1 How old do you think Ramses II. 2 Suggest why his nose is damaged. 3 What do discoveries like this tell

Transcription

1 Making mummies Death was an important event for the ancient Egyptians. It marked the start of the soul s quest for the prized afterlife. To sustain it on its long journey, the soul needed to rest and to eat and drink. So, it had to have a body. By about 2600 BC, a process called mummification was developed. At first only members of the royal family were mummified, but the practice quickly spread. It involved preserving a corpse before wrapping it securely in linen bandages. The mummy shown here is of the pharaoh Ramses II, who ruled Egypt between 1304 and 1237 BC. He was one of Egypt s strongest pharaohs. Some mummies were buried in a pyramid, such as these at Giza, along with their treasure. Why the ancient Egyptians made mummies How the different social groups lived and worked Why the pharaoh was such an important figure Why the Egyptians built the pyramids What practices and beliefs the modern world has inherited from the ancient Egyptians 1 How old do you think Ramses II was when he was mummified? Give reasons. 2 Suggest why his nose is damaged and his eyes are shut. 3 What do discoveries like this tell us about the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians?

2 Lifeblood of Egypt L IKE MANY OTHER ancient civilisations, the civilisation of ancient Egypt developed around a river the Nile. It is the country s lifeblood. Some 6000 kilometres long, it flows from the wet highlands of central Africa through the desert Red Lands, and finally empties through a long delta into the Mediterranean Sea. The areas lining its banks are known as the Black Lands. These fertile lands are where the ancient Egyptians lived. The Nile s water, the plants and palms that grew on its banks, and the birds, fish and mammals that lived in and around it all helped to sustain the society of the ancient Egyptians. The river provided a regular supply of water in a land that had virtually no rain. Its annual floods irrigated the fields in which crops were planted. The creatures it supported provided an extra food source. Its banks provided reeds to make boats, roofs, baskets and papyrus. The flax that grew in the riverside fields provided the material needed to make fabric. As well, the Nile was both a transport route and a calendar. Boats regularly sailed up and down its length, transporting people and goods, including the huge blocks of stone used to build pyramids and temples. The river s annual flood cycle helped to set the calendar. The Inundation, or flood season, was regarded as the start of each year. This period from about July to September was seen as a time of rebirth a time when fertile new soil washed down from the highlands was dumped on farmlands as a base for the next year s crops. The Nile River was so important to the ancient Egyptians that they worshipped it as a god. To this day, it remains important to those who live there. The good oil Today, oil and gas industries are the key to Egypt s economy. To the ancient Egyptians, however, it was agriculture that kept the wheels of society oiled. The people grew wheat, barley and flax as well as figs, dates, onions and beans. They also kept herds of cattle, pigs and sheep. The eyes have it Young women today continue a practice started by the ancient Egyptians thousands of years ago. Then, both men and women used a dark substance called kohl to outline their eyes and eyebrows. The written word If you cannot read Arabic, the script above will be meaningless. Egyptian hieroglyphics were also meaningless to historians for a long time. Then, in 1799, an inscribed stone was found that allowed scholars to interpret them. Much was then learnt about the world of ancient Egypt. 54 Humanities Alive 1 Buto The heart of Egypt has always been the Nile River. Archaeological evidence suggests there was a strong group of political figures in Egypt by about 3200 BC. Some of the earliest tombs were built at places like Saggarah. ights

3 Top job The Arab Republic of Egypt is today led by an elected president who rules in consultation with others. Thousands of years ago, having the top job the role of pharaoh usually meant having a dad who was already doing it! on CDthe R REMEMBER 1 Why was the Inundation so important for ancient Egypt? 2 Suggest why the lands on The beginning or the end? Many people today believe death is the end of their existence. However, the ancient Egyptians saw death as the start of their spiritual life. Hence, dead bodies were preserved often as mummies. This was done so the spirit would have somewhere to rest and a means to eat and drink. LOWER EGYPT Saggarah UPPER EGYPT Thebes Hierakonpolis Piece of cake! The construction of a huge building such as this requires hundreds of workers, as well as cranes, trucks and high-tech equipment. To build the pyramids at Giza, the ancient Egyptians had to erect, every day, up to 300 blocks, each weighing around 2.5 tonnes. They did this without any of the facilities builders have today. There is evidence of human settlement along the upper stretches of the Nile from about the seventh century BC. NUBIA 55 Ancient Egypt COMMUNICATE 4 Explain, using examples, why the construction of the pyramids at Giza was such a remarkable event. 5 Explain how each of the following facts about life today in Egypt compares with the practices of the ancient Egyptians. (a) Agriculture today accounts for only about 20 per cent of what Egypt produces. (b) Kohl eyeliner is a common item in the make-up kits of many young Egyptian women today. (c) Today, Egyptian people are either cremated or buried when they die. (d) Massive cranes are used today to construct large buildings in cities such as Cairo. I CAN: learning Buto either side of the Nile were called the Black Lands. 3 Look closely at the map featured in this spread. (a) Use the scale on the map to work out the approximate length of the Nile delta. (b) Ancient Egypt s largest cities and biggest buildings and structures were not built in the Nile delta. Why do you think this was so? (c) The ancient settlements along the Nile would have been fairly safe from attack. Do you agree with this statement? Why? explain the importance of the Nile for ancient Egyptians use a map to draw conclusions about an ancient people compare aspects of modern life with those of ancient Egypt. OM Time trap

4 14 JULY 1202 BC WEATHER: THEBES, HOT 40 C Heatwave fries the desert The heatwave that has rocked Lower Egypt for over a week will continue for at least the next three days. Although yesterday s peak of 44 C is not likely to be repeated, temperatures around the Nile will be well above 35 C. Temperatures in the desert country to the east and west of the river will stay much higher. Reports indicate that people are coping well. After all, they have spent their lives learning to live in this hot, dry climate. Houses are built to reduce heat and glare, and people dress and act in ways to keep cool. Swim in the Nile, or rest in the shade of the trees and palms on its banks. This costs you nothing. It s a great option for those who don t have bathrooms. If you live in a villa, spend as much time as you can outdoors, under palm trees or in the shade of verandahs or roof canopies. Sleep on the roof of your house at night. If you have servants, order them to sway large ostrich-feather or woven-reed fans over you to keep the air circulating. If you are wealthy enough to have a bathroom, take frequent baths or showers. To take a shower, get your servants to pour cold water over you while you stand over the bathroom drain. After showering, rub perfumed oil into your skin to protect you from the sun. For special occasions, sit a perfumed cone of fat on top of your head. As it melts, the fragrant oil will cool your skin. As you can see from this tomb painting, the practice has been common for 200 years! This painting, found in the tomb of the pharaoh Nabamun, who died around 1400 BC, shows women celebrating their heads adorned with cones of fat. Heat-beating fashions Egyptian people know all the tricks about keeping cool. Most wear clothes made of white linen, a natural fabric made from the flax plant. Sometimes the linen is so thin it is see-through. Children often wear nothing at all. Except for elaborate necklaces, men are usually barechested. Workmen and slaves wear loincloths; wealthier men tend to wear a pleated skirt over a short kilt. Women wear straight, long dresses that are sometimes pleated. Most people go barefoot. Sandals, if worn, are made from woven papyrus or, for those who are wealthy, leather. Young girls keep hair off their face by braiding it. Young boys under 12 shave their hair except for one tuft on the side of the head. Most adults keep their hair short, with many men shaving their head and face. This is certainly a cool fashion statement. For special occasions, and sometimes as sun protection, people wear elaborate wigs made of human hair or wool. These are stuck together with beeswax and often decorated with colourful jewellery. Everyone, including children, wears make-up. This goes some way towards reducing the sun s glare on the skin. Palms and soles are often painted with henna, and people pluck their eyebrows. Substances like cinnamon are used to perfume the oils and fats worn to protect the skin against heat and dry winds.

5 Sahu s new villa completed Cattle yards Kitchen Storeroom/ granary Central living area Bathroom/ toilet Entrance hall Gardens Servants quarters Stables Well Family temple Verandah with roof for shade Women s area COMMUNICATE 1 Describe how the ancient Egyptians dressed and wore their hair, and explain why these styles were appropriate for a hot, dry climate. DESIGN AND CREATIVITY 2 Historians believe this object is a headrest used as a pillow by ancient Egyptians. Refer to it to help you design and sketch a practical device to give you a more comfortable sleep on hot nights (assume no air-conditioning). Think about why ancient Egyptians might have designed their device this way. Bedroom Bedrooms Entry gate High protective wall Master bedroom Villas of the wealthy, such as this one, often contain 60 rooms or more. This impressive villa was completed last month for the influential nomarch Sahu. In keeping with common house-building practices in Egypt, it was built from sun-dried bricks made of mud and chopped straw. The exterior was painted white to reflect the heat. The flat roof has air vents to allow air to circulate inside, and thick walls provide good insulation. Windows are small and set high up in the walls to keep out the glare. Like the villas of many wealthy families, it has colourful ceilings, and nature paintings on the walls. Floor levels are raised to keep out scorpions and snakes, and most floors have been tiled. Some are covered with linen carpets. Rooms contain beds, tables, chairs, stools and chests, many of which have been carved from beautiful woods such as ebony. Word has it that Sahu and his family are delighted with the house. Villas like these stand in sharp contrast to the homes of poor local farmers that scatter the outlying areas of the city. Their homes are usually little more than one room built on an earth floor. Poor people also have virtually no furniture. THINK Interpret an artwork (p. 91) 3 Examine the illustration of a villa on the left to decide: (a) what aspects of the house design would have helped the inhabitants cope better with the heat, and why (b) how the layout of this villa compares with the home and property of a wealthy Australian family living on the rural outskirts of a city, in a hot region. TEAMWORK 4 Work in small teams to make an Egyptian wig. Select a member to model the wig for the class. Discuss as a class how effective such a device might have been as a sun shade and in keeping cool. learning I CAN: identify links between climate and lifestyle in ancient Egypt analyse an illustration to reach conclusions about lifestyle work in a team to construct a wig typical of those in ancient Egypt.

6 Women in ancient Egypt W OMEN IN ancient Egypt did not have all the rights men had. For example, they could not hold a government job, because they were usually not taught to read or write. However, they had more freedom than women in other ancient societies. In fact some, such as Hatshepsut, Nefertiti and Cleopatra, became very powerful. Rights and privileges Wealthy women After about 1500 BC, wealthier women in ancient Egypt could own and sell property, earn an income, work as part-time priestesses, defend themselves in court, and decide to marry or divorce. They decided who would inherit their belongings, and had custody of any children if there was a divorce. By contrast, women in ancient Greece even wealthy women had very little freedom. They lived most of their lives indoors and were regarded as the property of their menfolk. Wives and daughters of pharaohs led a privileged life. The eldest daughter was often made a high priestess and like other firstborn daughters of Egyptian nobles, she, not her brothers, inherited her father s wealth. The male next in line to be pharaoh often had to marry her before he could be crowned pharaoh. Sometimes this was her little brother. Poor women Besides caring for their families, poor women helped their men in the fields, carried water in pots from wells or rivers to their homes, and made bread or beer (both a major part of the diet of ancient Egyptians). They might also work as servants, temple dancers, midwives, perfume makers, musicians, weavers and professional mourners (people who were hired to weep and wail during the funeral procession of an ancient Egyptian). The ancient writer Herodotus thought Egyptian women were unusual compared to what he knew of women in other societies such as Greece.... the Egyptians themselves in their manners and customs seem to have reversed the ordinary practices of mankind. For instance, women attend the market and are employed in trade while men stay at home and do the weaving... men in Egypt carry loads on their heads, women on their shoulders; women pass water standing up, men sitting down... sons are under no compulsion to support their parents if they do not wish to do so, but daughters must. Wives and mothers Egyptian women were expected to marry and have a family. Most girls were married in their early teens, and were mothers within a couple of years. Records indicate that family life was generally happy, with children being both loved and cared for. Marriage ceremonies were not a special event; in fact, the language of ancient Egypt does not have a word for wedding. Between wealthy families in particular, marriages were usually little more than a business arrangement. Pharaohs, for example, often married their sisters. Sometimes wealthy men had many wives, although it was always the first wife and her children who had the highest status. 58 Humanities Alive 1 Two famous Egyptian women Nefertiti Nefertiti was the main wife of the pharaoh Akhenaten, who ruled Egypt between 1379 BC and 1362 BC. She was elegant and beautiful, with a lot of political influence. Images and carvings show her supporting her husband at religious ceremonies and giving gifts to officials. Some show her in a war chariot holding a mace (a weapon shaped like a club). It is not known what happened to her. She may have died, changed her name or been replaced by another wife. Nefertiti s blue crown, similar to those worn only by pharaohs, sho she was a woman of influence.

7 Cleopatra Cleopatra ruled Egypt as queen between 51 BC and 30 BC. She was the last of the Ptolemies, who had ruled Egypt since 332 BC when Alexander the Great established control in Egypt. Cleopatra was very smart. She knew how powerful Rome was, and was determined that Egypt should stay independent. Her strategy was first to make herself sole ruler. (When her father died, she ruled Egypt jointly with a young brother.) Then, she had to get powerful Roman men on side. So when Julius Caesar came to Egypt in 48 BC, she persuaded him to help her overthrow the forces of her rival brother. She travelled to Rome with Caesar two years later, returning to Egypt after his assassination in 44 BC. With Caesar dead, Cleopatra turned her charms on Mark Antony, Caesar s likely successor. She married him in 37 BC. This made the Roman Senate very angry and they declared war against Egypt in 31 BC. Octavian, Antony s rival for power, won the sea battle and Antony fled, later killing himself. Cleopatra knew Octavian would not fall for her charms, so in 30 BC she also committed suicide. After her death, Egypt became a Roman province, remaining under Roman control until AD 642. Cleopatra watching poisons being tested on prisoners who had been condemned to death REMEMBER 1 List some of the jobs done by poorer Egyptian women. COMMUNICATE 2 Explain why Egyptian women were better off than the women of ancient Greece. 3 Describe some of the customs involving women that would have surprised Herodotus in Egypt. 4 Conduct some research on Hatshepsut, and prepare a profile similar to those on Nefertiti and Cleopatra here. SELF-DISCOVERY 5 Would you have liked to be a professional mourner? Explain why you do/do not have the personal qualities needed. ICT 6 Imagine you found the bust of Nefertiti shown in source B. Send an to your teacher describing your find. THINK Construct a timeline (p. 63) 7 Construct a timeline of the key events in Cleopatra s life. 59 Ancient Egypt Interpret an artwork (p. 91) 8 What does source C tell you about (a) women s dress and hair styles and (b) furniture styles in ancient Egypt? 9 What impression does the scene give you of Cleopatra s character? 10 What is Cleopatra s pet, and where might it have come from? learning I CAN: use a variety of sources to explain some of the customs of women in ancient Egypt use paintings and sculptures to identify aspects such as clothing and grooming construct a timeline for Cleopatra.

8 Write like an Egyptian P EOPLE STARTED writing around 3000 BC. The first were the Sumerians from Mesopotamia, followed by the Egyptians. The ancient Greeks called the picture writing they inscribed on their many religious statues, tombs and temple walls hieroglyphics. Translated, this meant sacred writing. Being able to read this old language has allowed historians to learn much about the society and culture of ancient Egypt. The first alphabet The hieroglyphic alphabet was much larger than ours it was made up of over 700 symbols. Some of these were simple drawings, such as a bird, and others were shapes, such as a semicircle. At first, each symbol stood for a word. As the language became more complex, some symbols came also to stand for other language elements besides single words, such as: the sound of a consonant (for example, the symbol for an owl also stood for the sound of the letter m ) the sound of a syllable (for example, the symbol for a board game also stood for the sound of the letters men ) ideas or actions (for example, the symbol for a leg shown twice stood for the idea of movement) signals to help the reader understand what was meant. A signal might be put at the end of a word so readers knew it had a different meaning from another of the same symbol. (If we used this technique today, we might place a sketch of a bus at the end of the word trip to show that it meant a holiday and not to fall over.) Reading hieroglyphics At first, hieroglyphic symbols were laid out in columns. People read down each column, from top to bottom. From about 2000 BC, the symbols were arranged in rows, more like our writing. Sometimes they were read from left to right (as we read) and other times from right to left. So that the reader knew where to start, a symbol of a person, animal or bird was put at the start or end of the line. The direction in which the symbol faced marked the start of a line. So, if a bird faced right, you would read the line from right to left. Sometimes a symbol was placed above another, rather than to the side of it. In this event, the symbol on top was read first. The name of a pharaoh was always enclosed in a cartouche a bullet-shaped oval. 60 Humanities Alive 1 This papyrus sheet shows an Egyptian high priest presenting an offering to Osiris, the god of the afterlife. It contains both the hieroglyphic script (far right) and the simpler hieratic script (left and centre). Symbols for single sounds a b c, k d e,y f g h i j l m n o p q r s t u w x z th sh Symbols for syllables neb ankh mer mes su sha ka men Translators have been able to link hieroglyphic symbols with most of the letters of our alphabet.

9 Hieroglyphic word game worksheet 1.15 Hieroglyphic shorthand Only those who had been specially trained, such as scribes and priests, could read and write hieroglyphics. Hieroglyphics were used mostly for religious purposes and very important official communications. Two other scripts, called hieratic (see source A) and demotic, were used by ordinary people for day-to-day writing. These were simplified versions of the hieroglyphic symbols. Decoding hieroglyphics After pagan temples were shut down in AD 392 (after Christianity was declared an official religion of Rome), people lost the ability to read and write hieroglyphics. For 1500 years or so it remained a mystery. Then in 1799 a French soldier discovered a large stone covered in carved writing near the town of Rosetta (now called Rashid) in the Nile delta. It carried a statement by the pharaoh Ptolemy V in three different scripts hieroglyphics, demotic and ancient Greek. The hieroglyphics puzzled scholars for 20 years. Then a translator named Jean François Champollion used his knowledge of ancient Greek and many other languages to break the code. REMEMBER 1 What does the Greek word hieroglyphics mean? 2 Why was the Rosetta Stone such a key find? COMMUNICATE 3 Use source B to decode this message. 4 Use source B to write a short message in hieroglyphics that will clearly reveal who wrote it. Place the messages in a pot. Select one that is not your own and try to identify who wrote it. 5 Study source A and complete the following tasks. (a) Explain which person in this illustration is Osiris. Justify your decision. (b) Write a paragraph in your notebook describing how Osiris is portrayed. TEAMWORK 6 Work in small teams to make a sheet of papyrus. Cut a sheet of thick blotting paper (or similar) into strips. Spray strips with a starch solution until they are wet but not sodden. Then lay them in two crossing layers and beat them together. (Place a sheet of lightly oiled greaseproof paper underneath so the paper can be removed once dry.) Polish the beaten sheet with a stone. Then pin down the corners (to stop curling) and place it in the sun to dry. Papyrus reeds Step 1 Peel off each reed s outer layer. Step 2 Cut peeled reed into slices and soak these in water. The Rosetta Stone interpretation of its hieroglyphics allowed scholars to learn much about ancient Egypt. Writing classes in ancient Egypt Only boys were taught to read and write. At first they scratched messages on broken pieces of limestone and pottery. Once they could write, they used sheets of papyrus as paper and sharpened bits of reeds as pens. Their inks were solid blocks of powdered minerals, in different colours, which they mixed with water. 61 Ancient Egypt Step 3 Arrange two layers of wet reed slices as shown. (The starch in the reed works like a glue.) Hit them with a heavy mallet until they mash together. Step 4 Polish the finished sheet with a smooth stone and allow to dry in the sun. How the ancient Egyptians used the stalk of the papyrus reed to make paper. learning I CAN: describe what hieroglyphics are and what clues ancient Egyptians looked for to read them replicate the processes that were involved in making papyrus explore hieroglyphic writing by preparing coded names and messages.

10 Pharaoh rules! T HE WEALTHIEST, most powerful person in ancient Egypt was the pharaoh. He had the support of an army and a team of priests, scribes and officials, but the pharaoh alone decided how Egypt would be ruled. In fact, the people saw him as a god. Two into one Ancient Egypt was once divided into two kingdoms Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Each was ruled by a king. The king of Lower Egypt had his capital in Buto, and the king of Upper Egypt, in Hierakonpolis. Around 3100 BC, it is thought that these kingdoms were united under King Menes. He set up his capital in Memphis. The king of Upper Egypt wore a white crown, and the king of Lower Egypt, a red crown. Menes s crown was said to be a mix of both, signifying a united Egypt. Rise of the pharaohs During the next 2700 years, Egypt s history is divided into a number of distinct periods. Three of the more important of these times when Egypt was united and powerful, with a rich culture are called the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom. During these three kingdoms, Egypt s rulers (eventually called pharaohs) came from some 30 dynasties. When a pharaoh died, his eldest son became the next pharaoh, unless a man from another family seized control and started a new dynasty. Sometimes the pharaoh s wife or eldest daughter ruled for a short time if the eldest son was very young. Heavenly powers The ancient Egyptians saw their pharaoh as a man with supernatural powers. He was believed to descend from the sun god Re, and to have the sky god, Horus, living within him. Egyptians believed that the laws the pharaoh made applied to the whole universe. They believed he made the Nile River flood, and helped the land to produce good harvests. As a mark of respect, they did not call him by his name. Rather, they used the word pharaoh, which in ancient Egyptian means great house. Earthly responsibilities The people of ancient Egypt expected their pharaoh to protect and feed them, and to maintain a fair justice system and a peaceful society. He drew up the laws of the land and controlled the government and the army. He was also in charge of temple building, tax collection, mines, irrigation, trade, important religious ceremonies and the appointment of officials and priests. 62 Humanities Alive 1 The power of the pharaoh was evident in his appearance. For example, he often wore a false beard and a bull s tail, and carried a flail (the symbol of Osiris) and a crook (the hieroglyphic sign for a crook meant king ). His huge wealth came from the labour and produce that the people provided as their taxes. Thousands of ordinary people worked the huge farms he owned, or helped in the running of his palace. There they worked as cooks, cleaners, dancers, stable workers, craftsmen, weavers and wig-makers.

11 wizdom on the CD-ROM Famous pharaohs worksheet 1.16 Priests Looked after religious ceremonies, care of temples, sacrifices and burial of the dead Scribes Could read and write hieroglyphics Recorded pharaoh s orders, decisions of officials, tax owed and paid Prepared inscriptions in tombs and wrote letters Social structures in ancient Egypt PHARAOH NOBLES MERCHANTS AND CRAFTSMEN PEASANTS AND SLAVES Army Commanded by pharaoh (later his eldest son) Run by senior officials Kept law and order, guarded towns, built royal tombs Public service senior officials Ran the courts, royal storehouses Some, called nomarchs, responsible for tax collection and law and order Under control of vizier (senior public servant and pharaoh s second-incharge) Public service junior officials Helped senior officials manage affairs Some formed the medjay (or police unit) which helped the army keep law and order, guard tombs and protect Egypt against bandit attack Divide a column into equal sections. Check your earliest and latest dates to work out what these sections should be. Use BC and AD (or BCE or CE) as appropriate. Plot key dates, and add corresponding brief descriptions of events. Use colouring, brackets or shading to mark any important periods on your timeline. Where appropriate, include a key. Add a break to show a long span of time between one date and another. Construct a timeline Timelines depict the order of historic events in a diagram. BC Old and Middle Kingdoms in ancient Egypt c.3100 King Menes unites Egypt c.2686 Old Kingdom starts: time of peace when pyramids built c.2500 Sphinx built c.2181 End of Old Kingdom: pharaohs lose control to officials c.2040 Middle Kingdom starts: capital shifts to Thebes c.1786 Middle Kingdom ends with invasion by the Hyksos Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom COMMUNICATE 1 Describe some of the duties of a scribe and why these made him so important. 2 Design a job advertisement for a pharaoh, clearly stating what the expected responsibilities are (earthly and otherwise). THINK Construct a timeline 3 Use the following information to construct a timeline of key dates for the New Kingdom of ancient Egypt. All dates are BC (or BCE). Ptolemy I sets himself up as the first of the Ptolemies (305) Queen Hatshepsut becomes pharaoh (c.1503) Syrians invade Egypt (663) Pharaohs lose power to priests and officials, and New Kingdom ends (c.1085) Hyksos invaders driven out and New Kingdom starts (c.1567) Queen Cleopatra suicides and Egypt becomes a Roman province (30) Tutankhamen begins his reign (c.1361) Alexander the Great invades Egypt (332) 4 Look carefully at source B. What clues tell you this man is a pharaoh? Explain. 5 Identify as many similarities and differences as you can between the way ancient Egypt was ruled and government rule in Australia today. Think, too, about the ways the Pharaoh and our prime minister were/are regarded. 63 Ancient Egypt SELF-DISCOVERY 6 Use this spread and source C in particular to decide who you would like to have been if you had lived in ancient Egypt. Describe your position in society and why the job you do is so appealing. DESIGN AND CREATIVITY 7 The crown worn by King Menes was a symbol of a united Egypt. Design and sketch what you think would be the most appropriate head gear for our prime minister to wear to symbolise unity between Aboriginal and other Australians. learning I CAN: describe the duties of a scribe in ancient Egypt describe the responsibilities of the pharaoh construct a timeline of key events during the New Kingdom.

12 Crafters and traders C RAFTSPEOPLE did not have the same status as scribes. However, their crafts provide a rich source of information about the society of ancient Egypt. Many of their goods were sold in village markets. Others were exported or placed in the tombs of dead Egyptians to prepare them for the afterlife. Doing what dad does Craftspeople in ancient Egypt learnt by copying their fathers, in a kind of apprenticeship. Some were employed in the palace workshops; others worked in village workshops or their homes. Egyptian craftspeople, almost always men, included: stonemasons, who made statues and temples painters, who decorated tomb and temple walls woodworkers, who carved furniture wig-makers, who made wigs and false beards metalworkers, who made bronze tools, and sheets of beaten gold for decorating wooden objects weavers, who made linen from flax threads musical instrument makers paper makers, who made sheets of papyrus jewellers, who made jewellery from glass, seeds and precious metals and stones. WHAT IS THIS? (a) a weaving loom (b) an early guitar (c) a harp (d) an abacus frame used for counting 64 Humanities Alive 1 This is an early form of harp. Some were extremely heavy. Ancient Egyptian harps usually had around 20 strings. Painted around 1380 BC, this tomb wall illustration was found in Thebes. Egyptian Expedition of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, ( ) Photograph 1978 The Metropolitan Museum of Art Trade routes and markets The pharaoh s officials controlled the economy of ancient Egypt very tightly, especially the payment of tax. People s taxes included their labour and some of the food and goods they produced. Money was not used until the dynasty of the Ptolemies ( BC). Taxes such as grain were kept in huge storehouses to be distributed to the people when needed, such as after a poor harvest. Ancient Egypt did not need to import its food. At first the only items imported were those wanted by the pharaoh s household honey and cedar oil, for example, which were used to embalm bodies. Later, with the boost provided by local markets, other parts of the society began to trade with other countries.

13 Create a word-processed table worksheet 1.17 Cedar oil Timber from Lebanon Copper Semi- precious stones Gold from Nubia TRADING GOODS Imports Ebony Ivory Slaves Exotic animals Horses Fruit Honey Pots Copper from from other parts countries of tropical around the Africa Mediterranean 65 Ancient Egypt Exports Linen Tools Beads Beer Weapons Oil Egypt s trading partners included Nubia (its main partner), countries in tropical Africa, Mediterranean countries and Lebanon. Three ducks = one dress Eventually, there was one market in every village. People conducted their business by exchanging goods that were approximately equal in value. This is called a barter system. Under the watchful eye of state officials, people exchanged items such as fruit, hides, ducks, pots, clothing, musical instruments and jewellery to meet their needs. To market... to market The ancient Egyptians carried most goods to and from local markets in baskets woven from dried palm leaves or reeds. Grain was carted in large sacks, and liquid products such as oil went in earthenware jars. People tended to carry baskets and sacks on their heads or shoulders, and sometimes on donkeys. If trading at a market some distance away, people might load up small boats and sail up or down the Nile. These days, Egyptian traders, especially those along the Nile, use much the same methods as they did in ancient times to buy and sell goods. Today, however, the people have much Sold to merchant Hay by soldier Nebsmen: one bull, equals 120 deben in copper. Received: two pots of fat, equals 60 deben; five loincloths made of fine fabric, equals 25 deben; one dress made of Upper Egyptian linen, equals 20 deben; one pelt, equals 15 deben. This translation is from a receipt that dates back to the time of Egypt s New Kingdom. A deben was a unit of weight, commonly around 90 grams. more choice in what they can buy. For example, fruits such as pears were only introduced into Egypt in Roman times. Vegetables such as tomatoes and potatoes became common many hundreds of years later. COMMUNICATE 1 Explain a barter system. 2 Who was ancient Egypt s main trading partner, and what goods were chiefly imported from this place? 3 In small groups, discuss why you think the ancient Egyptians might have needed each of the items listed as imports in source B. THINK Interpret an artwork (p. 91) 4 Study source A. (a) Who do you think the person on the left is? Why? (b) How many different crafts can you identify? (c) What does this illustration tell you about the way men dressed in the workshops, and about their tools of trade? SELF-DISCOVERY 5 Decide what craft you would have specialised in if you had lived in ancient Egypt. Then find as many photographs, diagrams and paintings as you can of items you might have helped create. Paste these onto a poster to make an attractive collage. TEAMWORK 6 Conduct an Egyptian market in class. Bring three or four small things you can spare (such as food items or unwanted goods). Exchange these for other students goods on some fair basis. Afterwards hold a class discussion on how easy or difficult it was to reach agreement on what was a fair exchange. learning I CAN: consider how ancient Egypt s imports were used compare the way markets operated in ancient and modern Egypt describe the role of craftspeople in ancient Egypt.

14 Gods and the afterlife D EATH WAS A very important event for ancient Egyptians. It connected life on Earth with life ever after, so a lot of effort was spent preparing for it. This focus on death has been very valuable for historians, because most of what we know about ancient Egypt comes from what has been found in tombs. Many of the deities of ancient Egypt, whether good or bad, played a role in a person s journey to the afterlife. If a heart was found to be as light as a feather, its owner joined the god Osiris in the afterlife. If heavy, it was chewed up by a monster god that was a cross between a lion or cheetah, a hippopotamus and a crocodile. Death only the beginning The ancient Egyptians believed the next world was a fantastic place. However, it was a long way away, and reaching it was not easy. First, the dead person had to cross a wide river. Then he or she had to chant secret spells to get through seven gates guarded by fierce monsters, all the while looking out for traps set by evil gods and attacks by savage crocodiles and venomous snakes. Then the dead person s heart was weighed on scales against a feather to see if it was heavy with sin. Forty-two judges decided the outcome. Preparing for the journey of the soul The ancient Egyptians believed that a dead person had a number of souls. Two of these were the ka and the ba. The ka, or person s life force, stayed within the tomb, getting strength from the food and drink left there. The ba, or person s character, set off on its journey towards the afterlife, returning to the tomb to rest each night. To do these things, the soul needed a body. So dead people s bodies were carefully preserved, or embalmed, so they did not rot. An embalmed body is called a mummy. Mummies were buried with lots of possessions that the person s soul might need in the afterlife. They included food and drink, clothing, perfume, furniture, jewellery and special charms called amulets. Sometimes small wooden or stone figures representing servants doing things such as 66 Humanities Alive 1 making bread, ploughing a field or sailing a ship were placed in tombs. As well, prayers, hymns and magic spells from the 200 such texts in the Book of the Dead were often written on a scroll of papyrus and buried with the mummy or carved in hieroglyphics on the walls of the tomb. These texts were thought to protect the soul from evil and guide it through the afterlife. The figurines were thought to come to life in the tomb and carry out the wishes of the dead person.

15 Time trap on the CD-ROM Animal gods worksheet 1.18 After a dead person s body was mummified, a funeral ceremony was held. The body was carried in a boat across the Nile and buried on the western bank, where the sun set. This was the direction in which the next world was believed to lie. Important people such as pharaohs were buried in elaborate underground tombs consisting of many rooms and tunnels. Poorer people were buried in the hot, dry sands to help preserve their bodies. The gods of the ancient Egyptians There were many deities in ancient Egypt, each looking after some particular area of people s lives. For example, the god Hopi was responsible for the Nile River. Some gods were portrayed as humans and some as animals. Others were a mixture of both usually animal heads on human bodies. Name of god Responsibility Re God of creation; god of the sun The sun Osiris God of the dead; god of the afterlife; a judge in the underworld Herodotus observed how important cats were to the ancient Egyptians. They were thought to protect people s homes. It is no wonder they were chosen as one of the animals to be associated with a god. What happens when a house catches fire is most extraordinary: nobody takes the least trouble to put it out, for it is only the cats that matter; everyone stands in a row, a little distance from his neighbour, trying to protect the cats, who nevertheless slip through the line, or jump over it, and hurl themselves into the flames. This causes the Egyptians deep distress. All the inmates of a house where a cat has died a natural death shave their eyebrows... Associated animal or symbol Pharaoh mummy Seth God of confusion and chaos Hippopotamus Isis Mother goddess; goddess of fertility; wife of Osiris Horus God of the sky; guardian of the pharaoh Falcon Thoth Anubis Hathor God of the scribes; god of wisdom and knowledge; god of time God of embalming; god of tombs and burials Goddess of beauty and love; goddess of the sky Woman wearing a throne as a crown Man having the head of an ibis Man having the head of a jackal Woman with cow horns on her head Anubis Osiris Horus Hathor Thoth 67 Ancient Egypt COMMUNICATE 1 Explain what embalming means. 2 Which Egyptian deity was linked with each of these animals: jackal, hippopotamus, ibis, falcon and cow? Interpret an artwork (p. 91) 3 Study source A carefully. Discuss the following as a class. (a) Who is the heart-gobbling monster? Why do you think he looks so ugly? (b) Who are the figures along the top of the picture? (c) Where is the god Osiris? What do you think his role is in this procedure? (d) Will the soul who owned this heart be joining Osiris in the afterlife? Explain. (e) Which figures do you think might be the god Anubis, the god Thoth and the god Horus? What do you think each god is doing? 4 Look carefully at source B. What do you think these servants are doing? DESIGN AND CREATIVITY 5 Using plasticine or clay, design and mould your own set of figurines suitable for a pharaoh s tomb. Display your completed models around the classroom, together with a brief note to explain their after-life contribution. THINK 6 In what ways do you think the religious beliefs and practices of ancient Egyptians are like those held by many people today? Give examples. learning I CAN: describe some of the religious practices of ancient Egypt interpret an ancient painting compare religious beliefs and practices of ancient Egypt with those today.

16 Mummies unwrapped T HE ART AND hieroglyphics found on the tomb walls of ancient Egyptians, and the mummies made of their dead bodies, have told historians a lot about the way of life of the ancient Egyptians. Dead mummies do tell tales! At first, all ancient Egyptians buried their dead in the hot desert sands. However, in time wealthier Egyptians, especially pharaohs, began to build elaborate tombs. They would also mummify bodies so their souls would always have a home to rest in, and be able to eat and drink. Mummies allow us to have some idea of what famous pharaohs looked like. Scientists and historians can also find out details such as their age, their body shape, whether they had had children, what diseases and health problems they suffered even, sometimes, what they died of. Researchers have found, for example, that cancer was probably rare or non-existent in ancient Egypt. On the other hand, broken and worn teeth were very common due to crunching on sand grit and hard pieces of corn that were mixed up in bread. The mummy of a six-year-old Egyptian boy Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Step 7 Step 8 Have your jackal mask ready so you can dress up as the god Anubis. Learn the prayers and magic spells from the Book of the Dead. You will need to chant these over the dead body as you work. Wash the dead body with water or palm wine. Use a long hook to pull out the brains through the left nostril. Throw them away. Cut the left side of the stomach and remove the liver, lungs, intestines and stomach. Don t remove the heart as it contains the personality. Cover the internal organs with natron to absorb all moisture. Rub the dried organs with oils and resin and wrap them in linen bandages. Then push them into Canopic jars. Make sure you put each organ in the right jar. Cover the body with natron for 40 days to dry it out. Then rub the dried skin with palm oils and ointments. Pack the stomach cavity with perfumed linen and sew up the wound. Place a magic charm over the stomach wound and a scarab (beetle-shaped charm) over the heart. Then wrap the body with linen bandages dipped in gum. Wrap every part separately. You will need about 370 square metres of linen. Wrap amulets and magical charms such as ankhs ( ) in with the bandages. The dead person s soul will need these during its journey to the Kingdom of Osiris. Place a mask made from linen and glue over the person s head and shoulders. If you have time, paint this or cover it in gold leaf. Also place a panel across the top part of the body, decorated with protective magic symbols and drawings. 68 Humanities Alive 1

17 Create a mummy worksheet 1.19 Step 9 Step 10 Place the wrapped mummy in a body-shaped coffin that has been decorated with jewels, paintings and inscriptions of spells. Paint the coffin so it looks a bit like the person when he or she was alive. Be flattering! Tell the relatives the mummy and the Canopic jars are ready for burial. Your chief priest will need to accompany the funeral procession to the tomb so he can conduct the ceremony to open the mummy s mouth. The person s soul needs to talk in the afterlife. Remember, the professional mourners will be noisy! Instructions to a priest for preparing a mummy 69 Ancient Egypt REMEMBER 1 Explain what a mummy is. 2 What have historians learnt about the teeth of ancient Egyptians from a study of mummies? 3 What were the Canopic jars used for? 4 Why did the chief priest conduct a ceremony to open the mummy s mouth? THINK 5 (a) The face of the boy shown in source A is painted with gold. What does this suggest about him? (b) Explain why, after at least 2000 years, his face is so well preserved. COMMUNICATE 6 Discuss as a class: (a) why the ancient Egyptians thought it was important to preserve a dead body (b) what similarities and differences there are between the burial practices of the ancient Egyptians and those used today. 7 Priests chanted prayers and spells from the Book of the Dead while mummifying a body. What does this translated extract suggest about their beliefs? SPEECH OF ISIS I have come to be your protector. I breath air into your nostrils... I have healed your windpipe and made you live like a god. Your enemies are all destroyed... and you are mighty before the gods. DESIGN AND CREATIVITY 8 Develop a design that is suitable for painting onto the outer body-shaped coffin of a mummy. Use lots of colour and include fine detail. learning I CAN: compare modern burial practices with those of ancient Egypt explain why mummification was important to ancient Egyptians interpret ancient beliefs by examining a translated extract.

18 Pyramid builders B UILT ABOUT 4500 years ago, the 80 or so pyramids in Egypt are the oldest humanmade structures in the world. Of these, the famous three at Giza, near Cairo, are the most impressive. Their construction is an amazing feat of technology. Yet no-one knows for sure how they were built. The ancient Egyptians had only simple tools made of stone, wood and bronze. They had no cranes, computers, rock cutters or heavy earthmoving equipment. Pyramids and rock tunnels From about 2500 BC, the mummies and treasures of important people such as pharaohs were usually entombed in pyramids. This practice lasted only about 500 years, though, because robbers were a major problem. Thereafter, tombs for such people were dug into mounds and cliffs in the Valley of the Kings. But even these were not completely safe. Over time, they were all raided, except one the tomb of the pharaoh Tutankhamen. The Great Pyramid at Giza, built around 2550 BC, was the tomb of the pharaoh Khufu. The other two were built for his son Khafre and grandson Menkure. The Great Pyramid, the biggest of the three, is close to 150 metres high and contains around granite blocks, each of which weighs around 2.5 tonnes. Pyramid mysteries Some say that the technology of the pyramids is so astonishing that they must have been built by an alien intelligence. Another view is that those who built the pyramids at Giza, and the Great Sphinx that guards them, used knowledge and skills passed down from a very old, but highly advanced civilisation that existed way before the Old Kingdom in Egypt. Heavenly sails One treasure the robbers missed in the Great Pyramid was a 43-metrelong boat, built to carry Khufu to the afterlife. It was not found until It had been broken into 1224 pieces before being packed into a rock cavity near the base of the pyramid. The cavity was so tightly sealed that when archaeologists broke into it they could still smell the cedar oil in the wood after 4500 years! The pyramids at Giza in Egypt are the only remaining wonder of the seven Ancient Wonders of the World. 70 Humanities Alive 1 1 Air shafts 2 Pharaoh s burial chamber 3 Grand gallery 4 Queen s chamber 5 False chamber 6 Ascending corridor 7 Entrance 8 Descending corridor ➊ ➋ ➍ Between 200 and 300 granite blocks would have been set in place every day. It is thought the workmen might have dragged the blocks over soft sand on top of wooden sleds. On harder surfaces, the blocks may have been moved on top of rolling logs. ➎ Inside the Great Pyramid ➌ ➑ ➊ ➏ Architects and other overseers controlled different aspects of the work, using scribes to document details. Skilled craftsmen included stone masons and carpenters. The sides of the pyramids once had an outer layer of polished white limestone. Most of this was later taken down and used to decorate buildings in Cairo. ➐

19 Time trap on the CD-ROM COMMUNICATE 1 Why was a dismantled boat buried with the pharaoh Khufu? 2 Imagine you are an ancient Egyptian. A decision has been made to build the Great Pyramid. Write an instruction manual that lists the steps to be followed, and the equipment and resources needed. 3 Compare the construction of the pyramids at Giza with that of highrise towers today. 4 You have just stolen some gold statues from Khufu s tomb. Write a letter to your friend telling him how to get into the burial chamber. Be clear about what he needs to watch out for! DESIGN AND CREATIVITY 5 Describe, with supporting illustrations, how you would design and build a robberresistant pyramid, using only materials and methods available to the ancient Egyptians. THINK 6 Work in groups. Select or prepare two surfaces a flat, hard surface and one covered in soft sand. Using a piece of string, drag a 500- gram weight across each in two ways: on a small flat sheet of wood and on a series of rolling pencils. Think about what happens in each case. Discuss what this suggests about methods the pyramid workers may have used. ICT 7 Use the Internet to conduct some research on the Giza pyramids. Prepare a short word-processed report on your findings. Scan in diagrams and/or illustrations. learning I CAN: describe the processes involved in building a pyramid compare the building of the pyramids with that of modern buildings describe Khufu s burial place, and how it was protected against theft. Some of the granite blocks are thought to have been cut from rock faces in Aswan, and the limestone from quarries to the east. Both are likely to have reached the site via barges on the Nile River. Huge sand ramps may have been erected to drag blocks up to higher levels. Historians think that around men (never slaves) would have worked full time for about 20 years to build the Great Pyramid. The blocks were cut so cleanly that a knife blade can barely be pushed in between them. Blocks may have been cut by driving wooden stakes into the stone and wetting them. As the stakes expanded, they may have split the rock. 71 Ancient Egypt Workers made sure the edges of blocks were square.

20 Tutankhamen revealed T HE DISCOVERY of the tomb of Tutankhamen was the key archaeological find of the twentieth century but not because of the man or the size of his tomb. Tutankhamen was still a teenager when he died, and the tomb had only four chambers. It was important because its contents were untouched. More than 5000 objects were found, some of them priceless. We can only imagine what might have been found in the large tombs of more famous pharaohs if they had not been robbed. An archaeologist s dream In 1922 the British archaeologist Howard Carter found the tomb of Tutankhamen. He had looked for it for years in the Valley of the Kings without success. Then he decided to dig up an area around some old workers huts. To his excitement, a step was uncovered, carved into the rock. More digging revealed the sealed entrance to a passageway that carried the seal of Tutankhamen. Yet more digging to remove the tonnes of rubble in the passageway revealed the stone door to the tomb. A hole was cut in the door and Carter inserted a lit candle into the darkness behind. He later said: At first I could see nothing... But presently, as my eyes grew accustomed to the light, details of the room emerged slowly from the mist, strange animals, statues and gold everywhere the glint of gold. This side chamber contained about 600 items, including pieces of wooden furniture, baskets of food, jars of wine and oil. The antechamber, the first chamber Carter entered, contained about 700 pieces of furniture including stools, beds and gold couches with animal heads, chairs, a chariot (in bits) and two black and gold life-size statues either side of the entrance. There were also jars of oil, lamps, vases, musical instruments, board games and clothing. About tonnes of rubble had to be removed from this passageway to reach Tutankhamen s tomb. The face and shoulders of Tutankhamen s mummy were covered with a mask of solid gold. It was decorated with blue glass and semi-precious stones such as turquoise and lapis lazuli. 72 Humanities Alive 1