff member should be an example to the teacher candidates through both his/her behaviours and approaches in their courses and the teaching methods s/he employs in class. Thus, the teaching staff members are expected to have enough information about the new, contemporary teaching methods that are going to be applied in class and they should also be able to perform them effectively. Especially, it is necessary for the teaching staff members to have sufficient knowledge and experience about the constructivist approach which forms the basic philosophy of the educational systems today. The most important of all is that the use of the constructivist approach by the teaching staff members in their courses is important in terms of the teacher candidates understanding of how to conduct a lesson through the constructivist approach and of the roles of the teachers and the students. For the teacher candidates who take their teachers as models, it can be easier in their future career to apply the constructivist approach. In this respect, in this study, the aim is to determine to what extend the teaching staff members employ the constructivist method in the teaching methods and techniques used by them in their courses. Literature In the study conducted by Gözütok (1988), the aim has been to determine the consistency between the teaching of some professional courses in teacher training and the behaviours of the teaching staff members. Ten teaching staff members from six different education faculties were involved in this study. At the end of the study, it was found out that teacher candidates are mostly affected by the teaching staff members education them. In the study made by Akgöl (1994), the aim has been to make a comparison between the teaching staff at faculties of education and the opinions of the students about the qualifications of an ideal teaching staff member, and the suitability of the teaching staff members in their own institutions to these qualifications. The qualifications that are expected to be found in teaching staff members were analysed in terms of personality, profession, measurement and assessment. 350 last year students and 153 teaching staff members from three different education faculties were taken as the sample group. Different evaluations were made by the students and the teaching staff members in accordance with their faculties in terms of their expectations of finding these qualifications in their own teaching staff members. There was a meaningful difference between the opinions of the students and the teaching staff members about the necessity of the dimensions of personality, profession, measurement and assessment, human relations, which is expected to be found in an ideal teaching staff member. Method The study was conducted at Bayburt University Faculty of Education in 2008/2009 academic period. Since participation in this study was based on voluntariness, last year students stated that they were quite busy and tired and they did not want to participate in it. The sample group of the study were composed of 190 teacher candidates going on their education at the Department of Science Teaching (first year: 82, second year: 77 and third year: 31) and 199 teacher candidates going on their education at the Department of Primary-School Teaching (first year: 57, second year: 74 and third year: 68), all of which were 398 participants in total. In the study, the measurement tool obtained through literature was employed (Sözbilir, Şenocak and Dilber, 2006). The measurement tool which was made of 28 items was examined by the experts and looking at the calculations of reliability reapplied to the scale, it was determined that the Cronbach Alpha Reliability coefficient would be

129 Teaching Methods and Techniques Used By Teaching S.ALTUN YALÇIN, S.YALÇIN, S.KAHRAMAN, S.AÇIŞLI & Z.A.YILMAZ The scale was composed of four parts including general teaching methods, specific teaching methods, field knowledge and measurement assessment. The students were asked to indicate their level of agreement with the given definition in a four-choice scale of 1 (never), 2 (sometimes), 3 (frequently) and 4 (always). The first category (General teaching activities) was developed to understand whether the use of the teaching activities by the teachers were useful in the students understanding of the topic (questions 1-7, 28). The second category (Specific teaching activities) involves the activities used by the teachers in their courses in order to make the lesson more challenging (resemblance, experimental performance, different examples and various explanations) (questions 8-13, 25, 26, 27). For the third category (field knowledge), students opinions about the satisfactoriness of their teacher s professional knowledge (Physics, Chemistry etc.) were taken (questions 14-18). As for the fourth category (measurement-assessment), the capabilities of the teachers in evaluating the students in units, lessons or shorter activities were measured (questions 19-24). Findings The results of this study which aims to determine to what extend the teaching staff members apply the basic elements of the constructivist approach according to the teacher candidates have been given below as figures and tables. In each figure, question groups given in measurement tool have been given altogether. The figures show the average of the answers given to the questions by the students in different classes. The answers given by the students to the questions which have approximately the same main idea are mostly consistent with each other. This is thought to be an indicator of the fact that the students answered the scale sincerely. General Teaching activities involve items such as Our teachers use models when necessary so that we could understand Science topics more easily or The way that our teacher does a lesson makes me think about the topic. As also seen in Figure 1, according to the results of the answers given to the second question, it can be understood that the teaching staff members give their students the chance to speak about their own opinions. When the answers given to the questions 1, 3, 4, 5 and 6 are examined, it can be noticed that the teachers do not give enough place in their teaching to the activities such as model using, doing confirmative activities, trying to increase the interest of the students in Science lessons, giving the students the opportunity to tell their viewpoints about the subject and directing the students towards a constructivist thinking through the activities during the lessons. Moreover, the results show that the students consider the teachers to be sufficient enough in giving homework that motivates them to do research related to the lesson. When it comes to the answers given to the question 28, it is observed that the teaching staff members would ask the students if they understood the topic and they would retell the parts that they were not able to understand enough once more. 3,5 2,5 3 1,5 2 1 st class 2 nd class 3 rd class 0,5 1 0 Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5 Question 6 Question 7 Question 28 Figure 1. The averages of the answers given by the Science Teaching students to the questions about general teaching activities. In the section under the title of Specific teaching activities, some items can be found such as Our teachers do experiments so that we can learn Science topics better, Our teachers use visual materials so that we -124-

130 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); , 30 December, 2012 can understand the topics better, and our teachers talk about the historical development of the scientific inventions in courses. When the answers given by the Science teacher candidates to these items are examined, it can be commented that in general, they think in a negative way a little bit. But if the answers given to the definition of Our teachers are interested in only a few students during the lesson, which is item 21, are analysed, it can be observed that the students give very positive answers. Therefore, it can be inferred from the results achieved that the teaching staff members try to show their interest in all students in their lessons or they try to do so at least. The distribution of the answers given to the questions 9, 10,11, 13,25,26 and 27 show that the teachers do not do enough experiments during their courses, they talk about the historical development of the scientific inventions very little, and they do not use enough visual material. Also, it can be inferred from the data collected that the teachers do not give enough space to different teaching methods so that the students can understand the lesson better, that they do not use technological tools enough and that they give their lesson mostly in a teacher-centred way. When we look at the eighth item, we can comment that they are much better in giving examples from daily life. 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1 0,5 0 soru 8soru 9 soru 10 soru 11 soru 12 soru 13 soru 25 soru 26 soru sınıf 2. sınıf Figure 2. The averages of the answers given by Science Teaching students to the questions about specific teaching methods In this section under the title of Field Knowledge, it has been attempted to determine the thoughts of the students about their teachers field knowledge. It is obvious from the answers given to the questions 14 and 15 that the teachers have a command in the topics that they tell their students and they are able to answer the questions asked by the students. However, if we have a look at the items 16, 17 and 18 from Figure 3, we can say that the teachers do not talk enough about the relation between Science and technology, that they do not focus much on how the scientific inventions were achieved, and that they mention the significance of Science in our daily life very little. 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1 0,5 0 question14 question15 question16 question 17 question 18 1 st class 2 nd class 3 rd class Figure 3. The averages of the answers given by the Science Teaching students to the questions about field knowledge In this section, the measurement-assessment methods used by the teaching staff members have been evaluated in accordance with the students viewpoints. According to the answers given by the students to the question 21, it is seen that the teachers give more importance to the students making comments and -125-

131 Teaching Methods and Techniques Used By Teaching S.ALTUN YALÇIN, S.YALÇIN, S.KAHRAMAN, S.AÇIŞLI & Z.A.YILMAZ expressing their opinions than their solving numerical problems. Moreover, when we have a look at the items 19, 20, 23 and 24, we can infer that the students cannot answer the questions that are asked to them in class and examinations easily and that they think the questions asked by their teachers are much harder than the questions in other sources and that they think these questions do not evaluate enough if the students learned the topic or not. Besides, if the item 22 is analysed, it can be noticed that teaching staff members do not ask enough questions to the students so that they can understand the topic and have discussions on it. 3 2,5 1, st class 2 nd class 3 rd class 0,5 0 Question 19 Question 20 Question 21 Question 22 Question 23 Question 24 Figure 4. The averages of the answers given to the questions about measurement-assessment by the Science Teaching students When the answers given by the Primary-Teaching students to the items in the general teaching activities are examined, it can be seen from the items and 2 and 28 that the teachers give the students the chance to speak about the topics discussed during the class and that they tell the topics that they were not able to understand again and again. If we have a look at item 1, despite the fact that it is very important for these students who are primary school teacher candidates to love Science and to make their students love Science, it has been observed that the way that the teaching staff members do their lessons is not efficient enough to increase the teacher candidates interest in Science. As also seen in Figure 5, from the answers given to items 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, it can be inferred that the teaching staff members do not use enough models in order to make their students understand Science topics much more easily. Furthermore, despite the fact that they give place to some activities such as activities that reinforce the students learning and that lead them to think and do research, it can be stated that these are not on adequate levels either. 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1 1 st class 2 nd class 3 rd class 0,5 0 question 1 question 2 question 3 question 4 question 5 question 6 question 7 question 28 Figure 5. The averages of the answers given by the Primary-Teaching students to the questions about general teaching activities In this section where the use of specific teaching methods by the teaching staff members are examined, it can be said that teacher candidates expressed that they do not agree with the question 12 again, which -126-

132 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); , 30 December, 2012 means not only one student but all students were being paid attention. Besides, it is important for these students who are going to be primary school teachers to have some professional qualifications and to gain the related knowledge and abilities such as knowing the visual states of the topics, learning the topics better and to know how a topic is taught through another teaching method so that they can teach their students the Science topics better in their future career. However, from the answers that the students gave to the items 9, 10 and 25, it can be observed that experiments related to the topic, visual materials and different teaching methods are not given enough place. When the item 11 is examined from Figure 6, it is seen that the teachers do not focus enough on the historical development of the scientific inventions that are necessary for understanding and internalizing the nature of science, which is very important for all teachers and teacher candidates. As for the items 8, 13, 26 and 27, it can be noticed that the teachers benefit from some examples that are known by everyone while explaining Science topics, talk about the concepts given in the topic by finding resemblances to some events faced in daily life, use technological tools, and they are more careful about doing the lessons as student-centred. 3,5 3 2, st class 2 nd class 3 rd class 0,5 0 question 8 question 9question 10question 11question 12question 13question 25question 26 question 27 Figure 6. The averages of the answers given by the Primary Teaching students to the questions about specific teaching methods In this section where the field knowledge of the teaching staff members is evaluated through the eyes of the students, when the items 14 and 15 are given attention, it can be observed that the teachers have a command of the topics they tell and that they can answer the questions asked by the students. In addition, when the items 16 and 18 are analysed, it can be said that they intend to be devoted about talking about the relationship between Science and technology as well as focusing on the place of Science in daily life. As we discussed before, in order to develop the perception of the nature of science which is necessary for the teachers and teacher candidates to understand, comment on and internalise Science much better, they are expected to have the knowledge of the working of science, the features of a scientist, and the steps of science. In this respect, when the results of the item 17 answered by the students are analysed, it can be inferred that the teachers do not give enough information about how the scientific inventions are done. 4 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1 0,5 0 question 14 question15 question16 question 17 question 18 1 st class 2 nd class 3 rd class -127-

133 Teaching Methods and Techniques Used By Teaching S.ALTUN YALÇIN, S.YALÇIN, S.KAHRAMAN, S.AÇIŞLI & Z.A.YILMAZ Figure 7. The averages of the answers given by the Primary Teaching students to the questions about field knowledge In this section, to what extend the teaching staff members are able to apply the measurement-assessment procedure which is based on the constructivist approach have been examined from the students point of view. From the answers given by the students to the items 21, 22 and 24, it can be inferred that the teachers ask questions that need thinking and commenting rather than numerical problems, that they provide the students with discussion topics by asking them questions that may help understanding the topic better and that the questions they ask in examinations are qualified enough to measure if the topic was understood by the students or not. But still it is necessary to increase such activities and specialties. When we have a look at the items 19, 20 and 23, we can see that the students find the questions asked in class and examinations quite hard and these questions are considered to be harder than questions in journals and books. 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1 1 st class 2 nd class 3 rd class 0,5 0 question 19 question 20 question 21 question 22 question 23 question 24 Figure 8. The averages of the answers given by the Primary Teaching students to the questions related to measurement-assessment Table 1. An evaluation of the answers given to the scale by Science Teaching and Primary School Teaching students Sections Average N Std. Deviation Science Teaching Department sd t p Primary School Teaching Department The results of the t test which was made to determine if there is a meaningful difference between Science Teaching students and Primary School Teaching students in terms of their evaluating the teaching staff members show that there is not a meaningful difference between two programs in terms of evaluating the teaching staff members (t(387)=-.460; p>0.05). When we have a look at the average of the answers given to the scale in which the intention is to determine to what extend the teaching staff members take the -128-

134 Mevlana International Journal of Education (MIJE), 2(2); , 30 December, 2012 constructivist approach as the basis in the methods and techniques that they employ in their classes (Science Teaching = 64.33; Primary School teaching =64.85), it is seen that the average points of the two groups are quite close to each other. Discussion Educating teachers who are the fundamentals of education draws attention as a problem of education waiting to be solved. It is necessary to give a good education to the teachers who ensure the development and configuration of the new generations in order to have knowledge related to their occupation (Küçükahmet, 1992; Köseoğlu, 1994). But the service produced by the education system may not happen over the qualifications of the personnel going to make this system work ( /etkinlikler/egyood/bildiriler/cahit_kavcar.doc). That is, if attention is paid to the fact that the qualifications of the students become identical with the teachers qualifications, it can be noticed that the qualifications of the teachers have a significant state in terms of the process of the educational system and its being successful. To be able to get profitable results from the educational system is mostly related to the quality of the teacher (Köseoğlu, 1994; Şimşek, 2005; Çağıltay et al., 2007). That is why the professional and personal capabilities of the teaching staff members at the faculties of education highly affect the essence of the students who will be teachers (Bilen, 1992; Semerci, 1998; Atıcı and Bora, 2004; Yanpar-Yelken, Çelikkaleli and Çapri, 2007). The reason is that the teacher s qualifications are related highly to the qualifications of the teachers that educate those (Nas, 1992; Gömleksiz, 2003). In this respect, the professional behaviours that the teacher candidates show in their own classes should be examined and the deficiencies should be removed (Bilen, 1992; Semerci, 1998; Yanpar-Yelken, Çelikkaleli and Çapri, 2007). The constructivist teacher trainer should take the roles of providing cooperation, reflection, participation and interdisciplinary acting and so s/he should give possibility to the democratic applications (Rainer and Guyton, 1999). On the other hand, precautions should be taken so that the teaching staff members can be involved in the field in which they teach teacher candidates. In other words, it should be done so that teaching staff members can gain more information and experience about the applications that exist in schools. It is clearly obvious that the stronger the link between the universities and the schools is, the more qualified the teachers can be. Also, it is quite important to keep the teaching staff members updated continuously about the teaching programs and applications in schools through seminars and similar activities (Arı, 2010). It is also important to make sure that the teaching staff members should transfer their existent knowledge and experiences to the teacher candidates. For instance, feedbacks should be given to the teacher candidates and they should be provided with the environment to learn by actual experience so that the teacher candidates could gain the experiences such as preparing lesson plans suitable for the application of the constructivist approach in courses such as school experience and teaching practice and that they could make the applications of these (Evrekli, Şaşmaz Ören and İnel, 2010). Results The results are listed below in this study in which the teaching methods and techniques used by the teaching staff members were evaluated by the students (teacher candidates). It can be said that generally Primary Teaching students and Science students put the emphasis on the same points and detect the same deficiencies and the same proper situations. It has been found out that the teachers of the both students groups gave the students the opportunity to Express their opinions, that they would retell the topic if it was not understood, that they were interested in not only a group of students but all students instead, that they gave place to examples from daily life in their courses, that they had a command of the topics they were talking about and they were able to answer the questions of the students, and that they though they gave enough space to questions which make them comment and express their opinions rather than solving the numerical problems. On the other hand, it has been realised that the students who participated in the research believed the way that the teaching staff members did their lessons was not sufficient enough in increasing the interests of the students in science courses, using models for making it easier to understand science topics, making them think about the topic, arranging activities in order to reinforce their learning, doing related experiment, using visual material and benefitting from different teaching methods. Also, the -129-

135 Teaching Methods and Techniques Used By Teaching S.ALTUN YALÇIN, S.YALÇIN, S.KAHRAMAN, S.AÇIŞLI & Z.A.YILMAZ students stated that they had difficulty in answering the questions asked by the teaching staff members in their lessons and examinations and that these questions were harder than the ones in other resources. At the same time, another point underlined is that the teaching staff members did not talk enough about the historical development of scientific inventions and how the scientific inventions came into being, which would contribute to the development of the perception of the nature of science, which is very important for teachers, teacher candidates and students. Despite the fact that there was a difference between the points that the student groups gave to some items, it was realised that this difference was between very small values. In general, although the total scale averages of the Science Teaching students and Primary Teaching students were and respectively, it was calculated as 2.29 and 2.31 respectively in terms of the items in the scale. Besides, it was noticed that the student groups thought different from each other about their teachers directing the students to do research related to the topics discussed in class, about talking on some concepts by likening them to daily life events, making the students open up discussions by asking questions about the topic, benefiting from technological tools and talking about the relation between Science and technology. Additionally, it can be said that there was a very little difference in their opinions about doing the lessons as student-centred and the exam questions measuring if the students understood the topic or not. As an overall evaluation, it can be inferred that the teacher candidates did not predicate on the constructivist approach in the methods and techniques used by their teachers in their classes. But if it is thought that the betterment in the qualifications of the students is related to the teacher, it is primarily necessary for the teacher to present model behaviours and approaches. In other words, the qualifications that the teacher candidates who are the students at the faculties of education are expected to have in their future career should be found in the teaching staff members that they take as models for themselves. By observing, modelling and imitating, the teacher candidate can gain these features quite easily. If we think that a student learns the best by experience, the teacher candidates who took their courses in accordance with the constructivist approach would be familiar with the constructivist approach at least and it would not be hard for them to apply this approach in their own classes. If the lesson is given to the teacher candidates through the constructivist approach, it can be much easier for them to understand the effects of the active learning environment on the students and the role of the students in active learning environments since the teacher candidates take the role of the students in class. It is important to provide the necessary means so that the teacher candidates can internalise the importance of active learning in teacher training and that they can gain the ability of applying it. It can be much more possible through the teacher candidates applying the constructivist approach in the roles of both the teacher and the student. Contemporary teacher training programs should definitely give place to constructivist principles and so the teacher candidates can be educated as more qualified and more equipped. References Abdal-Hagg, I. (1998). Constructivism in teacher education: considerations for those who would link practice to theory: Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education, education resources information centre. Bevevino, M. M., Dengel, J., Adams, K. (1999). Constructivist theory in the classroom: Internalizing concepts through inquiry learning. The Clearing House, 72(5), House, C. H. L. (1999). from practice to theory: a social constructivist approach to teacher education. teachers and teaching. Theory and Practice, 5(2), Adams, A. (2006). Education: from conception to graduation a systemic, integral approach. Unpublished PhD thesis. California Institue Of Integral Studies, San Francisco. Akdeniz, A.R and Devecioğlu, Y. (2001). evaluation of secondary education project conducted in physics courses. [ortaöğretim fizik derslerinde yürütülen proje çalışmalarının değerlendirilmesi]. Maltepe University of Science and Education Symposium, Proceedings, İstanbul

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