Molecular Biology of The Cell - An Introduction
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1 Molecular Biology of The Cell - An Introduction Nguyen Phuong Thao School of Biotechnology International University Contents Three Domain of Life The Cell Eukaryotic Cell Prokaryotic Cell The Genome The General Structure of Nucleic Acid DNA RNA The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology DNA Replication From DNA to Protein Genetic Mutation Human genome project Functional Genomics/Transcriptomics /Proteomics
2 Molecular Biology What is molecular biology? - The attempt to understand biological phenomena in molecular terms - The study of gene structure and function at the molecular level Molecular biology is a melding of aspects of genetics and biochemistry. The Molecular biology allows the laboratory to be predictive in nature; events that occur in the future. Three Domain of Life Eukaryotic Prokaryotic Archaea Thermophiles tolerate extremely high temperatures Halophiles tolerate very high salt concentrations Methanogens produce methane as a by-product of metabolism
3 Eukaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
4 Cell Specialization Cells in a multi-cellular organism become specialized by turning different genes on and off This is known as DIFFERENTIATION 7 Specialized Animal Cells Muscle cells Red blood cells Cheek cells 8
5 Specialized Plant cells Guard Cells Pollen Xylem cells 9 Eukaryotic Cell Eukaryotes include protists, fungi, animals and plants; Cell with a true nucleus, where the genetic material is surrounded by a membrane; Eukaryotic genome is more complex than that of prokaryotes and distributed among multiple chromosomes; Eukaryotic DNA is linear; Eukaryotic DNA is complexed with proteins called histones; Numerous membrane-bound organelles; Complex internal structure; Cell division by mitosis.
6 Prokaryotic Cell Prokaryotic Cell Unicellular organisms, found in all environments. These include bacteria and archaea; Without a nucleus; no nuclear membrane (genetic material dispersed throughout cytoplasm; No membrane-bound organelles; Cell contains only one circular DNA molecule contained in the cytoplasm; DNA is naked (no histone); Simple internal structure; and Cell division by simple binary fission.
7 Archaea is prokaryotes; organisms without nucleus but some aspects of their molecular biology are more similar to those of eukaryotes. Archaea Saperaud. Source: Wikipedia The Genome Totality of genetic information of an organism. Encoded in the DNA (for some viruses, RNA).
8 The Genome Size Species/ Number of Chromosomes Species Number of chromosomes Human 46 Mouse 40 Rat 42 Fruit flies 8 Bacteria 1
9 Human Genome Human Genome; Arranged on multiple chromosomes; twenty three pairs of chromosomes; Twenty two pairs (autosomes). One pair (sex chromosome) (XX) (female) or (XY) (male). Humans have 23 pairs of chromosome in every cell (except mature red blood cells..); Gametes or sex cells (sperm and eggs) have half the normal complement of chromosomes. Each human cell contains 46 chromosomes (except sperm or egg cells)
10 Human Genome Jane Ades. Source: National Human Genome Research Institute Modified from Strachan and Read. Source:
11 General Structure of Nucleic Acid DNA and RNA are long chain polymers of small chemical compound called nucleotides. Nucleotides Nucleotides; ring shaped structures composed of: Nitrogenous base; these bases are classified based on their chemical structures into two groups: Purine; double ringed structure (Adenine and Guanine). Pyrimidine; single ring structures (cytosine and thymine). Sugar Phosphate group
12 Nucleotides DNA: Four different types of nucleotides differ in nitrogenous base: A is for adenine; G is for guanine; C is for cytosine and T is for thymine. RNA: thymine base replaced by uracil base. Nucleotides
13 The DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA); the genetic material of all cellular organisms and most viruses. DNA; the gigantic molecule which is used to encode genetic information for all life on Earth. A human cell contains about 2 meters of DNA. DNA in the body could stretch to the sun and back almost 100 times. So it is tightly packed. DNA responsible for preserving, copying and transmitting information within cells and from generation to generation. DNA Double Helix Linked as a twisted ladder. The curving sides of the ladder represent the sugar-phosphate backbone of the two DNA strands; the rungs are the base pairs. Possess antiparallel polarity. Stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the bases.
14 DNA Double Helix The Gene The gene; it is a segment within a very long strand of DNA. Genes are the basic units of hereditary. Genes located on chromosome on its place or locus. Allele; a variant of the DNA sequence at a given locus. Each allele inherited from a different parent.
15 The Gene Source: National Human Genome Research Institute. Dominant and Recessive Dominant The one pair of allele that masks the effect of the other when present in the same cell. Recessive The one pair of allele that is masked by the other when present in the same cell and capable of producing its characteristics phenotype in the organism only when two alleles is present and identical.
16 Dominant and Recessive Gene Structure Most of the genes consist of; short coding sequences or exons are interrupted by a longer intervening noncoding sequence or introns; although a few genes in the human genome have no introns.
17 DNA molecules complexed with other proteins, especially basic proteins called histones to form a substance known as chromatin. DNA Organization DNA Organization
18 The RNA Three major classes of RNA: messenger (mrna), transfer (trna) and ribosomal (rrna). Minor classes of RNA include small nuclear RNA; small nucleolar RNA;. RNA is a single stranded; the pyrimidine base uracil (U) replaces thymine and ribose sugar replaces deoxyribose. RNA vs DNA mrnas rrnas trnas Small RNAs codes for proteins forms part of the structure of the ribosome and participates in protein synthesis used in protein synthesis as an adaptor between mrna and amino acids used in pre-mrna splicing, transport of proteins to ER, and other cellular processes
19 Messenger RNA/ mrna Transcripts of structural genes. Encode all the information necessary for the synthesis of a polypeptide of protein. The 5' terminus is capped by 7 methyguanosine triphosphate. Synthesis of the poly (A) tail involves cleavage of its 3' end and then the addition of about 200 adenine residues. Intermediate carrier of genetic information; deliver genetic information to the cytoplasm. mrna
20 Transfer RNA/ trna All the trnas share a common secondary structure resembles a cloverleaf: They have four base- paired stems defining three stem-loops (the D loop, anticodon loop, and T loop) and the acceptor stem. trna carry correct amino acids to their position along the mrna template to be added to the growing polypeptide chain. trna
21 Ribosomal RNA/ rrna The central component of the ribosome. Ribosome; factory for protein synthesis; composed of ribosomal RNA and ribosomal proteins (known as a Ribonucleoproteinor RNP). rrna provides a mechanism for decoding mrna into amino acids. The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology DNA molecules serve as templates for either complementary DNA strands during the process of replication or complementary RNA during the process of transcription. RNA molecules serve as a template for ordering amino acids by ribosomes during protein synthesis.
22 The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology The DNA duplication. DNA Replication The transfer the genetic information from a parent to a daughter cell. The DNA base sequences are precisely copied.
23 DNA Replication Source: National Institute of General Medical Sciences. George Rice. Montana State University. Source:
24 Post-Replicative Modification of DNA Methylation; one of the major post- replicative reactions. Site of methylation of eukaryotic DNA is always on cytosine residues in CG dinucleotide. DNA methylation plays an important role for epigenetic gene regulation in development and disease. Transcription Gene Expression RNA polymerase makes a copy of information in the gene (complementary RNA) complementary to one strands of DNA. Translation Occurs on ribosomes, messenger RNA decoded or translated to determine the sequence of amino acid in the protein being synthesized.
25 From DNA to protein Transcription by RNA polymerase
26 Genes contain introns and exons Ribosomes Factory for protein synthesis. Composed of ribosomal RNA and ribosomal proteins (known as a Ribonucleoprotein or RNP). Translate (mrna) to build polypeptide chains using amino acids delivered by (trna).
27 The Protein Proteins are chain like polymers of a few or many thousands of amino acids. Amino acids: (3-nucleotide RNA sequences) (codon). Four levels of Protein Structure Primary protein structure: Sequence of a chain of amino acid. Secondary protein structure: A chain of amino acids linked by hydrogen bonds. Tertiary protein structure: It occurs when certain attraction occurs between alpha helices and pleated sheets. Quaternary protein structure: Protein containing more than one amino acid chains.
28 Three types of noncovalent bonds that help proteins fold The size of proteins
29 Several levels of protein organization Many protein molecules contain multiple copies of a single protein subunit
30 Genetic Mutation A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence or arrangement of DNA. Common Tools of Molecular Biology
31 Human Genome Project HGP is an international project aiming for: Sequencing and localization of the base sequence that makes up human DNA. Store this information in databases. Mapping of human genome requires a set of landmarks; some of this landmarkers are genes but many more are nameless stretches of DNA such as RFLPs, VNTRs, STSs. Human Genome Project 1990, American geneticists started an ambitious quest to map and sequence the entire human genome. 1999, the final draft of human chromosome , the final draft of human chromosome , working draft of the whole human genome. 2004, the finished sequence of the euchromatic part of human genome.
32 Functional Genomics / Transcriptomics/ Proteomics Functional Genomics The study of expression of large number of genes. Transcriptomics The study of transcriptomes (all the transcripts an organism makes at any given time). Proteomics The study of proteomes (the set of expressed proteins in a given type of cells or an organism at a given time under defined conditions).
33 Source: European Bioinformatics Institute. Application of Molecular Biology Research Diagnosis Transplantation Paternity Forensic analysis Gene therapy Drug Design
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v vi vii viii ix 1 2 for high school students. For this, research needed to be done to to find a popular and engaging style of animation for this age group. The third step was to design the animation so