English Sentence Analysis

Transcription

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2 English Sentence Analysis

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4 English Sentence Analysis An Introductory Course Marjolijn Verspoor and Kim Sauter University of Groningen John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam / Philadelphia

5 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National 8 TM Standard for Information Sciences Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ansi z Design by Françoise Berserik Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Verspoor, Marjolijn. English sentence analysis : an introductory course / Marjolijn Verspoor and Kim Sauter. p. cm. 1. English language--sentences. 2. English language-syntax. I. Sauter, Kim. II. Title. pe 1441.v dc isbn (Eur.) / (us) (alk. paper) 2000 John Benjamins B.V No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, micro¼lm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher. John Benjamins Publishing Company P.O. Box me Amsterdam The Netherlands John Benjamins North America P.O. Box Philadelphia pa usa

6 Installing the Practice Program The Practice Program CD-Rom runs on Windows 95/98/2000/NT/XP/Vista (and Windows 3.1, see CD-Rom for instructions). To start using the Practice Program, you must install it on your hard disk as follows: 1 Click SETUP.EXE from the CD Rom-drive (usually Drive D). 2 Click on Next on the page with the English Sentence Analysis logo. 3 Click on Next on the Welcome screen. 4 Read the licence agreement carefully; select I acccept the terms in the license agreement and click on Next. 5 Click on Next on the Support screen. 6 On the next screen, accept the folder in which the program is installed. (The Practice Program is installed by default in the folder C:\HOLOGRAM.) warning If you must change the default directory avoid a long ¼le name, such as C:\PROGRAM FILES\HOLOGRAM. It won t work. 7 The program is now installed and has automatically added two icons to the Windows Start menu. 8 starting up Click Start on the Windows Start menu on the left-hand bottom of your screen. Then point to Programs º Hologram º English Sentence Analysis. 5 Installing the Practice Program

7 9 Enter your name to identify yourself to the Practice Program. Your name can be no longer than 20 characters. (If your teacher wants you to report results, be sure to use a name your instructor recognizes.) 10 Click Yes on the question Are you a new user? Keep using the same name every time you enter the program as the program saves your results under that name. (If you want, though, you can enter a new name and start doing the exercises all over. You can enter up to three di erent names.) hardware specifications Processor Intel 80486/66 MHz or better (Pentium 100 MHz or better recommended). 8 Mb internal memory (16 Mb or more recommended). 20 Mb free disk space. Graphic card with 16 colors or more. Screen resolution of pixels or more. restrictions on use You are granted a limited, non-exclusive and non-transferable licence to use this CD-Rom on a single workstation. You may print out selected data or copy it to a computer disk exclusively for your own personal use. You may only copy the software in accordance with the installation procedures supplied (above), and you may not alter the software in any way. By using this CD-Rom you accept the terms and conditions of the Licence Agreement. no liability for consequential damages In no event shall the Copyright owner or its suppliers be liable for any damage whatsoever arising out of the use of or inability to use this product. In any case, the Copyright owner s entire liability under any provision of this agreement shall be limited to the amount actually paid by you for the software. support For comments and queries, write to [email protected] Make sure you put ESA in the subject line. Website: 6 Installing the Practice Program

8 Table of contents List of tables 12 Acknowledgements 13 Introduction 14 Chapter 1 Sentences: Communicative functions and typical patterns 1.1 Introduction Declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentence patterns Participants, process, attributes, and setting Subject, predicator, object, attribute, and adverbial Typical sentence patterns 23 1 The running pattern (intransitive verbs) 24 2 The being pattern (copula verbs) 25 3 The doing/seeing pattern (monotransitive verbs) 26 4 The giving/buying pattern (ditransitive verbs) 26 5 The making/considering pattern (complex-transitive verbs) Same verb, di erent patterns English word order Summary 31 7 Table of contents

9 Chapter 2 Sentences: Simple, compound and complex 2.1 Introduction Sentences versus clauses Sentence types 35 1 Simple sentences 35 2 Compound sentences 36 3 Complex sentences 37 4 Compound-complex sentences Phrases Summary 45 Chapter 3 Verbs I 3.1 Introduction Simple versus complex verb phrases Lexical versus auxiliary verbs Finite versus non-¼nite verb forms 48 1 Finite verb forms 49 2 Non-¼nite verb forms Auxiliary verbs 53 1 Progressive be + present participle 54 2 Perfect have + past participle 54 3 Modals + (to) in¼nitives 55 4 Passive be + past participle 57 5 Do for questions, negation and emphasis 57 6 Ordering of auxiliary verbs One form, several senses: be, have and do Summary 61 8 Table of contents

10 Chapter 4 Verbs II 4.1 Introduction Sub-types of lexical verbs 64 1 Intransitive verbs 65 2 Copula verbs 65 3 Transitive verbs Sub-types of transitive verbs 67 1 Monotransitive verbs 67 2 Ditransitive verbs 67 3 Complex-transitive verbs Direct object forms Passive constructions 72 1 Ditransitive verbs and passive constructions 73 2 Complex-transitive verbs and passive constructions 73 3 Non-¼nite clauses and passive constructions 74 4 Past participles as adjectives Identifying type of lexical verbs in complex sentences Multi-word verbs Summary 83 Chapter 5 Word classes 5.1 Introduction Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Pronouns 95 1 Personal pronouns 96 2 Possessive pronouns 96 9 Table of contents

11 3 Relative pronouns 96 4 Interrogative pronouns 97 5 Demonstrative pronouns 97 6 Re½exive pronouns 98 7 Reciprocal pronouns 98 8 Inde¼nite pronouns 98 9 So Numerals and articles Connectors Coordinators Subordinators Prepositions Interjections Summary 113 Chapter 6 Phrases 6.1 Introduction Noun phrases Determiners Specifying versus classifying genitives Post-modi¼ers of nouns Restrictive versus non-restrictive post-modi¼ers Relative pronouns Ellipsis in relative clauses Verb phrases Adjective phrases Adverb phrases Prepositional phrases Functions of phrases Summary Table of contents

12 Chapter 7 Sentence constituents realized as clauses 7.1 Introduction Subjects, objects, and attributes Finite clauses Non-¼nite clauses Extraposed subject or object clauses Adverbials Punctuation marks Punctuation of compound structures Punctuating sentence/clause constituents Summary 169 Chapter 8 How to analyze sentences at all levels 8.1 Introduction How to analyze non-canonical constructions Passive constructions Extraposed constructions Ellipsis Existential constructions with there Cleft constructions How to go about analyzing long and complex sentences How to go about analyzing long and complex noun phrases How to go about analyzing sentences at di erent levels Analyzing sentences at di erent levels on your own Summary 201 Key to the exercises 203 Users Guide to the Practice Program 234 Index Table of contents

13 List of tables Table 01 Roles and functions of sentence constituents Copula verbs (verbs used in the being pattern) Sentence constituents: A complete overview Coordinators Finite verb forms Non-¼nite verb forms Basic verb forms of regular and irregular verbs Auxiliary versus lexical verbs Verb forms: A complete overview Auxiliary verbs: A complete overview Ordering of auxiliaries and lexical verb in the verb phrase Multi-word verbs Types of lexical verbs Passive constructions Analyzing conventionalized passive constructions Open versus closed word classes Open word classes Pronouns, articles, and numerals Connectors Prepositions, subordinators, coordinators, and conjunctive adverbs Types of phrases Noun Phrase Adjective phrase Adverb Phrase Prepositional phrase Verb phrase Distinguishing sentences, clauses and phrases Review of typical sentence patterns List of tables

14 Acknowledgements Many thanks are due To our students at Groningen University Who endured and worked through Earlier versions of this course patiently; To Elly van Gelderen and Hans Jansen for their corrections And Marieke Rijpma for reformatting time Spent on the Course Book s many sections; To Paul van Linde, Irene Visser, Allan Wilcox for prose and rhyme; To Sake Jager, whose electronic creation Formed the basis of the virtual publication; To programmer André Rosendaal for busting bugs In the Practice Program and not pulling the plugs; To all those authors we quoted eclectically; and ¼nally, To the Arts Faculty of Groningen University and John Benjamins Publishing Company. Marjolijn Verspoor (author of the Course Book) Kim Sauter (author of the Practice Program) 13 Acknowledgements

15 Introduction English Sentence Analysis consists of a text book and a supporting interactive practice program. It is an introduction to English syntax for students at the university level majoring in English literature or linguistics or another language related ¼eld who are not familiar with syntactic terms and analyses. The course prepares not only for more theoretical courses in syntactic argumentation but also for practical courses such as grammar and writing. The main purpose of English Sentence Analysis is to make students aware of di erent levels of analysis at the sentence, clause and phrase level. It is also meant to make students familiar with traditional terminology for sentence constituents such as subject, predicate, and direct object; word classes such as noun, verb, adjective; and phrase constituents such as head, premodi¼er, postmodi¼ers. The material is meant for a classroom-taught introductory course of about 10 weeks, but students may also use it as a self-study guide. Because the chapters are incrementally ordered, they are meant to be dealt with in sequence. Each chapter contains a few exercises to help see whether the material is understood. The answers to these exercises are in the back of the book. More exercises are available on the CD. Each chapter of the Practice Program has about 100 exercises with feedback, presented in two or three sets. One set may take anywhere from 30 minutes to a few hours depending on the level of the student. If the student scores less than 80% on a set, he or she is presented with a completely new set. Should the student still not score adequately, he or she is presented with random sets made up of previously presented material. The Practice Program also contains theory modules linked to the exercises, and feedback. 14 Introduction

16 How to use English Sentence Analysis English Sentence Analysis consists of a textbook and an exercise program. For best results, you should proceed as follows: First read and study a book chapter and do the exercises. Check your answers in the back of the book. Once you understand the terms and concepts, do the exercises. Even though you may be tempted to start the exercises on the computer and expect to learn by going through the program, we have found that this does not work e ectively nor e~ciently. The exercises are meant to help you practice that what you already understand. If you do not understand why an answer is incorrect (or correct), you can get feedback, and you can read the information in the theory module. The Practice Program keeps a record of all your attempts, so you can leave and reenter the program whenever you want and determine your own pace. Instructions for installing the CD on your computer and sending results to your teacher are in the Users Guide (pp ) and in the Practice Program itself. 15 Introduction

17 1 Sentences Communicative functions and typical patterns 1.1 Introduction If we want to describe the English language, we ¼rst have to decide which type of language we are going to focus on. Not only are there hundreds of di erent English dialects all over the world, even within dialects there are varieties, ranging from substandard and slang to informal and formal ones, which in turn may be spoken or written. In this book, we will concentrate mainly on a rather formal, standard, written variety, not only because this is the variety that we will come across most in academic books and articles, but especially because it is more carefully thought about before put on paper and therefore does not show the kinds of gaps and un¼nished sentences that may occur in spoken language. Another reason is that a more formal written variety often contains sentences that are longer and are therefore more complex than spoken sentences. Actually, many of the exercises in this book contain passages from famous authors, who are known to be especially creative in their sentence use. In the Practice Program you will also ¼nd real examples from ¼ction and popsongs. In this chapter, we will ¼rst take a look at sentences in general to narrow down our object of analysis, then we will introduce you to the basic constituents of a sentence, and ¼nally we will show you how these may or may not be combined in typical sentence patterns. 1.2 Declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentence patterns When people communicate, they do so for various reasons; the four main reasons are: 16 Sentences: Communicative functions and typical patterns

18 to inform someone of something to get information from someone to get someone to do something to express one s attitude about something Each of these communicative functions has a typical sentence pattern: John is leaving. Is John leaving? Leave! How awful John is leaving! What a shock John is leaving! These patterns have the following syntactic characteristics: subject whole verb part of verb subject rest of verb verb by itself How or What a followed by remainder of sentence These sentence types with these patterns are named as follows: declarative interrogative imperative exclamatory If you were to look at any large body of written text, you would ¼nd that most sentences are informative and will have the declarative sentence pattern. That is why we will concentrate mostly on those, but note that almost any linguistic sign (including a typical sentence pattern) may have more than one sense. For sentence types this means that in the right context, with the right intonation, a sentence type may very well be used to express a di erent communicative function Declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentence patterns

19 exercise 1 Say the words John is leaving in such a way that it expresses the following communicative functions: 1 informing 2 asking for information 3 getting someone to do something 4 expressing feeling/attitude Exercise 1 is based on the fact that the same declarative pattern can have di erent communicative functions. In this book we will take the stand that we will analyze the forms of the sentences as they are presented to us; so even though John is leaving? has the function of a question, its form still has the declarative pattern. In this course, we will name such a sentence by its grammatical form, not its communicative function. 1.3 Participants, process, attributes, and setting In a declarative sentence, a speaker or writer gives information about situations or events. When di erent people describe the same event or situation, it is likely that they use di erent words to describe it because they may ¼nd di erent aspects of the scene important or interesting. The words the speaker uses shows which of the aspects of the scene he or she ¼nds most appropriate, relevant or e ective at the moment of speaking. Consider the cartoon below and quickly jot down about three simple sentences you might use to describe what is happening. (We will get back to these later.) 18 Sentences: Communicative functions and typical patterns

20 From Go to your room! by Bill Keane, (1982) New York: Ballantine Books Out of all the details in an event or situation, a speaker can name the following aspects: one or more participants, attributes of these participants, and information about the setting of the event or situation. First of all, the speaker names at least one person or thing and says something about him, her or it. In these cartoons, there are a few things that stand out most: the little boy, the balloon, and the cactus. In a typical sentence, the person or thing that stands out the most (for us humans that is usually a person doing something) is named ¼rst. We will call this person or thing the ýrst participant. Then the speaker names the process, such as is, is holding, is walking, which describes the act, deed, state of being or becoming that the ¼rst participant is involved in. The speaker may then say something about the ¼rst participant or name one or two more participants. As you can see in the following examples, if the speaker says something about the ¼rst participant, it will be an attribute describing a quality or characteristic, or one or more words identifying the participant or giving the class the participant is a member of Participants, process, attributes, and setting

21 The little boy is happy. a quality He turned three years old. a characteristic He must be Annie s little brother. identi¼cation He was a toddler. class membership But the speaker may also choose to mention a second participant, which is another thing, person, event, or situation that stands out in the scene. The little boy is holding a balloon. And, in some cases it is possible to name an attribute of the second participant. In the following sentences, unpoppable and his treasure describe the second participant. The little boy considered the balloon unpoppable. The little boy made the balloon his treasure. It is also possible for the speaker to name three participants. In such cases, something is transferred from one participant to another. In the following sentences, the mother is the ¼rst participant, a balloon, the second one, and the boy, the third one. The mother had given the boy a balloon. The mother had bought the boy a balloon. Besides naming participants and attributes of these participants, the speaker may choose to give information about the setting, which tells how, where, when, why, under what condition, in spite of which condition the process or the event or situation takes place. The term setting is to be taken very broadly. It may refer to time, reason, condition, cause and so on. Basically it refers to anything that is not a participant, an attribute or a process. In the following examples, yesterday tells when the event took place. Up high tells how the balloon was held, for his birthday tells why the event took place and when he walked through the hallway tells when the event took place. 20 Sentences: Communicative functions and typical patterns

22 The little boy was very proud yesterday. He was holding his balloon up high. The mother had given him the balloon for his birthday. When he walked through the hallway, he considered it unpoppable. exercise 2 Go back over the sentences you jotted down about the cartoons and identify the elements you named (e.g. which one is ¼rst participant, second participant, process, attribute, and so on). 1.4 Subject, predicator, object, attribute, and adverbial So far we have talked about the roles di erent sentence parts may name in a sentence. A group of words used to name a particular role has a technical function in the sentence. The technical terms and the abbreviations we will use for these are shown in Table 1. Table 1 Roles and functions of sentence constituents Roles Function Abbreviation ¼rst participant subject S process predicator P something about the ¼rst participant subject attribute SA a second participant direct object DO something about the second participant object attribute OA a third participant indirect object benefactive object IO BO the setting adverbial A Subject, predicator, object, attribute, and adverbial

23 To summarize, main participants, which tell us who or what, are subjects, direct objects,or indirect objects. The part that names the process is called the predicator, and characteristics of one of the participants are called attributes. Finally, those parts of the sentence that tell us when, why, how, and so on are called adverbials. S P IO DO A The mother / had given / the boy / a balloon / for his birthday. S P SA A The little boy / was / very proud / yesterday. A S P DO OA All day long, / the little boy / considered / the balloon / his greatest treasure. exercise 3 In the following passage (adapted from True Trash by Margaret Atwood), some sentence constituents have been set o with square brackets. Identify the functions of those constituents. [The waitresses] [are basking] [in the sun] like a herd of skinned seals, their pinkybrown bodies shining with oil. [They] [are wearing] [their bathing suits] [because it s the afternoon]. [In the early dawn and the dusk] [they] [sometimes] go skinnydipping, which makes this itchy crouching in the mosquito-infested bushes across from their small private dock a great deal more worthwhile. [Donny] [has] [the binoculars, which are not his own but Monty s]. [Monty s dad] [gave] [them] [to him] [for bird-watching] but [Monty] isn t interested in birds. [He] [has found] [a better use for the binoculars]: [he] rents [them] out to the other boys, ¼ve minutes maximum, a nickel a look or else a chocolate bar from the tuck shop, though he prefers the money. 22 Sentences: Communicative functions and typical patterns

24 1.5 Typical sentence patterns You will have noticed in Exercise 3 that the ordering of the sentence constituents is rather predictable: the subject comes before the predicator, objects and attributes. The only sentence constituent that seems to occur before the subject is the adverbial. In this section, we will take a closer look at typical sentence order. When a speaker describes an event or situation, he or she must organize the words according to a recognizable sentence pattern; otherwise, the listener cannot make sense of the stream of words. For example, the following two utterances will not make much sense because there are no recognizable patterns. In the ¼rst one, there are just words in alphabetical order and in the second one, phrases in alphabetical order. also but expresses ideas language not only our shapes the thinking use we expresses ideas not only but also our thinking shapes the language we use To make sense of words, a listener must recognize a pattern. First of all, words that make up one constituent (a subject, a predicator) are put together in a certain order. For example, we say the language, not language the. Then the sentence constituents are arranged according to a recognizable pattern. The most common pattern in English is that the subject is named ¼rst, then the predicate, which is the remainder of the sentence, naming the process, other participants, attributes and setting. Now let s look at the previous utterances in a recognizable pattern. The subject and predicate have been separated with a slash. subject predicate The language we use / not only expresses ideas but also shapes our thinking. The predicate, in turn, contains the predicator, consisting of one or more words denoting the process. The predicator may be followed by a complement, which is a superordinate term for the objects or attributes, which name other participants or attributes of participants that are necessary to complete the meaning of the predicator. In the following example, the correlative conjunction not only but also is set o with parentheses because it does not have a function in the sentence. It merely connects the two predicates Typical sentence patterns

25 subject predicator complement The language we use / (not only) expresses / ideas / (but also) shapes / our thinking. The complements ideas and our thinking are both direct objects. Therefore, this pattern is very similar to a very basic one: the S P DO pattern. The main di erence is that it contains two predicates joined by the words not only and but also. These types of conjunctions will be discussed in the next chapter. In English there are ¼ve such basic, prototypical sentence patterns. Most sentences you will come across, no matter how complex, will be somewhat similar to one of these. However, they are usually much more complex because often the constituents are very complex and long. And as you will see in Chapter 7, there are some variations on these basic patterns. Because the pattern that can be used is very much dependent on the meaning of the verb in the predicator, the patterns are named after very typical verbs for that pattern. The ¼rst three patterns are most common in everyday language; the last two occur much less frequently. 1 The running pattern (intransitive verbs) Sentences with the running pattern consist of a subject and predicator, often (but by no means always) followed by an adverbial. For this pattern you need a verb that expresses an action involving only one main participant. There are many verbs like run that express a pure action, for example, swimming, talking, cycling, listening, and so on. This sentence pattern may have one or more adverbials, but no direct object nor subject attribute. As you will see in Chapter 4, verbs like running are called intransitive verbs. S P (A) John is running (fast). Here, the parentheses indicate that the constituent is optional. In other words, this constituent may be left o. 24 Sentences: Communicative functions and typical patterns

26 2 The being pattern (copula verbs) Sentences with the being pattern consist of a subject and predicator followed by a subject attribute. The subject attribute gives information about the subject only, not about the predicator. For the being pattern, you need a verb that does not have much meaning, but expresses the sense of the mathematical equal sign (=). The meaning of such a verb is merely to point out a link between the ¼rst participant and an attribute or a category. In the example below, fast expresses an attribute of John, and the runner indicates to what category John belongs. S P SA (A) John is fast (in the game). John is the runner (as usual). By far the most common verb for this pattern is the lexical verb be, called a copula verb, but Table 2 shows a few more verbs that may be used with this pattern. Table 2 Copula verbs (verbs used in the being pattern) appear grow seem look be make smell sound become prove taste feel remain turn Remember, though, that words may have di erent senses in di erent contexts. So, for example, in a sentence like He appeared suddenly, the verb appear expresses an action, and this sentence has the running pattern. But in He appeared sad the verb appear has a sense somewhat similar to be and this sentence has the being pattern. Also the verb be when followed by an adverbial expressing a place as in He is in the room is not used in the being pattern but the running pattern Typical sentence patterns

27 3 The doing/seeing pattern (monotransitive verbs) Sentences with the doing/seeing pattern consist of a subject and predicator followed by a direct object. For this pattern, you need a verb that expresses an action or a (mental) experience such as perception involving two participants, one who does the acting or experiencing and one who is acted upon or perceived. There are many verbs like doing, for example, holding, counting, building, kicking, and many verbs like seeing that express (mental) experience like feeling, hearing, believing, thinking and so on. As you will see in Chapter 4, verbs used in this pattern are called monotransitive verbs. S P DO (A) John kicked the ball (when it was thrown by Peter). John saw the ball. 4 The giving/buying pattern (ditransitive verbs) Sentences with the giving/buying pattern consist of a subject, predicator, indirect or benefactive object, and direct object. Therefore, for this pattern to occur, there must be an event involving at least three participants, a person who gives something to someone or does something for someone (the subject), then the thing that is given or done (the direct object), and the receiver (the indirect or benefactive object). Very few verbs can be used in such patterns. The most common ones are give, pass, send, tell, make, buy, and o er. S P IO DO (A) John gave Peter the ball (for his birthday). John bought Peter the ball (for his birthday). The di erence between an indirect object and a benefactive object is that an indirect object has the thing given in hand after the transfer, whereas the benefactive object does not. (In many books, the distinction between indirect and benefactive object is not made. Both can be called indirect object.) John gave Peter the ball. This sentence implies that Peter now has the ball in his possession. 26 Sentences: Communicative functions and typical patterns

28 John bought Peter the ball. This sentence does not necessarily imply that Peter now has the ball in his possession One easy way to keep these two apart is by changing the sentence word order and see which preposition must be used. The preposition to indicates an indirect object, and the preposition for, a benefactive one. IO I / give / you / the ball. IO Æ I / give / the ball / to you. BO I / bought / you / the ball. BO Æ I / bought / the ball / for you. As you will see in Chapter 4, verbs used in the giving/buying pattern are called ditransitive verbs. 5 The making/considering pattern (complex-transitive verbs) Sentences with the making/considering pattern, which can occur with only a very limited number of verbs, consist of a subject and predicator followed by a direct object. This direct object, in turn, is followed by an object attribute describing only the direct object. S P DO OA (A) They made John the umpire John considered the ball out (as it went past the line). When used with this pattern, a verb like make has a sense of doing something and thus causing the direct object to belong to a new category. For example, a sentence like We made him king expresses something like we did something to him and this caused him to be king. Other verbs like make are wipe, drive, call, crown, name, or elect. A verb like consider, when used with this pattern, expresses that in the subject s mind the direct object belongs to a certain category. For example, a sentence like We consider him king expresses that in the subject s mind he is king. Other verbs like consider are assume, prove, declare, certify, regard, or deem. The following are some more examples of this pattern Typical sentence patterns

29 The judge declared him guilty. We crowned her queen. We elected him president. We named her Tracy. The judge thought something: he was guilty. We did something and she became queen. We did something and he became president. We did something and she became Tracy. As you will see in Chapter 4, verbs used in this pattern are called complex-transitive verbs. 1.6 Same verb, di erent patterns Although there are typical verbs for typical sentence patterns, many verbs may be used in several patterns. Especially, the verb make has several distinct senses. S P SA He makes a good coach. make used in being pattern S P DO He made a goal. make used in doing/seeing pattern S P BO DO We made him a cake. make used in giving/buying pattern S P DO OA We made him president. make used in making/considering pattern exercise 4 Name the function of the sentence constituents, which have been separated with slashes. Then indicate which pattern the sentence has. The ¼rst one has been done for you. A S P IO DO 1 Last week / Michael / showed / us / how to prepare a fruit leather. ( giving pattern) 2 He / told / us / to buy over ripe and bruised fruit on sale. 28 Sentences: Communicative functions and typical patterns

30 3 We / bought / him / peaches, apricots, and strawberries. 4 He / showed / us / how to cut up the fruit. 5 He / put / the fruit / through a food mill. 6 Then / he / put / the fruit / in a large pot. 7 He / told / me / to add one tablespoon of honey per pound of fruit. 8 He / heated / the mixture. 9 He / stirred / it / until it boiled. 10 He / cooked / the mixture / for three minutes. 11 He / prepared / paper plates / to dry the fruit. 12 He / used / plastic wrap / to cover the plates. 13 After stretching the plastic around the plate, / we / taped / it / to the back. 14 The plastic / had to be / tight and ½at. 15 We / spread / a thin layer of fruit / on each plate. 16 We / placed / the plates, covered with cheesecloth, / in a shadow box / to dry in the sun. 17 We / brought / the plates / inside / at night. 18 In about two days / the fruit / was / dry. 19 After three days,/ he / brought / us / the dried fruit leather. 20 We / considered / this snack / a real treat Same verb, di erent patterns

31 1.7 English word order In order to be able to analyze sentences, you should be aware of a few more facts about the sentence constituents and their patterns. First of all, English word order is quite rigid. Almost always the subject comes ¼rst, then the predicator, etc. One way to ¼nd out whether a sentence part is a subject or not is to make the sentence into a question. The subject will appear after the ¼rst verb: He told me to add one tablespoon of honey per pound of fruit. Did he tell me? We spread a thin layer of fruit on each plate. Did we spread? The only constituent that may occur in many di erent places is an adverbial. Especially one-word adverbials like not, always, and often may occur almost anywhere in the sentence. In order to see if a sentence part is an adverbial or not, see if it is possible to move it in the sentence. Last week Michael showed us how to prepare a fruit leather. Michael showed us how to prepare a fruit leather last week. He used plastic wrap to cover the plates. To cover the plates, he used plastic wrap. 30 Sentences: Communicative functions and typical patterns

32 exercise 5 In order to discover more about possible combinations of constituents, go back over the sentences in Exercise 4 and assuming they stand for typical English sentences, answer the following questions: 1 How many subjects can be found in a sentence? 2 How many direct objects can be found in a sentence? 3 If there is one object in a sentence, is it a direct, indirect, or benefactive object? 4 Is it possible to have a subject attribute and a direct object in one sentence? 5 Is it possible to have more than one adverbial in a sentence? 6 Which of the following are possible combinations, and which ones not? S P A S P IO IO DO S P DO A S P OA S P DO SA S P SA DO S P DO OA S P 1.8 Summary In this chapter, you saw that sentences may have di erent communicative functions and that each of these communicative functions is expressed with a typical sentence pattern, called the declarative, interrogative, imperative or exclamatory pattern. The declarative sentence pattern is the most common and will be studied the most in this book. A typical declarative sentence gives information about a situation or event and may name one or more participants, a process, an attribute of one of the participants, and various aspects of the setting. The sentence constituents naming these are subject, and predicate. The predicate names the process, and possibly other participants, attributes or setting. The predicate consists of a predicator, which names the process, and its complement. The complement can be a direct object or subject attribute. If there is a direct object, there may also be either an indirect or benefactive object or an object attribute in the complement. Any sentence may or may not have one or more adverbials, which give information about the setting. Table 3 shows the possible sentence patterns and gives an overview of these terms. English word order is quite rigid: it is usually a subject Summary

33 followed by a predicator and a complement. The only constituent that is moved around rather freely is the adverbial. Table 3 Sentence constituents: A complete overview Sentence Subject Predicate Predicator Complement Adverbial* no complement subject attribute direct object direct object + indirect or benefactive object direct object + object attribute * In a few cases, an adverbial is not an optional, but a necessary part of the sentence as in he put the book on the table. The verb put needs both a direct object and an adverbial expressing a place to complete its meaning. In such a case the adverbial is also part of the complement. However, to keep the overview as simple as possible, this has not been shown in the table. 32 Sentences: Communicative functions and typical patterns

34 2 Sentences Simple, compound and complex 2.1 Introduction In Chapter 1 we talked about di erent types of sentences, but what is a sentence? The term sentence is derived from Latin sententia, which literally meant feeling or opinion. In the ¼eld of grammar, this meaning has specialized to mean an utterance that expresses a feeling or opinion, but a more technical de¼nition would be a grammatically self-contained speech unit consisting of a word, or a syntactically related group of words that expresses an assertion, a question, a command, a wish, or an exclamation, which in writing usually begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, question mark, or exclamation mark. Actually, among linguists, there is still not one de¼nition that everyone would agree on. For example, is Hey, you! a sentence or not? The answer would depend on whether you take the function or the form of the utterance as a starting point. Hey you! does express a complete thought; by saying it, the speaker means something like I want to get your attention, but in form it is rather incomplete as it doesn t have a subject or predicate. In this course, we will not worry too much about the right de¼nition, but since we have decided to look mainly at the rather formal, standard written variety, we will be looking mostly at grammatically complete units, with their own subjects and predicates. However, as you may have noticed in the exercises in Chapter 1, some sentences may have more than one subject and/or predicate. It is these more complex types of sentences that we will look at in this chapter Introduction

35 2.2 Sentences versus clauses A sentence is a group of words that in writing starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark. A grammatically complete sentence expresses at least one complete whole event or situation with a subject and predicate. Some sentences consist of only one clause.aclause also expresses a whole event or situation with a subject and a predicate. In the following two examples, each is a simple sentence consisting of one clause. sentence 1 sentence 2 clause Whales cannot breathe under water. clause They have lungs instead of gills. However, a sentence may also consist of two or more clauses. Note how the two simple sentences above are combined in di erent ways to form longer sentences. Both examples below illustrate one sentence, each with two clauses. sentence clause 1 clause 2 Whales cannot breathe under water for they have lungs instead of gills. sentence clause 1 clause 2 Whales cannot breathe under water because they have lungs instead of gills. 34 Sentences: Simple, compound and complex

36 Even though the two sentences above have about the same meaning, they are grammatically di erent because they consist of di erent types of clauses. There are two general types of clauses, those that form a meaningful unit by themselves, called independent or main clauses, and those that cannot stand on their own because they function as a constituent (subject, object, etc.) of another clause. These are called subordinate or dependent clauses. The distinction between main clauses and dependent clauses will be made more clear in the following section on sentence types. 2.3 Sentence types Sentences may have di erent degrees of complexity. They may consist of one or more main clauses or they may consist of one or more main clauses with one or more dependent clauses. They are called simple, compound, complex or compound-complex sentences, depending on the types of clauses they contain. Each type is explained in detail below. 1 Simple sentences A simple sentence consist of one main clause only. However, this does not mean that the sentence has to be very short. The following is an example of a long sentence that is simple because it does not contain any dependent clauses. Even the last adverbial is not a full dependent clause because it does not start with a subordinator and it does not have a full verb (which will be discussed in Chapter 3). S P A A The waitresses / are basking / in the sun / like a herd of skinned seals, / A their pinky-brown bodies shining with oil Sentence types

37 2 Compound sentences A compound sentence consists of two or more main clauses. The sentence Whales cannot breathe under water for they have lungs instead of gills is an example of a compound sentence because both clauses are independent and may stand on their own. The connecting word for, which expresses reason, connects these two clauses and expresses what these two situations have to do with each other. One feature of a compound sentence is that the clauses have a ¼xed order, so they cannot be moved without changing their meaning. Note how turning the clause around results in a semantically anomalous sentence, marked with a question mark in front of the sentence. Whales cannot breathe under water, for they have lungs instead of gills.?they have lungs instead of gills, for whales cannot breathe under water. There are just a few other conjunctions like for, called coordinate conjunctions, that may be used to form a compound sentence. There are also a few variations on these coordinate conjunctions, consisting of a coordinate conjunction combined with another word or phrase, called correlative conjunctions. We will use the term coordinator to refer to both types at once. Table 4 shows a complete list of coordinators. Since these are the only coordinators, it may be useful to memorize them; all other connecting words like because, if, who, and so on are subordinators and introduce dependent clauses. Table 4 Coordinators Coordinate conjunctions Correlative conjunctions and for both and but so not only but also or yet either or nor neither nor 36 Sentences: Simple, compound and complex

38 Another way to connect two main clauses and form a compound sentence is to put a semi-colon (;) between the main clauses. Whales have lungs instead of gills; they cannot breathe under water. To make the logical connection clear between two main clauses separated with a semicolon, the semi-colon is often followed by a word like therefore, besides, or similarly called a conjunctive adverb. (For a complete list of conjunctive adverbs, see Table 20 in Chapter 5.) Just like compound sentences with coordinate conjunctions, it is not possible to change the order of the two clauses. (The asterisk in front of a sentence indicates that it is not a correct one.) Whales have lungs instead of gills; therefore, they cannot breathe under water. * Therefore, they cannot breathe under water; whales have lungs instead of gills. Coordinate conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs have rather similar meanings; for example, both and and moreover express addition and both so and therefore express result, but they are di erent grammatically. Unlike a coordinate conjunction, a conjunctive adverb can be moved within the second clause: Whales have lungs instead of gills; they therefore cannot breathe under water. Whales have lungs instead of gills; they can therefore not breathe under water. Whales have lungs instead of gills, so they cannot breathe under water. * Whales have lungs instead of gills, they can so not breathe under water. 3 Complex sentences A complex sentence is a sentence that contains at least one full dependent clause with its own subject and predicate. A dependent clause is a clause that starts with a subordinator, a word like because, although, if, who, where, when, that and so on (see Table 20 in Chapter 5). The di erence between a compound and complex sentence is that in a compound sentence, both parts are really just simple, independent sentences. In a complex sentence, the dependent clause cannot stand on its own and functions as a constituent (subject, Sentence types

39 object, adverbial, or attribute) of the main clause, or in some cases it is only a part of another sentence consituent. There are three di erent types of dependent clauses. The ¼rst kind of dependent clause functions as adverbial. In the sentence below, the ¼rst clause can stand on its own, but the second one cannot because it starts with the connecting word because. The whole because clause answers the question why whales cannot breathe and is therefore not a sentence in itself but a constituent of the main clause: an adverbial. sentence main clause Whales cannot breathe under water dependent clause functioning as adverbial because they have lungs instead of gills. If you are not sure whether a clause functions as adverbial, you can try moving it as adverbials may occupy di erent positions in a sentence. The following sentence is a perfectly acceptable one: Because they have lungs instead of gills, whales cannot breathe under water. The second type of dependent clause is not a sentence constituent, but part of a sentence constituent. It modi¼es one particular noun. For example, the next sentence consists of one main clause and a dependent clause. The dependent clause is part of the subject and says something about the noun whales and must occur directly after it. The complete subject of this sentence is Whales, which cannot breathe under water. If you leave the dependent clause o, there is still a complete sentence because the main word of the subject is still in place: Whales have lungs instead of gills. However, the dependent clause cannot stand by itself because of the subordinator which. 38 Sentences: Simple, compound and complex

40 sentence main clause dependent clause functioning as modi¼er of a noun Whales, which cannot breathe under water, have lungs instead of gills. This type of clause is called a relative or adjective clause, which will be dealt with more in Chapter 6. One way to test to see if a clause is a relative clause is to leave it o. If what remains is still a complete sentence with a full subject and predicate, then it is likely that the dependent clause is a relative one. S P SA John, who always kicks the ball hard, is the player who scores the most. John, who always kicks the ball hard, is the player who scores the most. The third type of dependent clause functions as subject, object, or subject attribute of a sentence, and since these are necessary parts of a sentence, there is no complete main clause left when they are left o. One way to tell if the dependent clause functions as subject or object is to replace the whole clause with the word it. sentence main clause dependent clause 1 functioning as subject What is surprising is dependent clause 2 functioning as subject attribute that whales cannot breathe under water Sentence types

41 S P SA That John kicks the ball hard is common knowledge. It is common knowledge. S P DO We all know that John kicks the ball hard. We all know it. If a clause functions as subject attribute, it does not always work to replace the whole clause with it. However, you can try turning the subject and subject attribute around. If they can take each other s places, it is likely that you have a clause functioning as subject attribute. S P SA A fact is that John kicks the ball hard. That John kicks the ball hard is a fact. In this section, the three di erent types of dependent clauses have been brie½y introduced. In Chapter 5 the di erent types of subordinators are explained in much more detail and in Chapter 7, each type of dependent clause will be dealt with in greater depth. For right now, the important thing to understand is that clauses may function as constituents of other clauses or sentences. 40 Sentences: Simple, compound and complex

42 exercise 6 Of each of the following sets of simple sentences, create two di erent types, (a) a compound sentence with two main clauses and (b) a complex sentence with a main clause and a dependent clause. The connector you may use has been given. 1 The human liver weighs three to four pounds. It is the heaviest organ in the human body. a b (so) (which) 2 In 1858, the ¼rst mechanical washing machine was invented by Hamilton E. Smith. It was a hand-cranked a air. a b (but) (which) 3 The aroma of co ee is not produced by the ca eine it contains. Ca eine imparts neither color nor ½avor. a b (for) (because) exercise 7 In the following complex sentences underline each dependent clause. Then set o sentence constituents with slashes and identify each constituent as S, P, SA, DO, IO/BO, OA, A. 1 Thomas A. Edison did not make the ¼rst electric light bulb as it is popularly believed. 2 Cherrapunji, India, which has an average annual rainfall of 427 inches, is the wettest place on earth Sentence types

43 3 A state of intoxication is a condition in which there is recognizable disturbance of intellect, movement and coordination. 4 The largest ¼sh anyone has ever caught was a white shark that weighed 2,176 pounds. 5 Only ¼ve percent of the people of the United States say that they dream in color. 4 Compound-complex sentences It is also possible to have a compound sentence with complex parts, or a complex sentence with compound parts. We will call both types compound-complex sentences. The following example of a compound-complex sentence has two complete main clauses connected by the coordinate conjunction and. Each of these has a dependent clause. Compound sentence with complex parts main clause dependent clause A tone is what you hear in music, and main clause a note is the symbol dependent clause that you write down for a tone. 42 Sentences: Simple, compound and complex

44 In the following example of a compound-complex sentence, there is only one main clause. The main word in the subject in this main clause is modi¼ed by two relative clauses which are connected to each other by and. Within the second relative clause there is another dependent clause, functioning as adverbial. Compound sentence with complex parts main clause Thomas Je erson dependent clause who is quoted more often and on more di erent subjects than any other president of the United States and dependent clause dependent clause who was thirty ¼ve year old when he drafted the Declaration of Independence was the third president of the United States. exercise 8 In the following stream of words (adapted from Mark Twain s Life on the Mississippi), set o sentences with a period. How many sentences does this passage contain? now when I had mastered the language of this water and had come to know every tri½ing feature that bordered the great river as familiarly as I knew the letters of the alphabet I had made a valuable acquisition but I had lost something too I had lost Sentence types

45 something which could never be restored to me while I lived all the grace the beauty the poetry had gone out of the majestic river exercise 9 Circle all subordinators and underline main clauses in each sentence above. Then identify the sentence type: simple, compound, complex or compound-complex. 2.4 Phrases Sentences may consist of one or more clauses and each clause may consist of one or more words, but within a clause some words together form separate units. For example, the ¼rst sentence in exercise 3 (now when I had mastered the language of this water and had come to know every triþing feature that bordered the great river as familiarly as I knew the letters of the alphabet I had made a valuable acquisition but I had lost something too) consists of 5 clauses. Each of these clauses in turn consists of phrases, which are either single words or grammatically ordered groups of related words that together function as a unit. However, the main di erence between a clause and a phrase is that a phrase does not express a complete event or situation and does not have its own subject and predicate. In the following clauses, the phrases are set o with slashes. now / (when) * I / had mastered / the language of this water / (and) had come to know / every trifling feature / ** that / bordered / the great river as familiarly as /I/knew / the letters of the alphabet I / had made / a valuable acquisition (but) I / had lost / something / too. * Most connecting words are set o in parentheses because they do not have a function within the clauses. They connect clauses. Therefore, they are not considered phrases. ** The part now when I triþing feature is considered one clause because the second part after and is not a full clause but just a predicate. 44 Sentences: Simple, compound and complex

46 exercise 10 Underline coordinators and subordinators and set o dependent clauses with square brackets and sentence constituents (subject, predicator, etc.) with slashes. Then name the function of the sentence constituents. I had lost something which could never be restored to me while I lived. All the grace, the beauty, the poetry had gone out of the majestic river. 2.5 Summary A sentence can be simple, compound, complex,orcompound-complex, depending on the types of clauses it contains. These clauses may be main (also called independent) clauses or dependent (also called subordinate) clauses. Main clauses can stand on their own, or two or more main clauses may be connected with a coordinator (a coordinate or a correlative conjunction) or separated with a semi-colon, to form a compound sentence. Dependent clauses are introduced by subordinators and function as a clause constituent (subject, object, adverbial, and so on) or as part of a constituent; in other words, a dependent clause by itself does not form a complete sentence. Each clause, in turn, has single words or groups of words that together form grammatical and meaningful units, called phrases. The di erence between clauses and phrases is that phrases do not have a subject and predicate Summary

47 3 Verbs I 3.1 Introduction In the previous chapters we looked at di erent types of sentences and clauses as a whole. Now we will focus on smaller parts of sentences and clauses. In Chapter 1, you saw that a sentence may have several constituents: subject, (S), predicator (P), complement (DO, IO, BO, SA, OA) and adverbial(s) (A). S P IO DO A Mary / has written / him / a letter / every day. Each of the sentence constituents has a function in the sentence. The subject and objects name the main participants in an event or situation; the subject attribute or object attribute say something about the subject or object. Adverbials give information about the setting, when, where, how, and so on. The predicator names the process (action or state of being) in which the subject is involved. When we call a group of words a subject or predicator, we name its function, that is we say what it does in the sentence and how it relates to the other parts of the sentence. But when we say subject or predicator, we do not say what it is made of. The technical term for what it is made of is realized. Each sentence constituent is made up of one or more words, which together can form either a certain type of phrase or a certain type of clause. In this chapter, we will look in more detail at the realization of the predicator. Since it always consists of verbs, it is called a verb phrase (VP). In this chapter and the next one, we will focus on the parts that may constitute a verb phrase. 46 Verbs I

48 P:VP Mary / has written / him / a letter / every day. 3.2 Simple versus complex verb phrases The verb phrase can be simple and consist of one word (writes)orcomplex and consist of two to ¼ve words (will have been written). exercise 11 In the following extract (from Miles City, Montana by Alice Munro) underline all verb phrases and indicate whether they are simple or complex. My father came across the ¼eld carrying the body of the boy who had been drowned. There were several men together, returning from the search, but he was the one carrying the body. The men were muddy and exhausted *, and walked with their heads down, as if they were ashamed. Even the dogs were dispirited, dripping from the cold river. When they all set out, ** hours before, the dogs were nervy and yelping, the men tense and determined, and there was a constrained, unspeakable excitement about the whole scene. It was understood that they might ¼nd something horrible. * Exhaust is a verb, but here exhausted is used more like an adjective that describes the men. In this extract there are several of these verb-like adjectives. Do not underline them. ** The adverb out should be underlined too, as it is part of the verb set out. More about these kinds of verbs in Chapter Simple versus complex verb phrases

49 3.3 Lexical versus auxiliary verbs There are two kinds of verbs: lexical and auxiliary verbs. The lexical verb, also called main verb, names the process taking place. It has the most meaning. It may occur in several forms: write(s), wrote, written, writing, and (to) write. For a simple sentence or a clause to be meaningful it must have a lexical verb, and if the verb phrase has more than one verb, it comes last. Auxiliary verbs also called helping verbs, are the verbs in front of the lexical verb that help indicate when the process takes place, will take place, or took place or how the whole process is looked upon by the speaker. Common helping verbs are be, have, be able to, do, will, would, can, could, may, might and so on. exercise 12 Go back to the extract in exercise 11 and identify each underlined verb as lexical or auxiliary. 3.4 Finite versus non-¼nite verb forms For sentence analysis, it is actually su~cient to recognize the predicator (verb phrase and its lexical verb), but verbs may be used in many positions in the sentence. Compare the following sentences, all with di erent uses of walking. Only in the last sentence is walking part of the predicator. Walking is good for you. I enjoy walking. The walking doll irritates me. Iamwalking to work every day to stay in shape. walking is used as a subject walking is used as direct object walking is used as a modi¼er to doll walking is used as part of the predicator Because both auxiliary verbs and lexical verbs may appear in so many di erent forms, and because not all verb forms are part of the predicator, it is necessary to be able to distinguish the di erent forms. 48 Verbs I

50 1 Finite verb forms In the predicator, the form of the verb depends on where it occurs in the verb phrase. In a complete English clause, the ¼rst verb is either in the present tense or the past tense and is called the tensed verb or the ýnite verb. The word ýnite is derived from Latin ýnitus and means having de¼nite or de¼nable limits. In grammar, ýnite refers to the verb form that is limited in tense, person, and number. In many languages, ¼nite forms have di erent forms for each di erent subject such as I, you, he, she, it, (which are singular in number) and we, you and they (which are plural in number). For every verb, English distinguishes in tense (e.g. write versus wrote) but marks only the third person singular in the present tense (e.g. write versus writes). But, as Table 5 shows, the verb be is an exception as it has many irregular forms. To test whether a verb is ¼nite or not, you can change it from present to past, or in the present tense you can change the subject. If it is third person singular, change it to plural or vice versa. If the verb form changes, it is ¼nite. exercise 13 In the next passage (from A farm at Raraba by Ernst Haveman), all verbs are underlined. Indicate whether they are ¼nite or not. Next morning shortly after sunrise, just as the light was beginning to come streaming through the trees, while I lay leaning on my elbow taking my bread and tea, and looking across the canyon, tracing the dip of the granite headlands, and trying to plan a way to the river at a point likely to be fordable, suddenly I caught the big bright eyes of a deer gazing at me through the garden hedge. She continued to gaze, while I gazed back with equal steadiness, motionless as a rock. In a few minutes she ventured forward a step, exposing the ¼ne arching neck and forelegs, then snorted and withdrew Finite versus non-finite verb forms

51 Table 5 Finite verb forms number person present tense past tense ¼rst I write I wrote singular second you write you wrote third he/she/it writes he/she/it wrote write ¼rst we write we wrote plural second you write you wrote third they write they wrote ¼rst Iam I was singular second you are you were third he/she/it is he/she/it was be ¼rst we are we were plural second you are you were third they are they were 2 Non-¼nite verb forms The forms that are not ¼nite are called non-ýnite verbs. There are four non-¼nite forms: present participle, past participle, plain in¼nitive and to in¼nitive. The present participle, also called -ing form, always ends in -ing, the past participle, also called -ed form, has an -ed ending or an irregular form. The plain inýnitive is the plain form of the verb, and a to inýnitive is the same as the plain form, but preceded by to. Table 6 gives examples of these non-¼nite forms. 50 Verbs I

52 Table 6 Non-¼nite verb forms plain in¼nitive to in¼nitive present participle past participle go to go going gone sell to sell selling sold type to type typing typed verify to verify verifying veriýed In dictionaries and grammar books, not all the ¼nite and non-¼nite forms are presented, because if we just know the form of the plain in¼nitive, we can ¼gure out what the present tense and present participle forms are. The verb forms that cannot always be ¼gured out from the plain in¼nitive are the past ¼nite and past participle form. In English there are quite a few verbs that have irregular forms. So for these irregular verbs, dictionaries and grammar books ususally present three forms, called basic verb forms, because once we know these, we can ¼gure out what the other forms are. Take a look at Table 7 below. The ¼rst form is the form that can be looked up in a dictionary. It is called the base form or the plain in¼nitive form. To form a to in¼nitive, we just add to in front of the base (to write). To form the present ¼nite form, we leave the base as is, or add an -s (I write, you write, he/she/it writes, we write, they write). To form a present participle, we add -ing (walking). However, there may be some spelling changes, e.g. sit/sitting, kiss/kisses, go/goes, write/writing. The second form is the past ¼nite form, and the third form is the past participle form. Note that these forms are the same in case of a regular verb (talked, talked) as both add -ed. Also in the case of some irregular verbs like dig, the past tense and past participle are the same (dug, dug). Most irregular forms, though, have two di erent forms for the past and past participle (wrote, written) Finite versus non-finite verb forms

53 Table 7 Basic verb forms of regular and irregular verbs base (plain in¼nitive) past ¼nite past participle print printed printed regular talk call talked called talked called play played played dig dug dug irregular see go saw went seen gone be was been exercise 14 Identify all the non-¼nite forms in exercise 13 (plain in¼nitive, to in¼nitive, present participle, or past participle). Which two non-¼nite forms do not occur in this passage? exercise 15 Identify the form of each verb (present ¼nite, past ¼nite, plain in¼nitive, to in¼nitive, present participle, or past participle), but only those that occur in a verb phrase. My father came across the ¼eld carrying the body of the boy who had been drowned. There were several men together, returning from the search, but he was the one carrying the body. The men were muddy and exhausted and walked with their heads down, as if they were ashamed. Even the dogs were dispirited, dripping from the cold river. When they all set out, hours before, the dogs were nervy and yelping, the men tense and determined, and there was a constrained, unspeakable excitement about the whole scene. It was understood that they might ¼nd something horrible. 52 Verbs I

54 As you can see in exercise 15, non-¼nite verb forms may occur in all kinds of places in the sentence. However, if a verb is ¼nite, it is always part of a predicator. In the next example, the ¼nite verbs are printed in boldface. S P Adverbial Adverbial My father came across the ¼eld carrying the body of the boy S P who / had been drowned The non-¼nite forms of the verb occur after di erent auxiliary verbs. In the next section we discuss the di erent auxiliary verbs and the verb forms they are followed by. 3.5 Auxiliary verbs As you saw above, the lexical verb by itself names a process such as write, go, buy, and so on, but the verb phrase as a whole gives us a lot more information. By using a di erent tense or a helping verb, we can express di erences in how an event or situation is viewed. Compare the following sets of sentences with just a simple verb phrase, consisting of only one verb, which is a lexical one in a ¼nite form. The men are muddy and exhausted. The men were muddy and exhausted. simple present tense simple past tense The di erence between these sentences is that the lexical verb be has a di erent ¼nite form. The verb in the ¼rst sentence has a present ¼nite form, which places the situation in the present, and the other sentence a past ¼nite form, which places the situation Auxiliary verbs

55 at a moment before the moment of speaking. Besides placing a situation at a moment in time, a speaker can express that he or she saw an action as ongoing, as relevant to another moment, or as not really having taken place. A speaker can also focus on a second or third participant by making it the subject of a sentence. The next few sections explain which auxiliary verbs are used to express these di erent meanings. 1 Progressive be + present participle Compare the sentence with a simple tense to those with a progressive one. With the ¼rst sentence, the speaker expresses that the men may generally walk with their heads down. With the second sentence, the speaker expresses that the men are in the actual process of walking with their heads down at the moment of speaking. The di erence between are walking and were walking is that the present progressive refers to an event as taking place now, whereas the past progressive tense refers to the event as having taken place at a particular moment in the past. The men walk with their heads down. The men are walking with their heads down. The men were walking with their heads down. simple present tense present progressive tense past progressive tense To form a progressive tense, a form of be is used, which must be followed by a present participle form (-ing) of a verb. 2 Perfect have + past participle Compare the ¼rst sentence, with a simple past tense, with the second and third one, each with have and a past participle. The ¼rst expresses that the event took place at a speci¼c moment in the past and focuses on the event itself. In the second one, there is a present form of have, which implies that there is some connection with the present. The past participle form has a very general meaning of a process that is completed. The have and past participle together form the present perfect tense and express that even though the event took place in the past, the focus is also somewhat on the present, namely the result of the setting out: the men are not here anymore. In the last 54 Verbs I

56 sentence, too, the past perfect tense gives more focus on the result of the men setting out: they were not there when we arrived. The men set out hours ago. simple past tense The men have already set out. present perfect tense The men had set out hours before we arrived. past perfect tense To form a perfect tense, a form of have is used, which must be followed by a past participle (-ed) form of a verb. 3 Modals + (to) in¼nitives Compare the following two sentences. The di erence between found and may ýnd is that with found the speaker indicates that indeed something horrible was found. In the second one with may ýnd, the speaker indicates that the ¼nding something horrible has not taken place (yet) but is a possible or hypothetical event. In other words, the speaker is not sure something horrible will be found. They found something horrible. They may find something horrible. simple past tense present subjunctive tense An auxiliary verb like may is called a modal auxiliary. Together with the other verbs in the verb phrase, it forms a subjunctive mood. A subjunctive mood expresses that an event is not seen as really having taken place, but as a possible, potential, or hypothetical event. Besides may there are several modal auxiliary verbs that express di erent degrees of possibility, capability, or obligation. The ones most like may are will, would, can, could, might, shall, should, and must, each with a somewhat di erent meaning and range of uses. Even though these verbs can be seen as sets with present and past ¼nite forms (will/would, can/could, shall/should, may/might), each of these, no matter whether it has a present or past form can express a now or future meaning Auxiliary verbs

57 They may find something horrible. They might find something horrible. refers to possible future event refers to possible future event To create a past meaning, a modal auxiliary must be followed by a perfect have. They may have found something horrible. They might have found something horrible. refers to possible past event refers to possible past event This small set of verbs, called central modals, have in common that they are always ¼nite (come ¼rst in the verb phrase), but do not get an -s ending when the subject is he, she or it and must be followed by a plain in¼nitive form of a verb. Another small group of other verbs, called marginal modals, are similar to these central ones in that they have only limited grammatical uses: dare, need, ought to, and used to can express meanings similar to some of the modals. Dare and need can be followed by plain in¼nitives and ought and used are followed by to in¼nitives. They dare not think about what happened to the boy. The boy used to play around the lake. dare has a meaning somewhat similar to can used to has a meaning somewhat similar to would Finally, there is a whole group of verbs like to be able to, to be allowed to, to want to, to have to, and so on, called semi-modals, that express meanings similar to the will, would group. Because the uses of the central modals have become so limited (for example, they cannot express past permission or obligation), these semi-modals are used instead. They may/might leave tomorrow. They may leave now. They were allowed to leave yesterday. expresses a possible future event expresses present permission expresses past permission What all the central, marginal, and semi-modals have in common is that they help the speaker express that he or she sees an event or situation as a possible or hypothetical one rather than an actual one. 56 Verbs I

58 4 Passive be + past participle Compare the following two sentences. In the ¼rst one, the speaker expresses that the focus is on the people and what they did. They, the performer of the action is the subject of the sentence. In the second one, the focus is on what was found and something horrible, the undergoer of the action is the subject. A normal sentence in which the subject performs the action, is called a sentence in the active voice or active sentence for short. A sentence in which the subject is not the performer of the action is called a sentence in the passive voice or a passive sentence. They found something horrible. Something horrible was found. active voice passive voice To form a passive sentence, the auxiliary verb be is used, which must be followed by a past participle. Sometimes the helping verb of the passive voice is get, which is somewhat di erent than the helping verb be in that it shows more involvement of the undergoer subject. He was hurt in the fight. He got hurt in the fight. passive voice passive voice (more involvement) There are several di erent types of passive constructions, which will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 4. 5 Do for questions, negation and emphasis Finally, as the examples below show, the auxiliary verb do is needed in English if we want to form a question, negate an action or emphasize an action and there is no helping verb (or be form) in the predicate. They walked with their heads down, as if they were ashamed. a~rmative Did they walk with their heads down, as if they were ashamed? interrogative They did not walk with their heads down, as if they were ashamed. negative They did walk with their heads down, as if they were ashamed. emphatic Auxiliary verbs

59 exercise 16 In the following short sentences identify (a) the type of verb (lexical verb, modal auxiliary, auxiliary of perfect aspect, progressive aspect, or passive voice or do) and (b) the verb form of the verb. 1 Mary writes a letter every day. 2 Mary wrote a letter yesterday. 3 She will write a great deal more in the next few years. 4 Mary has been writing many letters. 5 Mary had been writing many letters. 6 Mary is writing now. 7 Mary was writing yesterday. 8 She could be writing a letter to her grandmother. 9 She need not write to her sister. 10 She is able to write a letter in about one minute. 11 An average letter is written in about 30 minutes. 12 One letter was written in 10 minutes. 13 The next letter to her boyfriend will be written in 5 minutes. 14 Half of her letters have been written by hand. 15 Many of her letters had been written in pencil. 16 By next year all her letters will have been written on a word processor. 6 Ordering of auxiliary verbs Just as there is a particular order in a phrase like the body of the boy rather than body the boy of the, there is a particular order in which verbs are ordered in a complex verb phrase. If 58 Verbs I

60 you look back at exercise 16, you can see that the lexical verb write always comes last in the verb phrase. When the lexical verb happens to be the only one, it has a present or past ¼nite form. However, if there are two or more auxiliary verbs in front of it, they will be ordered as follows: a modal auxiliary comes before any other auxiliary perfect have comes after a modal auxilary but before the other ones progressive be comes after a modal and/or perfect have but before a passive be. passive be comes after any other auxiliary Whichever verb comes ¼rst has present or past ¼nite form. No matter which verb follows a modal, it always has a (to) in¼nitive form; a verb after perfect have always has the past participle form; a verb after progressive be has the present participle form; and a verb after passive be has the past participle form. exercise 17 In the following sentences, ¼ll in the blank with the correct form of a verb. Even though you will probably intuitively know which form to use, explain your choice by referring to the order and form rules. 1 Mary a book yesterday. 2 She reading now. 3 She read a great deal more in the next few years. 4 Mary has reading a lot recently. 5 Mary have read more if she had had more time Auxiliary verbs

61 3.6 One form, several senses: be, have and do Finally, it is important to remember that one language form often has di erent senses or functions. Also verbs (especially be, have and do) can be used with di erent senses. Compare the sets of example sentences: He is my friend. He is writing a letter. The letter was written. He is to write many more letters. is lexical verb is auxiliary verb of progressive aspect was auxiliary verb of passive voice is auxiliary verb of mood He has many friends. He has written many letters. He has to leave now. has lexical verb has auxiliary verb of perfect aspect has auxiliary verb of mood He does a lot of work. Does he write many letters? does lexical verb does auxiliary verb to form a question exercise 18 In the following passage (¼rst paragraph in A Hanging by George Orwell) identify the function of each underlined be verb. Be prepared to explain your choice. It was in Burma, a sodden morning of the rains. A sickly light, like yellow tinfoil, was slanting over the high walls into the jail yard. We were waiting outside the condemned cells, a row of sheds fronted with double bars, like small animal cages. Each cell measured about ten feet by ten and was quite bare within except for a plank bed and a pot of drinking water. In some of them brown silent men were squatting at the inner bars, with their blankets draped round them. These were the condemned men, due to be hanged within the next week or two. 60 Verbs I

62 3.7 Summary To summarize, in a complete sentence or clause, the predicator is realized by the verb phrase. The verb phrase consists of one or more verbs. If there is one verb it is called a simple verb phrase, if there are more verbs, a complex verb phrase. There are two types of verbs: there is one that adds the lexical meaning; the others add grammatical meaning. As Table 8 shows, the one adding lexical meaning is called the lexical verb and the ones adding more abstract, grammatical meanings are called auxiliary verbs. Table 8 Auxiliary versus lexical verbs auxiliary verbs lexical verb The letter may have been written by John. A verb may be ýnite or non-ýnite. There are two ¼nite forms: present and past. There are four non-¼nite forms: plain inýnitive (or base form), to inýnitive, present participle (also called -ing form) and past participle (also called -ed form). See Table 9. Table 9 Verb forms: A complete overview ¼nite present am, is, are go, goes talk past was, were went talked non-¼nite participle in¼nitive present participle being going talking past participle been gone talked plain in¼nitive be go talk to in¼nitive to be to go to talk Summary

63 In a complete sentence, when there is more than one verb (a complex verb phrase), one or more auxiliaries come in front of the lexical verb. There are ¼ve types of auxiliary verb: of subjunctive mood,ofperfect aspect,ofprogressive aspect,ofpassive voice and do of negation, question or emphasis. These auxiliaries are summarised in Table 10. Table 10 Auxiliary verbs: A complete overview auxiliary of typical verb other verbs sometimes used as auxiliary (subjunctive) mood central modals marginal modals will, would, can, could, shall, should, may, might, must dare, need, ought to, used to semimodals to be able to, to be allowed to, to want to, to have to to be forced to, to be believed to, to seem to perfect aspect have progressive aspect be come, go, keep on, start, begin, continue, go on passive voice question, negation, emphasis be, get do 62 Verbs I

64 In a complete sentence, there is always a lexical verb. Auxiliaries always come in front of the lexical verb. Table 11 shows the possible order with some examples. Parentheses in the heading means that the item is optional. Table 11 Ordering of auxiliaries and lexical verb in the verb phrase (modal) (perfect have) (progressive be) (passive be) lexical verb will write could have written should must have have been been being * writing written has/had written has/had been writing has/had been written is/was writing is/was being written is/was written writes/wrote * Even though it is theoretically possible to have a verb phrase that is progressive as well as passive, the combination been being is so awkward that it is avoided in normal language use Summary

65 4 Verbs I I 4.1 Introduction As you saw in Chapter 3, the verb phrase may consist of one or more verbs. As far as meaning is concerned, there are two main types of verbs: auxiliary verbs and lexical verbs. In the last chapter, we looked more closely at the di erent sub-types of meanings that auxiliaries may express. In this chapter we will ¼rst take a closer look at the sub-types of lexical verbs: intransitive, copula, and transitive verbs. We will also take a closer look at passive constructions. And, ¼nally, we will also examine the morphological forms of verbs. Some verbs consist of one word, but others are combinations of two or more words. 4.2 Sub-types of lexical verbs Just like auxiliaries, we can sub-classify lexical verbs. Lexical verbs express the central part of an action or state. In these events or states there are participants. For example, an event like run typically involves one main participant, the agent of the running, as in He runs. In such a sentence the focus is on the action part. However, run may also be used in a sentence like He ran a mile. In this sentence, the focus is not only on the action but also on the distance that he ran. The same is the case with an action like read. Read always involves two entities, the person doing the reading and the object that is read, but still we can have sentences focusing on the action only as in He is reading. The sentence pattern used (with or without a direct object) indicates whether the focus is on the action only or not. Like run and read, many verbs can be used with slightly di erent senses in di erent 64 Verbs II

66 patterns. They can be classi¼ed into three general kinds intransitive, copula and transitive according to the type of complement they have in the sentence. (See also Chapter 2.) 1 Intransitive verbs Intransitive verbs are verbs that do not take an object or subject attribute in the sentence. Also note that the verb be, when followed by an adverbial expressing place or time, is used as an intransitive verb. He is running. He is reading. He is turning around. He is in London at the moment. 2 Copula verbs Copula verbs are verbs that take a subject attribute, which says something about the subject, in the sentence. See Table 2 in Chapter 1 for a list of copula verbs. He is friendly. The soup tastes salty. He turned into a monster. 3 Transitive verbs Transitive verbs are verbs that take a direct object in the sentence. Since transitive verbs are the only ones that may be used in a passive construction, all passively used verbs are transitive. active sentences He ran a mile. He has read a book. He is tasting the soup. He turned the page. He understood the lesson. passive sentences A mile was run. A book has been read. The soup is being tasted. The page was turned. The lesson was understood Sub-types of lexical verbs

67 exercise 19 In the following passage (adapted from A Hanging by George Orwell) sentence constituents have been set o with slashes. First name each sentence constituent. Then identify the type of lexical verb (intransitive, copula, or transitive) in the verb phrase, which has been underlined. (1) One prisoner / had been brought * / out of his cell. (2) He / was / a Hindu, a puny wisp of a man, with a shaven head and vague liquid eyes. (3) He / had / a thick, sprouting moustache, absurdly too big for his body, rather like the moustache of a comic man on the ¼lms. (4) Six tall Indian warders / were guarding / him (and) / getting / him / ready for the gallows. (5) Two of them / stood by / with ri½es and ¼xed bayonets; (6) the others / handcu ed / him, (7) / passed / a chain / through his handcu s (8) (and) ¼xed / it / to their belts, / (9) (and) / lashed / his arms / tight to his sides. (10) They / crowded / very close about him, / with their hands always on him in a careful, caressing grip, as though all the while feeling him to make sure he was there. (11) It / was / like men handling a ¼sh which is still alive and may jump back into the water. (12) (But) he / stood ** / quite unresisting, yielding his arms limply to the ropes, / as though he hardly noticed what was happening. * Note that this is a passive construction. ** Even though stood is usually an intransitive verb, it could also be argued that here it is used as a copula verb as unresisting may be interpreted as describing the subject. 66 Verbs II

68 4.3 Sub-types of transitive verbs Of the di erent kinds of lexical verbs, transitive verbs are probably the most common, and they have several sub-types again, depending on whether there is an indirect object, benefactive object or object attribute in addition to the direct object. 1 Monotransitive verbs Monotransitive verbs are verbs that have only one object, a direct object, in the sentence. He is running a mile. He is reading a book. He gave a book. He bought a book. 2 Ditransitive verbs Ditransitive verbs are verbs that take two objects in the sentence: a direct object telling what or whom and an indirect object telling to or for whom the direct object is sent, given, made, bought, and so on. He gave me a book. He gave a book to me. He bought me a book. He bought a book for me. He baked me a cake. He baked a cake for me. 3 Complex-transitive verbs Complex-transitive verbs are verbs that take a direct object and an object attribute in the sentence. The direct object tells what or whom and the object attribute describes a quality or characteristic pertaining only to the direct object Sub-types of transitive verbs

69 We found him friendly. We considered him our boss. We wiped the table clean. We called her Nosy. exercise 20 In the following sentences, name each sentence constituent (set o with slashes) and identify the type of lexical verb (intransitive, copula, monotransitive, ditransitive, or complextransitive). (Note: In this exercise there are a few passive sentences. The verb in a passive sentence is always transitive. To determine which kind of transitive, change the passive sentence into its active counterpart.) 1 Here/I/will describe / an unconventional method that I have been using to help people learn to read French. 2 I / begin / by o ering students a reading passage that is an almost literal wordfor-word translation from French into English. 3 It / has / English words / in French word order. 4 A text of this sort / quickly / conveys / a sense of the overall patterns of French sentences. 5 In subsequent passages / the most common French words / are introduced / into the reading materials, where they take the place of their English equivalents. 6 Step by step / an ever larger portion of French words / appears / in the reading passages / and the text / progressively / changes / into French. 68 Verbs II

70 7 Starting with a text that a monolingual English speaker can understand with no more than a minimum of explanation /, the student / is led, / by gradual steps /, to a text that is written in French. 8 In other words/i/o er / students / a reading passage that is an almost literal word-for-word translation from French into English. 9 English words in French word order / make / the text / easy to understand. 10 I / consider / such a text / a helpful one in quickly conveying a sense of the overall patterns of French sentences. 11 In subsequent passages, / there / are / common French words introduced into the reading materials, where they take the place of their English equivalents. 12 Starting with a text that a monolingual English speaker can understand with no more than a minimum of explanation / is / useful / because the student is led, by gradual steps, to a text that is written in French. 4.4 Direct object forms Not only are there three sub-types of transitive verbs, all these three types may have di erent kinds of direct objects. The direct object may be a phrase consisting of one or more words, a clause with a ¼nite verb, called a ýnite clause (FC) or a clause with a non- ¼nite verb, called a non-ýnite clause (NFC). These will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 7, but examples of the di erent kinds of direct objects are given here so that you will be able to recognize them. Remember that a direct object can often be replaced with the word it (unless it is a person) and answers to the question what or whom. For example, in He is reading a book, the direct object is a book because it can be replaced with it (He is reading it) and it Direct object forms

71 answers the question what (What is he reading? a book). In the following three sentences, the direct object is a phrase, consisting of one or more words. In the third sentence, the main word student is modi¼ed by a clause, but the whole direct object is still considered a phrase because the student is the main part. I know him. I know the student. I know the student who lives next door. In the next two sentences, the direct object is a clause with a ¼nite verb. In the second one, him is an indirect object. I know that he moved here last year. I have asked him on several occasions whether he could turn his stereo down. The following are all examples of direct objects that are realized as non-¼nite clauses. Some of these non-¼nite clauses have their own subjects (him), others don t. The non- ¼nite form of the verb may be a present participle (or -ing form), plain in¼nitive or to in¼nitive. I do not enjoy listening to hard metal. I certainly expect him to clean up his act soon. I forced him to arrive on time. I had him paint the house. I made him paint the house. I let him go home early today. If you continue to study linguistics, you will ¼nd that there is a huge amount of literature on the non-¼nite noun clauses that we have just discussed. One of the main points of interest is how they should be analyzed. For example, in a sentence like I told him to arrive on time we may argue that there are two objects, an indirect one, him and a direct one to arrive on time because the verb tell is usually a ditransitive verb and has two 70 Verbs II

72 objects. We could rephrase this sentence as I told him something. With a sentence like I forced him to arrive on time, it is less clear whether him should be regarded as a separate indirect object or as part of the non-¼nite direct object clause because you cannot say I forced him something. However, we can ¼nd some arguments for both views because the sentence does mean something like I forced him and he left. There is no real right answer to which view is correct. In this course, though, we shall take the following position: If we have to do with a verb like tell or order, which in other situations can clearly take an indirect object and a direct object, then we will analyze the sentence as follows: S P IO DO I told him P A to arrive / on time In all other cases, we will consider the pronoun or noun phrase as part of the non-¼nite clause as in the following example: S P DO I forced S P A him / to arrive / on time exercise 21 For each of the following verbs, create sentences with di erent types of direct objects: (a) a phrase consisting of one word (b) a phrase consisting of two or more words, (c) a ¼nite clause and (d) a non-¼nite clause. 1 see 2 order 3 ask Direct object forms

73 4.5 Passive constructions On the whole, active sentences are more common than passive ones, especially in ¼ctional writing. The passive voice is used only when we speci¼cally want to focus on the recipient or experiencer of an action, rather than on the agent. For example, instead of Someone smashed the window we can say The window was smashed or The window got smashed. However, we will discuss the passive in much more detail here because di erent types of passive constructions are possible. In Chapter 3, it was explained that the verb be (and sometimes get) can be used as a passive auxiliary to express that the speaker does not pick out the actor or agent as the main participant, but rather a patient, someone or something that is the receiver of an action. In other words, the ¼rst participant (the subject of the sentence) is not the one performing the action expressed by the lexical verb. Compare the next two sentences. The boy held the balloon. The balloon was held high (by the boy). active sentence passive sentence In the active sentence the grammatical subject is the boy, who is seen as the main participant and who is doing the holding. In this sentence, the balloon is seen as the second participant and is therefore a direct object. In the passive sentence, the grammatical subject is the balloon, which is now seen as the main participant, but which is not the actor who does the holding. If you compare these sentences, you can see that they have similar meanings, but the main di erence is that the second participant of the ¼rst sentence, the balloon, is the ¼rst participant of the second sentence. Another di erence is that the verb phrase has a be verb (was) followed by a past participle (held). The actor is now mentioned in the adverbial by phrase. When the old subject is not an actor but an instrument, the preposition in the passive sentence is often another preposition like of, with or through as in The þoor was littered with paper. Since a passive sentence is possible only when an action is involved with at least two participants, only transitive verbs are used in a passive construction. In other words, 72 Verbs II

74 if you see a passive verb phrase, you automatically know that the lexical verb is a transitive one. But since there are di erent types of transitive verbs and di erent types of direct objects, these are discussed in more detail. 1 Ditransitive verbs and passive constructions As you have seen, there are three types of transitive verbs, those with one object, (monotransitive verbs) those with two objects (ditransitive verbs) and those with an object and object attribute (complex-transitive verbs). Sentences with two objects have two passive alternates because either the second participant or the receiver may become subject of a passive sentence. S P IO DO John / gave / Mary / a book. active sentence S P DO A Mary / was given / a book / (by John). passive sentence 1 S P IO A A book / was given / to Mary / (by John). passive sentence 2 2 Complex-transitive verbs and passive constructions Sentences with a direct object and an object attribute have one passive alternate. But how should the passive alternate be analyzed? Note that when the old direct object becomes the new subject, the old object attribute now says something about the subject, and therefore is no longer an object attribute, but a subject attribute. The lexical verb in the passive sentence, however, should still be regarded as a complextransitive one. S P DO OA We / considered / him / a nuisance. active sentence Passive constructions

75 S P SA He / was considered / a nuisance. passive sentence 3 Non-¼nite clauses and passive constructions Also, sentences with a non-¼nite clause functioning as direct object have passive alternates. Usually the subject of the non-¼nite clause becomes the subject of the passive sentence: I know him to be a noisy guy. He is known to be a noisy guy. I certainly expect him to clean up his act soon. He is certainly expected to clean up his act soon. We just saw that an active sentence like I know him to be a noisy guy should be analyzed as follows: S P DO I / know / him to be a noisy guy. This clear-cut solution is not without problems when you consider its passive counterpart. The subject of the non-¼nite clause may become the subject of the main clause as in He is known to be a noisy guy. If him in the active sentence is not an indirect object, how come it may now be used separately as subject of the passive sentence? And what would we call to be, the left over part after known? In the active sentence to be is only part of a direct object. What is it now? In this course, we have elected to have only a very limited number of syntactic categories (subject, predicator, direct object, and so on) and we have taken an approach to sentence analysis that is determined mostly by meaning rather than by form. Therefore, we will opt for the following analysis of such sentences, even though this is somewhat controversial and only one of several possible solutions. The main reason for this choice is that it will make it possible to analyze sentences at ever deeper levels, allowing for basically the same sentence patterns without having to resort to transformations. 74 Verbs II

76 We will simply argue that the new passive verb phrase was known to be has a meaning quite similar to a verb phrase containing a modal auxiliary like would or used to and could therefore be regarded as one complex verb phrase. S He P was known to be (would/used to be) A on time. Also when analyzing passive sentences with verbs like believe and see with to in¼nitives, we will mainly consider the new meaning. Such sentences will be analyzed as follows: S He P is believed to be (may be) SA honest. S He P was seen to walk (may have walked) A across the street. One question remains, though. What types of verbs are know, believe, and see? Even though they are now analyzed as part of a complex verb phrase to simplify the analysis of sentences, they are still monotransitive verbs because in their active counterparts they would occur in sentences with two participants like someone knows something, someone believes something, or someone sees something and the original lexical senses of knowing, believing, and seeing can still be felt to be there. But, ¼nally, there is one other small group of passive constructions like to be supposed to or to be allowed to that is so commonly used in a passive construction like the one we just discussed that they are no longer seen as passive counterparts of active Passive constructions

77 constructions; moreover, the original sense of the lexical verb like suppose has changed. Because these passive constructions are so conventionalized and clearly express a sense similar to that of a central modal auxiliary like may or should, they are considered semimodals. Compare the following sentences. I suppose (that) he is in his room. I think he is in his room. Suppose, like think, is used as a monotransitive verb He is supposed to be in his room. He should be in his room. The whole expression is supposed to, like should, expresses obligation and is considered a semi-modal. exercise 22 In the following sentences, name each sentence constituent (set o with slashes) and identify the type of transitive verb (monotransitive, ditransitive, or complex-transitive). Then change the active sentence into a passive one. (Be sure to keep tense, mood and aspect consistent.) The ¼rst one has been done for you. S P (monotransitive) D O 1 Everyone / must have admired / him. He must have been admired (by everyone). 2 Students / must pay attention to / the teacher. The teacher 3 My brother / has given / me / some book cases. (2 passive constructions) Some book cases I 4 He / made / me leave immediately. I 76 Verbs II

78 5 We / believe / him to be honest. He 6 We / are electing / her / chair. She 4 Past participles as adjectives Normally, a passive construction is used to focus on what is considered the second participant in an active construction. In some cases though, with verbs that express events involving a thing doing something and a person undergoing the event, the human is given more prominence and almost always made subject, and the passive form is much more common and actually preferred to the active one. Note that in such sentences, when the ¼rst participant is not really doing something, the preposition is not by, but about or from. The bad weather worried (upset, concerned, etc.) John. John was worried about the bad weather. The trip exhausted (tired) me. I was exhausted from/by the trip. These passive-like constructions are so conventionalized that they have also lost their passive sense of a participant undergoing something. Therefore, the past participle is felt to be more of an adjective, describing the state of the subject and functioning as subject attribute, than a verb. Even many dictionaries list these words as adjectives. S P SA I / am / worried about him. S P SA I / am / interested in art Passive constructions

79 S P SA I / am / concerned about him. exercise 23 In the following passage identify the underlined past participle forms. Are they felt to be part of a passive construction in which an event is clearly focused on, or are they to be considered adjectives describing the subject? My father came across the ¼eld carrying the body of the boy who had been drowned. There were several men together, returning from the search, but he was the one carrying the body. The men were muddy and exhausted and walked with their heads down, as if they were ashamed. Even the dogs were dispirited, dripping from the cold river. When they all set out, hours before, the dogs were nervy and yelping, the men tense and determined, and there was a constrained, unspeakable excitement about the whole scene. It was understood that they might ¼nd something horrible. 4.6 Identifying type of lexical verbs in complex sentences In the preceding sections you have seen that lexical verbs may be of three main types: intransitive, copula, and transitive. Transitive verbs, in turn, have three sub-types: monotransitive, ditransitive, and complex-transitive. Moreover, you have seen that transitive verbs may also occur in passive constructions. In very simple sentences, it is not di~cult to see what type a verb is, but in sentences with dependent ¼nite and non- ¼nite clauses, the answer is not as obvious. To help you identify the type of verb, it helps to isolate the particular clause in which it functions and change it into a short simple (active) sentence so that it becomes clear how many participants are involved. Then you can decide what type of verb it is. 78 Verbs II

80 This idea amused him immensely. He saw himself taken away as a white slave-boy, cozened and coddled and taught to play the flute. something amused him he saw something someone took him away someone cozened him someone coddled him someone taught him something he played the flute monotransitive monotransitive monotransitive monotransitive monotransitive ditransitive monotransitive exercise 24 In the following passage (from True Trash by Margaret Atwood) identify each underlined verb as auxiliary (of mood, perfect aspect, progressive aspect, or passive voice) or lexical (intransitive, copula, monotransitive, ditransitive, or complex-transitive). If necessary, create a short sentence to help you identify the type of lexical verb. Between two oval hills of pink granite there s a small crescent of beach. The boys, wearing their bathing suits (as they never do on canoe trips but only around the camp where they might be seen by girls), are doing their laundry, standing up to their knees and swabbing their wet T-shirts and underpants with yellow bars of Sunlight soap. This only happens when they run out of clothes, or when the stench of dirty socks in the cabin becomes too overpowering. Darce, the counselor is supervising, stretched out on a rock, taking the sun on his already tanned torso and smoking a fag. It s forbidden to smoke in front of the campers but he knows this bunch won t tell.tobeon the safe side he s furtive about it, holding the cigarette down close to the rock and sneaking quick pu s Identifying type of lexical verbs in complex sentences

81 4.7 Multi-word verbs Terms like intransitive, copula, and transitive verbs refer to the meanings of lexical verbs and are determined by the sentence pattern in which they occur. Terms like ýnite and non-ýnite refer to the grammatical forms of verbs. Another way to classify verbs, especially lexical ones, is by the number and type of words they consist of. Most verbs consist of one word (read, talk, write, run, and so on). However, some verbs, combined with one or more words, take on a meaning of their own. For example, look at the di erent meanings of the verbs below: He came in the room. He came in for a surprise. He took a course. He took up the study of syntax. He caught the mouse. He caught up with him. He caught sight of him In the ¼rst sentence the verb came expresses a motion and in the direction into which he moved. In the second sentence in has lost this literal direction sense and has become part of the standard expression to come in for, which means something like undergo or experience. The same applies for took versus took up, which means something like start. In grammar, phrases like come in for, take up, catch up with and so on are considered as one lexical verb. The verb part of a multi-word verb is usually a very frequently used verb like come, but the added adverb or preposition may change its meaning quite substantially. Among these types of verbs we can distinguish ¼ve di erent sub-types according to the word class of the added parts (see Table 12). 80 Verbs II

82 Table 12 Multi-word verbs one-word verbs verb write, run phrasal verbs verb + adverb write up, run o prepositional verbs verb + preposition run into, agree to phrasal prepositional verbs verb + adverb + preposition keep away from, come in for idiomatic noun preposition verbs verb + noun + preposition catch sight of, set ýre to, lose count of We can distinguish a phrasal verb from a prepositional verb by applying a simple test. If there is a direct object, replace it with a pronoun (it, him, her, them). The pronoun always comes after a preposition, but in front of an adverb. He looked into the problem. He looked into it. prepositional verb He looked up the word. He looked it up. phrasal verb If there is no direct object, the multi-word verb is a phrasal one. He walked down. phrasal verb Often, it is not easy to tell if a preposition and/or adverb or noun phrase is part of the verb or not. To ¼nd out, you can apply several tests. First of all, you should see if the preposition or adverb gives the verb a speci¼c sense. He stood. He stood up. a static action a dynamic action Multi-word verbs

83 If you can substitute the verb and preposition or adverb with another expression covering the same meaning, it is likely that you have to do with a prepositional or phrasal verb. He ran out of clean clothes. He no longer had clean clothes. multi-word verb Finally, if the preposition or adverb or noun can easily be substituted with another preposition, adverb or noun, it is not a multi-word verb. He stood up to his knees in the mud. He stood down to his knees in the mud. Stood is not part of a multi-word verb because up is part of the phrase up to his knees and can be substituted with another preposition. exercise 25 For the following expressions, ¼rst create a meaningful sentence. Be sure to use the expression as a multi-word verb. Then indicate the function of the verb (transitive or intransitive). Also identify the type of multi-word verb 1 come about 2 come across 3 come by 4 come down 5 come in for 6 come o 7 come on 8 come out 9 come up with 10 come round to 82 Verbs II

84 4.8 Summary In this chapter you have seen that there are di erent types of lexical verbs, determined by the type of complement they have in a sentence. Copula verbs are verbs that have a subject attribute as complement, intransitive verbs are verbs that do not have an object nor a subject attribute as complement, and transitive verbs are verbs that have a direct object as complement. Among transitive verbs there are three sub-types: monotransitive verbs have only a direct object, ditransitive verbs have a direct and an indirect or benefactive object. Complex-transitive verbs have a direct object and an object attribute. Table 13 gives an overview of the di erent types of lexical verbs with an example and an analysis of the sentence pattern. Table 13 Types of lexical verbs Type of lexical verb Example Sentence pattern intransitive He is running. SP copula He is a teacher. SPSA monotransitive He bought a book. SPDO transitive ditransitive He gave her the book. S P IO/BO DO complex-transitive She found the book interesting. SPDOOA Transitive verbs may be used in two di erent sentence patterns: an active or a passive sentence pattern. Depending on the type of transitive verb, di erent passive sentence patterns are possible. A ditransitive verb may have two alternate passive constructions. Not only the old direct object, but also the old indirect object may become the new subject of a passive sentence. In the case of a complex-transitive verb like consider, the old object becomes the new subject, and the old object attribute now becomes the new subject attribute. See Table Summary

85 Table 14 Passive constructions type of transitive verb active sentence passive sentence monotransitive ditransitive He read the book. He gave her the book. S P The book / was read. S P IO The book / was given / to her. complex-transitive He found the book interesting. S P DO She / was given / the book. S P SA The book / was found / interesting. Direct objects may have all kinds of forms: they may consist of a phrase consisting of one word, a phrase consisting of two or more words, a non-¼nite clause or a ¼nite clause. Especially non-¼nite clause direct objects can give rise to passive constructions that are di~cult to analyze. Some of such passive forms like to be supposed to or to be allowed to have been so conventionalized that they have taken on meanings similar to those of modals such as should or may and are therefore considered semi-modals. Finally, there are also some conventionalized passive forms, which have lost their real passive sense and the past participle is considered part of the subject attribute rather than the verb phrase. Table 15 reviews how sentences with these passive constructions should be analyzed. 84 Verbs II

86 Table 15 Analyzing conventionalized passive constructions S P A He / was forced to leave / this afternoon. S P A He / is supposed to leave / this afternoon S P SA He / was / worried about the trip. Finally, there are verbs that consist of more than one word, called multi-word verbs. These are verbs like come in for or take o consisting of a verb followed by a preposition, an adverb, or a preposition and adverb, or even a whole phrase as in to catch sight of, which together means something like see Summary

87 5 Word classes 5.1 Introduction In Chapters 1 and 2, we looked at sentence constituents, and in Chapters 3 and 4, we looked more closely at the central part of a sentence or clause, the verb phrase, which always consists of verbs. When we use the term verb, we name the type of class a word belongs to, called word class. In this chapter, we will discuss the di erent types of word classes. But before doing so, we will ¼rst examine brie½y at what level of analysis word classes play a role, so that you will understand how this chapter relates to the previous ones and the following ones. Consider the following sentence: My late dad was a magnificent hunter. We know that this sentence can be analyzed as follows: S P SA My late dad / was / a magnificent hunter. The subject, predicator, and the subject attribute contain one or more words that belong together and are called phrases. Phrases consisting of more than one word have one word that is semantically the most important. If these most important words were used by themselves (without the other words in the phrase), the sentence would still be meaningful: Dad was hunter. Dad, was and hunter are called the heads of their respective phrases. Both dad and hunter happen to be nouns, so both my late dad and a magniýcent 86 Word classes

88 hunter are called noun phrases, abbreviated as NP. We already know that the predicator is called a verb phrase, abbreviated as VP. The terms subject, predicator and subject attribute name the functions, which refer to the roles the constituents play in the sentence. The terms noun phrase and verb phrase name the realizations, which describe what form the constituents have. Once we know both the function and realization, we can analyze the sentence in more detail. In this book, we will use the colon (:) to stand for is realized by. The following example shows this more detailed analysis. S:NP P:VP SA:NP My late dad / was / a magnificent hunter. In the next chapter, we will look more closely at the di erent types of phrases, the di erent parts they may contain, and how these parts may be combined, but to be able to analyze them, you ¼rst need to know the names of all the word classes and how these word classes may be combined. Therefore, we will discuss word classes ¼rst. To determine the word class of a word, you cannot just look at its form or meaning, but you have to look at its function in the phrase, clause or sentence in which it occurs. For example, when you see the word walk, you probably think of an action, which is usually a verb, but in di erent sentences the same word (with a similar meaning) can be used in di erent ways. I walk to school every day. We went for a long walk yesterday. I had on my walking shoes. verb noun adjective The trip exhausted me. The trip was exhausting. I was exhausted. verb adjective adjective In all there are about eleven di erent word classes in English. Note that word classes, just like any other category, include not only members that are really good examples of that word class but also members that only marginally belong to that word class Introduction

89 Moreover, one particular word may belong to more than one class, depending on how it is used in the sentence. One distinction that can be made among word classes is the open versus closed classes. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are very clearly open classes because new members are added almost every day and old members are used with completely new senses. Just think of an expression like to surf the Internet. Here, surf is used with a new sense, and Internet is a rather new word in the English lexicon. The total number of prepositions, coordinators, subordinators, numerals, pronouns, and articles is much smaller, and new ones are added only sporadically. Therefore they are considered closed classes. Table 16 gives examples of both classes. Table 16 Open versus closed word classes open classes closed classes noun mother, bird, pleasure, walk preposition after, at, in, on, during, amongst, like, since verb walk, say, cry, consider, be coordinator and, but, or, nor adjective big, rich, happy, exhausted, walking subordinator after, since, because, although adverb happily, merely, very, up, however pronoun I, you, she, someone, which, this interjection alas!, oops!, wow! article the, a, an numeral two, ýfth 5.2 Nouns Nouns and verbs represent the two most important word classes. They are the ¼rst ones to be learned by children and usually the most meaningful. They name the things around us and the processes they are involved in. Nouns name things and persons. If people were asked to name things or persons they would probably quickly come up with a list like woman, man, boy, book, desk, chair, and so on. These persons and things are quite obviously in this world because we can 88 Word classes

90 clearly see their contours. Other things cannot be seen directly but inferred from facial expressions because they describe a human emotion or another mental state: puzzlement, annoyance, and idea. Other things such as air and noise we are not really able to see, but from what we know about the world we know they are there. Some things people would probably mention in the plural form because the items appear as a group: books and houses. Besides naming things (house, bicycle) or persons (boy, girl, John, Mary), nouns name events (a walk) or situations seen as things (a gathering). Among nouns, several distinctions can be made along di erent, but overlapping dimensions: proper versus common, concrete versus abstract, and count versus non-count. And, as can be expected, the same word may be used as a di erent kind. Proper nouns, usually capitalized in English, are names for a particular person or thing: Peter, Dorothy, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and so on. Most proper names are singular, but also plural nouns like the United States and the Alps are used as proper nouns. Common nouns refer to persons and things by their general name: boy, girl, country, idea, and so on. Concrete nouns refer to things that are tangible like mountain, bicycle, and table. Abstract nouns refer to things that are not tangible like idea, thought, and dream. Also nouns referring to processes like transportation, move, adaptation, walk and so on are considered abstract nouns. However, the distinction between concrete and abstract is not always clear-cut. For example, a bicycle refers to a concrete thing and love to an abstract thing, but especially nouns expressing actions (a walk, a yelp, a smoke) are not clearly one or the other. In other words, we have to do with a continuum and can say nouns can be more concrete or abstract. Count nouns refer to things that are clearly bounded and are seen as separate things like house and bicycle. Non-count nouns, also called mass nouns, refer to things that consist of a whole group of separate (small) items that are not seen as clearly separate things but as a whole such as grass, furniture, and cattle. Non-count nouns may also refer to things that do not have clear boundaries such as concrete things like water, gold, and glass or abstract things like love and war. As creative beings, people often use the same form in di erent ways, usually a ecting its meaning. Consider the semantic di erences between the following sentences Nouns

91 John has lots of love. Bill has lots of loves. non-count and abstract count and concrete In France, a lot of wine is produced. France produces a lot of wines. non-count and concrete count and concrete To be sure that a word in a sentence is used as a noun, you can apply the following grammatical tests: See if you can put the in front of it. (This works for most nouns, except proper nouns.) See if you can change it from singular to plural or vice versa. (This works for count nouns but not for non-count nouns.) See if you can substitute it with a pronoun like it or they. exercise 26 In the following passage (from A Farm at Raraba by Ernst Havemann), underline all nouns and identify whether it is (a) proper or common, and (b) count or non-count. My late dad was a magni¼cent shot. One time when we were hunting in the Low Veld and had paused for a smoke, there was the yelp of a wild dog, and a troop of impala came bounding over the tall grass. Opposite us, three hundred yards o, was a stony ridge like a wall, six feet high. You would think those buck would avoid it, but no, they went straight at it. One after the other, without pausing or swerving, they leapt over it. They cleared it by three feet. I tell you, friend, it was a beautiful sight. You can t beat Nature for beauty, eh. 90 Word classes

92 5.3 Verbs As you saw in Chapter 4, verbs usually denote processes, actions, or states: walk, run, be, become, think, believe, and so on that may take place or occur over time. The referents of lexical verbs may range from very concrete to very abstract processes. For example, walk and run have concrete meanings because they stand for actions that can be clearly visualized. On the other hand, have or become, which refer to a state of possession or a change of state, believe and think, which refer to mental processes or states, and be, which refers to a vague state that takes place over time, have more abstract meanings referring to states that occur over time. And as you saw in Chapter 3, the auxiliary verbs like be, will, can, may, and so on also have rather vague, abstract meanings. In some cases it is di~cult to determine whether a word is used as noun or verb as nouns may be used as verbs and vice versa. For example, a non-¼nite verb form like to study or studying can keep a lot of its verb quality but is used as a subject, as in To study is necessary. In this case, to study is still regarded as a verb because it still has a lot of verbal characteristics. It can be followed by a direct object as in To study English syntax is necessary or be modi¼ed by an adverb as in To study hard is necessary. To study, to study hard, and to study English Syntax are all non-¼nite clauses functioning as subject, which will be studied in more detail in Chapter 7. In case of an -ing form the verb may lose all of its verb properties and then it should be regarded as a noun. Compare the following sentences: Painting the room is di~cult. Painting still has verbal qualities because it is followed by a direct object, the room; painting the room as a whole is a non-¼nite clause, functioning as subject. In this dependent clause painting is the verb phrase. The painting of the room was the most di~cult chore. Painting now has more noun qualities because it is preceded and followed by noun modi¼ers, the and of the room. The painting of the room is a noun phrase, functioning as subject. The painting in the room is by a famous artist. Painting has lost all of its verb qualities and is a full noun; it could even be made plural. The painting in the room is a noun phrase, functioning as subject Verbs

93 5.4 Adjectives Adjectives are words that modify (= say something about) a noun; they either name an inherent attribute of a thing, like a glass door or an attribute granted to it like a beautiful door or tell what kind of thing it is as in a shed door. Prototypical adjectives are words that can occur in the comparative forms like big, bigger, biggest, but many other adjectives are nouns or verbs used as adjectives, as in city life or walking shoes, and do not have comparative forms. To determine whether a word is used as an adjective, you should see if it modi¼es a noun. See if it is in front of a noun as in a busy street. Street is a noun and busy, which is in front of it, tells what kind of street it is. See if it functions as the main part of a subject attribute or an object attribute as in This street is very busy and I ýnd this street very busy. In a few ¼xed expressions, the adjective may also occur after a noun as in all the students present or China proper. 5.5 Adverbs Whereas adjectives have only one function (they can modify only nouns), di erent kinds of adverbs can have di erent functions. Typical adverbs are words like here, home, there, and yesterday expressing where or when an event or situation is taking place. Also question words themselves like where, when and how are adverbs, called interrogative adverbs. By themselves these words may function as adverbial in a sentence or clause. He ran yesterday. He writes well. How does he write? The adverb yesterday functions as adverbial and tells when the event took place. The adverb well functions as adverbial and tells how he writes. The interrogative adverb how functions as adverbial. 92 Word classes

94 Other adverbs modify one particular word in a phrase. For example, adverbs like very express degree and modify adjectives or adverbs. Some adverbs modify a whole phrase. He runs very quickly. He is very fast. He went completely out of his mind. The adverb very expresses the degree to which he runs quickly. It modi¼es the adverb quickly. The adverb very express the degree to which he is fast. Fast is here an adjective and very modi¼es it. The adverb completely modi¼es the phrase out of his mind. Some adverbs, like clearly or obviously modify a whole statement. Other adverbs like however and therefore, called conjunctive or sentence adverbs (see Chapter 2), have meanings similar to coordinate conjunctions and express the logical relationship between main clauses or sentences. Obviously, he is very fast. He is very fast; however, he does not have much stamina. The adverb obviously expresses the degree of certainty with which the statement in the sentence should be taken. Obviously modi¼es the whole sentence. The conjunctive adverb however shows the thought link between two sentences. It functions as adverbial within the sentence. Finally, there are two types of adverbs that may have a double function. They can introduce a dependent question (interrogative adverb) or a modifying clause (relative adverb). Below are two example sentences, but these two types will be discussed further in the section on connectors. Where does he live? I don t know where he lives. Do you remember the place where we met last week? The adverb where is an interrogative adverb. The adverb where is an interrogative adverb with the double function of subordinator. The adverb where is a relative adverb with the double function of subordinator Adverbs

95 Note that the form of the word is not always an indication of its class. In English, the adverb often (but not always) has a -ly su~x (beautiful versus beautifully). However, not all adverbs have an -ly su~x (fast, well) and the -ly ending is not only used for adverbs but also for some adjectives (friendly). exercise 27 In the following passage (from The Catch by Nadine Gordimer), underline and identify all words used as adjectives and adverbs. His * thin strong bony legs passed by at eye level every morning as they lay, stranded on the hard smooth sand. Washed up thankfully out of the swirl and bu et of the city, they were happy to lie there, but because they were accustomed to telling the time by their nerves response to the di erent tensions of the city, children crying in ½ats, lorries going heavily and bicycles jangling for early morning, skid of tyres, sound of frying and the human insect noise of thousands talking and walking and eating at midday the tensionless shore keyed only to the tide gave them a sense of timelessness that, however much they rejoiced mentally, troubled their habitimpressed bodies with a lack of pressure. So the sound of his feet, thudding nearer over the sand, passing their heads with the deep sound of a man breathing in the heat above the rolled-up, faded trousers, passing away up the beach and shrinking into the ¼gure of an Indian ¼sherman, began to be something to be waited for. His coming and going divided the morning into three; the short early time before he passed, the time when he was actually passing and the largish chunk of warm midday that followed when he had gone. * Ignore words like his, the and every. These will be discussed in the next sections. 94 Word classes

96 5.6 Pronouns The term pronoun, which literally means instead of a noun is not really correct. Sometimes a pronoun does stand for a noun, but often it doesn t. What is odd about pronouns is that they may have two di erent functions. On the one hand, they may stand on their own and function independently, like a noun, as the subject or object of a clause. On the other hand, they may function dependently, very much like adjectives, in that they occur before a noun. In some books they are even called adjectives. In this course, we will just use the term pronoun to stand for both kinds and indicate whether they are used dependently or independently. Michael bought these books, and Claire bought those. The ¼rst pronoun is used dependently; the second one, independently. Each book costs over $100. Each costs over $100. The ¼rst pronoun is used dependently; the second one, independently. His book costs more than hers. The ¼rst pronoun is used dependently; the second one, independently. When pronouns are used dependently, before a noun, they are somewhat similar to adjectives, but rather than describing a quality or characteristic of a thing as old in old books, they do not say anything about the thing itself. Instead, these pronouns help locate and identify the things in the world the speaker and hearer share. For example, in phrases like my telephone and that telephone words like my and that do not describe the telephone itself, but help the speaker locate the thing in space, usually from the speaker s perspective. Such words function as determiners in a noun phrase as they help us determine which or whose telephone it is. Determiners will be discussed in more depth in Chapter 6. There are nine kinds of pronouns: personal, possessive, relative, interrogative, demonstrative, re½exive, reciprocal, and inde¼nite. Finally, there is the pronoun so. Each will be discussed below Pronouns

97 1 Personal pronouns Personal pronouns are always independent and refer to people or things: I/me, you, he/him, she/her, it, we/us, and they/them. I saw him yesterday. 2 Possessive pronouns Possessive pronouns are related to personal pronouns and express ownership. There are dependent and independent ones. The dependent ones are my, your, his, its, her, our, their. They function as determiner and tell whom or what something or somebody belongs to. Note that the possessive pronoun related to it (its) is spelled as one word (just like his and hers). The spelling with an apostrophe (it s) is used to stand for it is. The independent ones are mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs. Consider my book yours. These are mine. 3 Relative pronouns Relative pronouns are the pronouns who, whom, whose, which, and that, which have a double function. They are pronouns in that they refer to a person or thing and at the same time they introduce a dependent clause. In the clause that they introduce, they function as a constituent (for example, a subject or object). Except for whose, they are all independent, but whose is a dependent one, very much like a possessive pronoun. DO S P I know the guy whom / you / met 96 Word classes

98 DO S P I do not know the guy whose book / that / is 4 Interrogative pronouns Interrogative pronouns are words like whose, who, whom, which and what, which introduce questions. They may be used dependently or independently. Whose book is that? Whose is that? whose is used dependently whose is used independently These same interrogative pronouns may be used as subordinators to introduce dependent clauses functioning as subject, object, or attribute. Actually, many of such clauses can be seen as dependent questions. Note that the word order in dependent questions is very much the same as that of a declarative sentence, and di erent from the word order in an interrogative sentence. Whom did you see? I asked whom you saw. Whom introduces an independent question and the ¼nite verb precedes the subject. Whom introduces a dependent question and the subject precedes the ¼nite verb. 5 Demonstrative pronouns The demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these, and those, which have a pointing sense. This and that refer to singular things, these and those to plural ones. They can also be used independently and dependently. Did you see this/that? Did you read this/that book? This and that are used independently This and that are used dependently Pronouns

99 Did you see these/those? Did you read these/those books? These and those are used independently These and those are used dependently 6 Re½exive pronouns Reþexive pronouns are words like myself, himself, and so on and consist of a personal or possessive pronoun followed by self or selves. They are always used independently. They may be used as object to refer back to another noun or pronoun in the sentence, or they may be used to emphasize part of a subject or object. They saw themselves in the mirror. They themselves saw the UFO. The re½exive pronoun functions as direct object. The re½exive pronoun is used as part of the subject. 7 Reciprocal pronouns The reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another. They are always used independently. We saw each other quite often. 8 Inde¼nite pronouns Indeýnite pronouns are words like someone and somebody that begin with some, every, no,or any and end in person, body or thing. They are used independently. Inde¼nite pronouns are very much like personal pronouns, but they have a vaguer sense. Other inde¼nite pronouns are words like no, every, all, any, both, enough, much, several and so on, which refer to a quantity and are like vague numerals. Some books make a distinction between indeýnite pronouns and quantiýers like no, several and so on. Because it is di~cult to distinguish between indeýnite pronouns and quantiýers on the one hand and quantiýers and numerals on the other hand, we have decided to call all quantifying expressions indeýnite pronouns. The term numeral is reserved for expressions containing a number. Most inde¼nite pronouns may be used both dependently and independently. Someone thought that all of the books would be too much. 98 Word classes

100 There are also some expressions that consist of a noun or pronoun, sometimes followed by a preposition, that have meanings and functions very similar to these inde¼nite pronouns. To keep things simple, we will call these phrases inde¼nite pronouns, too. a great many books a few books many a book inde¼nite pronouns a lot of books a great deal of books 9 So Finally there is one unnamed type of pronoun, so, which is always used independently, and which usually refers to a whole event. I asked you to leave. Please do so immediately. 5.7 Numerals and articles Numerals are words like one, second, and so on, referring to numbers. Like pronouns, they can be used independently and dependently. Michael bought two books, and Claire bought three. The ¼rst numeral is used dependently; the second one, independently. A numeral is a count word. There are cardinal numerals (one, two, three) which name the number and ordinal numerals (ýrst, second, third), which show the order. He is number one. He is the first. He has one book. He has read the first page. independent cardinal numeral independent ordinal numeral dependent cardinal numeral dependent ordinal numeral Pronouns

101 English has two articles: the and a(n). Historically they come from the demonstrative pronoun this and the cardinal number one, but now they have a much vaguer meaning. Articles are always used dependently as determiners, that is in front of a noun. He has a new car. The car is old. exercise 28 Identify the word class of all underlined words and indicate whether they are used dependently or independently. His thin strong bony legs passed by at eye level every morning as they lay, stranded on the hard smooth sand. Washed up thankfully out of the swirl and bu et of the city, they were happy to lie there, but because they were accustomed to telling the time by their nerves response to the di erent tensions of the city, children crying in ½ats, lorries going heavily and bicycles jangling for early morning, skid of tyres, sound of frying and the human insect noise of thousands talking and walking and eating at midday the tensionless shore keyed only to the tide gave them a sense of timelessness that, however much they rejoiced mentally, troubled their habitimpressed bodies with a lack of pressure. So the sound of his feet, thudding nearer over the sand, passing their heads with the deep sound of a man breathing in the heat above the rolled-up, faded trousers, passing away up the beach and shrinking into the ¼gure of an Indian ¼sherman, began to be something to be waited for. His coming and going divided the morning into three; the short early time before he passed, the time when he was actually passing and the largish chunk of warm midday that followed when he had gone. 100 Word classes

102 5.8 Connectors There are many di erent types of connectors. The term connector is used in a very broad sense as a superordinate term for all words that link. Coordinators link parts that have equal syntactic value. Subordinators link a dependent clause or phrase to a clause or phrase of a higher level. Subordinators, in turn, may be subclassi¼ed again according to the type of dependent phrase or clause they introduce and according to whether they have a function within the clause or phrase they introduce. Each will be discussed separately below. 1 Coordinators Coordinators link two equal parts, which may be two or more single words, phrases, dependent clauses, or main clauses. As you saw in Chapter 2, there is a small number of coordinators, the coordinate conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) and correlative conjunctions: not only but also, neither nor, either or, and both and. Note that the term conjunction is reserved for connectors that have no function within the clause they introduce. The following examples show how these coordinators may be used to form compound subjects, objects and compound sentences. Compound subject John or Mary is leaving now. Compound direct object I saw both the boy in the red sweater and the girl with the blue dress Connectors

103 Compound sentence He is studying for his exam now, for he will not have enough time next week. Coordinators may also be used to show the logical connection between two separate sentences. sentence 1 He is studying for his exam. sentence 2 So he has no time to come visit next week. Note that the structures within the boxes are very similar to each other. For example, a noun is connected to a noun, or a noun modi¼ed with a prepositional phrase to a noun with a prepositional phrase. This phenomenon is called parallel structures, which is often a sign of e ective writing. Remember that in Chapter 2 it was explained that compound sentences may also be formed by placing a semi-colon between two main clauses. Often, the second clause contains a conjunctive adverb. Several conjunctive adverbs have a meaning very similar to coordinate conjunctions, but they are di erent as far as grammatical properties are concerned (they may be moved within the clause), and therefore they are punctuated di erently. When main clauses are linked with a coordinate conjunction, they are separated with a comma. When main clauses are logically linked with a conjunctive adverb, these main clauses should not be separated with a comma but with either a period (.), a semi-colon (;) or sometimes a colon (:). 102 Word classes

104 Compound sentence separated with semi-colon He is studying for his exam now ; A therefore, he will not have enough time next week. exercise 29 Underline all words used as coordinators. Set o the parts that they connect with square brackets. Has this author kept the structures connected with a coordinator parallel? His thin strong bony legs passed by at eye level every morning as they lay, stranded on the hard smooth sand. Washed up thankfully out of the swirl and bu et of the city, they were happy to lie there, but because they were accustomed to telling the time by their nerves response to the di erent tensions of the city children crying in ½ats, lorries going heavily and bicycles jangling for early morning, skid of tyres, sound of frying and the human insect noise of thousands talking and walking and eating at midday the tensionless shore keyed only to the tide gave them a sense of timelessness that, however much they rejoiced mentally, troubled their habit-impressed bodies with a lack of pressure. So the sound of his feet, thudding nearer over the sand, passing their heads with the deep sound of a man breathing in the heat above the rolled-up, faded trousers, passing away up the beach and shrinking into the ¼gure of an Indian ¼sherman, began to be something Connectors

105 to be waited for. His coming and going divided the morning into three; the short early time before he passed, the time when he was actually passing and the largish chunk of warm midday that followed when he had gone. 2 Subordinators Subordinator is a superordinate term for all words that introduce a dependent clause. They can introduce three types of dependent clauses: (1) clauses functioning as subject, object, subject attribute or object attribute, (2) clauses modifying a noun, and (3) clauses functioning as adverbial. Among the subordinators, we can distinguish between those that have a function within the clause they introduce (so they are subordinator and pronoun or adverb at the same time) and those that do not (so they are only subordinator and called conjunctions). A clause functioning as subject, object or attribute is introduced by subordinators like that, when, where, who, whom, whose, what, whether, how, which, and if. In the following example when, where, and if introduce direct object clauses and the coordinator or connects these three. Direct object Direct object I don't know when he will arrive, how he will travel, Direct object or if he comes by himself. Among the noun clause subordinators, there are two types: those that have a function within the clause they introduce and those that don t. Compare the more detailed analysis of each direct object. When and how both are constituents in the clauses that they introduce, so they are interrogative adverbs with a subordinating function. If is not a clause constituent, so it is purely a subordinator. We will reserve the term conjunction 104 Word classes

106 for connectors that do not have a function within the clause they introduce, so if and whether are called subordinating conjunctions. A S P When is a constituent of the clause it introduces. when / he / will arrive (= He will arrive at a certain moment) A S P How is a constituent of the clause it introduces. how / he / will travel (= He will travel in a certain manner) S P A If is not a constituent of the clause it introduces. If he / comes / by himself Clauses functioning as modi¼ers of nouns are called relative (or adjective) clauses. They are introduced by the subordinators that, which, who, whom, whose (called relative pronouns) and where and when (called relative adverbs). Note that a relative clause comes after the noun it modi¼es, and the pronoun or adverb refers to this noun. Subject The boy whom / that you met is my friend Direct object Do you remember the time when we played hooky? Connectors

107 Relative pronouns and adverbs always have a double function. They are subordinators and they are a constituent of the clause they introduce. Look at the more detailed analysis of the relative clauses. DO S P Whom is a constituent of the clause it introduces. whom / you / met (= you met him) A S P DO When is a constituent of the clause it introduces. when / we / played / hooky (= we played hooky then) Clauses functioning as adverbial are introduced by words like when, where, after, before, since, although, because, before, even though, if, in order that, now that, once, rather than, since, so that, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, while and so on. None of the subordinators introducing an adverb clause have a double function. All they do is link the dependent clause to another clause and show the meaning relation, but they do not function as a constituent of the clause they introduce. So just like if and whether, which introduce clauses functioning as subject, object or attribute, they are called subordinating conjunctions. Adverbial When he arrived, he was really tired. In the summary, in Table 18, a complete list is given of all the connectors, but remember that the same word may have di erent functions. The same is true for subordinators. For example, in the following sentence the subordinator who introduces a clause functioning as direct object and in the next one who introduces a relative clause. 106 Word classes

108 Direct object I don t know who will be at the party. Direct object Relative clause Do you know the people who will be there? In the next sentence if functions as subordinator introducing a clause functioning as direct object, but in the one after that, if functions as subordinator introducing an adverbial. Direct object He wanted to know if he could come, too. Adverbial I will stay home if he comes, too Connectors

109 exercise 30 Underline all words used as subordinator. Set o the parts that they introduce with square brackets. Note that some dependent clauses occur within other dependent clauses. Identify the subordinator as subordinating conjunction (SC), relative pronoun (RP) or relative adverb (RA), or as interrogative pronoun (IP) or interrogative adverb (IA). His thin strong bony legs passed by at eye level every morning as they lay, stranded on the hard smooth sand. Washed up thankfully out of the swirl and bu et of the city, they were happy to lie there, but because they were accustomed to telling the time by their nerves response to the di erent tensions of the city, children crying in ½ats, lorries going heavily and bicycles jangling for early morning, skid of tyres, sound of frying and the human insect noise of thousands talking and walking and eating at midday the tensionless shore keyed only to the tide gave them a sense of timelessness that, however much * they rejoiced mentally, troubled their habitimpressed bodies with a lack of pressure. So the sound of his feet, thudding nearer over the sand, passing their heads with the deep sound of a man breathing in the heat above the rolled-up, faded trousers, passing away up the beach and shrinking into the ¼gure of an Indian ¼sherman, began to be something to be waited for. His coming and going divided the morning into three; the short early time before he passed, the time when he was actually passing and the largish chunk of warm midday that followed when he had gone. * However much is used as a multi-word subordinator. 108 Word classes

110 3 Prepositions Prepositions are not traditionally called subordinators, but they have been put here because they are very similar to them. What they have in common is that they do not really have a function within the phrase or clause they introduce. They purely link and show a meaning relationship. The di erence between a subordinating conjunction and a preposition is that subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses and prepositions introduce dependent noun phrases. Prepositions are usually short words like in, on, at, about, with, of, to, by, beside, before, and after. (See Table 20 for a complete list.) When put in front of a noun phrase, which denotes a person or a thing, the noun phrase changes into a prepositional phrase, denoting a manner, place, time, and so on. The boy in the room running in a circle was crazy about the fact that his dog had barked at his cat. In the previous sentence, in the room expresses where, in a circle expresses how, about the fact expresses why and at his cat expresses in which direction. Whereas most prepositions are short words, there are also some multi-word prepositions like by way of or in addition to, in spite of, in contrast to, apart from. Multi-word prepositions are really made up of a noun phrase followed by a prepositional phrase, but they are combinations that are so commonly used together that they can be considered as one preposition. In contrast to his roommate, he likes to keep his room clean. Sometimes even verbs, such as considering can be considered prepositions: Considering his crazy behavior, it was no surprise that he fell. One problem is again that some words have more than one function. For example, in the following sentence after, which is followed by a noun phrase, functions as a preposition, but in the next one, when followed by a clause, after functions as a subordinator of a clause Connectors

111 Adverbial Preposition After the game, we left. Adverbial Subordinator After the game was over, we left. 110 Word classes

112 exercise 31 Underline all words used as prepositions. Set o the parts that they introduce with square brackets. Note that some prepositional phrases contain other prepositional phrases. His thin strong bony legs passed by at eye level every morning as they lay, stranded on the hard smooth sand. Washed up thankfully out of the swirl and bu et of the city, they were happy to * lie there, but because they were accustomed to ** telling the time by their nerves response to the di erent tensions of the city, children crying in ½ats, lorries going heavily and bicycles jangling for early morning, skid of tyres, sound of frying and the human insect noise of thousands talking and walking and eating at midday the tensionless shore keyed only to the tide gave them a sense of timelessness that, however much they rejoiced mentally, troubled their habit-impressed bodies with a lack of pressure. So the sound of his feet, thudding nearer over the sand, passing their heads with the deep sound of a man breathing in the heat above the rolled-up, faded trousers, passing away up the beach and shrinking into the ¼gure of an Indian ¼sherman, began to be something to be waited for. *** His coming and going divided the morning into three; the short early time before **** he passed, the time when he was actually passing and the largish chunk of warm midday that followed when he had gone. * To as part of a to in¼nitive is not considered a preposition. It is considered part of the verb, like -ing would be part of a verb like walking. ** This is not a to of a to in¼nitive but a preposition before telling, which is used as a noun. *** In normal word order it would be to wait for something. **** Here before is a subordinator because it introduces a clause Connectors

113 5.9 Interjections Interjections are words that literally are interjected into a sentence, oh, well, blast, damn, and so on. They do not have a function like subject or object, but express the speaker s attitude towards something. Oh, I didn t know you wanted to leave. exercise 32 In the following passage identify the word class of each word. Remember to look at how it is used in the sentence. For an overview of word classes see the summary. My late dad was a magni¼cent shot. One time when we were hunting in the Low Veld and had paused for a smoke, there was the yelp of a wild dog, and a troop of impala came * bounding over the tall grass. Opposite us, three hundred yards o, was a stony ridge like a wall, six feet high. ** You would think those buck would avoid it, but no, they went straight at it. One after the other, without *** pausing or swerving, they leapt over it. They cleared it by three feet. I tell you, friend, it was a beautiful sight. You can t beat Nature for beauty, eh. * The verb come is usually used as a lexical verb. In this sentence it can be argued that it functions as an auxiliary verb as it can easily be replaced with the auxiliary of progressive aspect be. ** Remember that in some standard expressions, adjectives occur after a noun. *** Remember that only noun phrases may occur after a preposition. 112 Word classes

114 5.10 Summary The term word class is a relative one. One particular word may be used in di erent ways, and its word class is determined by how it is used in a sentence. The following three tables give examples for each word class as discussed in this chapter. Tables 20 gives rather complete lists of prepositions, subordinators, coordinators and conjunctive adverbs. Table 17 Open word classes noun proper Peter, January, Great Britain, the Alps common concrete abstract count non-count boy, girl, country bicycle, mountain idea, thought, transportation boy, bicycle, idea grass, furniture verb lexical walk, run, think, become auxiliary be, have, will, would, can, could, shall, should, is supposed to, is going to adjective adverb interjection beautiful, good now, here, very, obviously, therefore oh, well, my goodness Summary

115 Table 18 Pronouns, articles, and numerals pronoun personal I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they, them, one re½exive reciprocal possessive relative demonstrative interrogative inde¼nite myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves each other, one another my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs, one s who, whom, whose, which, that this, that, these, those who, which, what, how, where, when, whose, whom somebody, anything, nobody, each, several, much article the, a(n) numeral cardinal one, two, one-ýfth ordinal ýrst, second 114 Word classes

116 Table 19 Connectors coordinate conjunctions and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet correlative conjunctions not only but also, either or, both and conjunctive adverbs moreover, however, otherwise subordinators for clauses functioning as subject, object or attribute interrogative pronouns interrogative adverb subordinating conjunction who, what, which whose where, when, how if, whether for clauses functioning as adverbial subordinating conjunction before, while, as, although, etc. for clauses modifying nouns relative pronouns relative adverbs who, whom, whose, which, that where, when, how, as preposition in, on, at, before, etc Summary

117 Table 20 Prepositions, subordinators, coordinators, and conjunctive adverbs prepositions about above across after against along among apart from around as at because of behind below beneath beside between beyond by concerning despite down during except for from in in addition to in case of in contrast to inside in spite of into like near of o on onto out out of outside over past regarding since through throughout to toward under underneath until up upon with with regard to within without subordinators after although as as if as though because before even though how however much if in order that now that once rather than since so that that though unless until what(ever) when whenever where whereas wherever whether which(ever) while who who(m)(ever) whose coordinators and but or nor for so yet not only but also both and either or neither nor 116 Word classes

118 Table 20 (continued) conjunctive adverbs accordingly also anyway besides certainly consequently ¼nally furthermore hence however incidentally indeed instead likewise meanwhile moreover nevertheless next nonetheless now otherwise similarly still then thereafter therefore thus undoubtedly Summary

119 6 Phrases 6.1 Introduction In Chapter 2, we brie½y discussed the di erence between a clause and a phrase. Whereas a clause has its own subject and predicate, a phrase does not. In Chapter 5, we discussed the eleven di erent word classes. In this chapter, we will examine how members of these word classes may be put together to form a phrase. What do phrases do? They can be used as subject, object, predicator and so on of a sentence or a clause. But phrases can also be parts of other phrases. For example, the garden is a phrase, which could be combined with the chair with a preposition, as in the chair in the garden, which in turn can be combined with the cushion,asinthe cushion in the chair in the garden, and so on. Within a phrase, we can even add a clause like that you made as in the cushion that you made for the chair in the garden. A phrase can consist of one word or more words. If it consists of more words, it usually has one main word that is the most important one as far as meaning is concerned. For example, in the phrase the cushion in the chair in the garden the thing talked about is the cushion. This main word is called the head of the phrase. Since the main word in this phrase is realized by a noun, the whole phrase is called a noun phrase. When we name a head, we talk about the function of a word in a phrase. Once we have identi¼ed a function, we can again specify how it is realized. Many students have trouble with this distinction, so an analogy to make this distinction more clear may be useful. Suppose you have some vessels such as a cup, a bowl, and a vase. Each of these could be made of glass, porcelain, earthenware, or even a kind of metal. The words cup, bowl, and vase refer to what you can do with them (their functions) and the words glass, earthenware, porcelain, and metal refer to what they are made of (their realizations). If I say cup I only refer to its function and if I say glass I only refer to what it is made of. 118 Phrases

120 Since these functions and realizations do not have a one-on-one relation, it can be useful to name both. In language, too, a particular type of constituent with a particular kind of function can have di erent realizations, and one particular type of structure can have di erent functions. That is why in this course we prefer to name both. However, there are many grammar books, especially introductory ones, that do not make this distinction, or if they do, not consistently. Phrases can also be analyzed into constituents, each with a function and realization. As you can see from the examples in Table 21, the head of a phrase is realized by a noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, or preposition. In total, there are ¼ve kinds of phrases, each of which will be discussed separately. Table 21 Types of phrases abbreviation example noun phrase NP the boy they verb phrase VP has been walking adjective phrase AdjP very tired adverb phrase AdvP faster than usual prepositional phrase PP before school exercise 33 Name the type of phrases, underlined in the following passage (from The Catch by Nadine Gordimer). * After a few days, he began to say good morning, and looking up they found his face, a long head with a shining dark dome surrounded with curly hair given a strong liveliness by the sharp coarse strokes of grey hairs, the beautiful curved nose Introduction

121 handed out so impartially to Indians, dark eyes slightly bloodshot from the sun,a wide muscular mouth smiling on strong uneven teeth that projected slightly like the good useful teeth of an animal. But it was by his legs they would have known him; the dark, dull-skinned feet with the few black hairs on the big toe, the long hard shaft of the shin tightly covered with smooth shiny skin, the pull of the tendons at his ankle like the taut ropes that control the sail of a ship. * Some of the underlined phrases are sentence constituents (subject, object, and so on) and some are parts of other phrases. We will look at the di erent functions of phrases at the end of this chapter. 6.2 Noun phrases The possible constituents of noun phrases are determiner, premodi¼er, head, and post-modi¼er. The central element of a noun phrase is called its head. The head may have words before it called determiners (abbreviated as det) and premodiýers (abbreviated as premod) and words after it called post-modiýers (abbreviated as post-mod). Premodi¼ers of nouns are always realized as adjective phrases. Note that even when there is only one word to modify a noun, it is still called a phrase because potentially it could have more than one word. noun phrase premod:adjp dark head:noun eyes 120 Phrases

122 A noun may be premodi¼ed by one ore more adjective phrases. noun phrase premod:adjp sad premod:adjp dark head:noun eyes Even when nouns are used to modify another noun, they are to be considered adjectives, as can be seen in the following example. noun phrase premod:adjp city head:noun life Post-modi¼ers of nouns are either phrases or clauses, which we will deal with in more detail in Section 6.3. noun phrase the head:noun teeth post-mod:pp of an animal noun phrase the taut head:noun ropes post-mod: FC that control the sail of a ship Noun phrases

123 noun phrase the head:noun shin post-mod:nfc tightly covered with smooth shiny skin In some standard expressions, as in China proper, the post-modi¼er may be an adjective phrase. 1 Determiners One additional constituent of the noun phrase functions as determiner. As you saw in Chapter 5, determiners are words somewhat like adjectives in that they come before a noun, but they are di erent in that they do not say anything about the quality or status of the thing, but tells where (in relation to the speaker) the thing/person can be found. Determiners may be the articles a(n) or the or any of the dependent pronouns and numerals, including some expressions like a few, a number of, a lot of and so on, which we also call inde¼nite pronouns. Articles, dependent pronouns and dependent numerals are often used in combination. Many books subclassify the determiners into pre-determiners, central determiners, and post-determiners, but in this course we will avoid this sub-classi¼cation and call them all determiners. Often, it is di~cult to argue which of the determiners is the more important. Then we will name them separately. When we analyze a phrase, we name the constituents at phrase level (head, determiner, modi¼er) and its realization. noun phrase det:indef. pron. det:article head:noun post-mod: FC All the books we read 122 Phrases

124 noun phrase det:dem. pron premod:adjp head:noun post-mod:nfc These boring books discussed in class 2 Specifying versus classifying genitives When a noun is used before another noun to denote a kind of possession, it often ends with a genitive -s as in John s book or the children s book. There are two main kinds of genitives, which have di erent functions and meanings and should therefore be analyzed di erently. Some genitives express where (in relation to the speaker) a thing/person can be found, or more precisely to whom something or someone belongs. In this case the genitive could be substituted with a possessive pronoun like her, his, its, or theirs; therefore, it functions as a determiner and it is called a specifying genitive. Another type of genitive, which occurs much less, expresses what kind of thing something is and is called a classifying genitive. This type functions more like a premodi¼er and should be regarded an adjective phrase. When we analyze a noun phrase with a genitive, we have to be aware of another di erence between a specifying and a classifying genitive. In a noun phrase with a specifying genitive, the article and the possessive noun together function as one determiner as the article is the determiner of the genitive noun, not the head noun. In a noun phrase with a classifying genitive, the article functions as determiner of the head noun Noun phrases

125 noun phrase det:spec. gen. the child s head:noun book noun phrase det:art. premod:adjp (classifying gen.) head:noun a children s book In some cases, the same genitive phrase can be used with two di erent senses depending on the context. Compare the following two sentences. In speaking, they would be pronounced di erently. For a specifying genitive, the phrase the children s books would be pronounced with more stress on books; for the classifying genitive, there would be equal stress for children s and books. The children s books were torn. The children s books were fun to read. their books: specifying genitive those kinds of books: classifying genitive 124 Phrases

126 exercise 34 Several nouns, functioning as heads of noun phrases, have been underlined. Indicate with square brackets the beginning and end of the noun phrase and analyze the phrase further as has been done in the examples above. The ¼rst complex one has been done for you. After a few days, he began to say good morning, and looking up they found his face, a long head with [a (det : art) shining (premod : AdjP) dark (premod : AdjP) dome (head : noun) surrounded with curly hair given a strong liveliness by the sharp coarse strokes of grey (post-mod : NFC)], the beautiful curved nose handed out so impartially to Indians, dark eyes slightly bloodshot from the sun, a wide muscular mouth smiling on strong uneven teeth that projected slightly like the good useful teeth of an animal. But it was by his legs they would have known him; the dark, dull-skinned feet with the few black hairs on the big toe, the long hard shaft of the shin tightly covered with smooth shiny skin, the pull of the tendons at his ankle like the taut ropes that control the sail of a ship. They idly watched him go, envious of his ¼sherman s life not because they could ever really have lived it themselves, but because it had about it the frame of their holiday freedom. 6.3 Post-modi¼ers of nouns Noun phrases are the most complex types of phrases. Not only do they have two possible constituents before the head noun (determiners and premodi¼ers), they also have great many types of post-modi¼ers. As the following examples show, postmodi¼ers may be realized as phrases, ¼nite clauses, or non-¼nite clauses Post-modifiers of nouns

127 function: realization the boy ahead Post-mod : AdvP the boy in the room Post-mod : P P the boy who walked into the room Post-mod : F C the guy living next door Post-mod : N F C We will discuss adverb phrases and prepositional phrases later in this chapter. Here we will take a closer look at the types of clauses that modify nouns, as they are very common in English. The use of relative pronouns is rather confusing and there are di erent types with di erent punctuation rules. Another point is that in quite a few cases the relative pronoun and be verb may be ellipted (left out) from a ¼nite relative clause resulting in post modi¼er realized as a phrase or a non-¼nite clause. Therefore, we will discuss below restrictive versus nonrestrictive post-modi¼ers, the use of the relative pronoun in ¼nite relative clauses, and ellipsis in relative clauses. 1 Restrictive versus non-restrictive post-modi¼ers Post-modi¼ers may be added to a noun phrase to help identify the head noun, or they may be given as extra information. Consider the following pair of sentences: My friend who has recently moved to London called last night. Peter, who has recently moved to London, called last night. Assuming that the speaker has more than one friend, the NP my friend in the ¼rst sentence has rather vague reference, and the post-modi¼er who has recently moved to London in this sentence helps to identify which friend is meant. In other words, this clause speci¼es or restricts the reference of the noun phrase. Therefore, it is called a restrictive or specifying modiýer. The following ¼gure illustrates how the clause restricts or speci¼es. 126 Phrases

128 my friend who has recently moved possible friends the one who has recently moved In the second one, assuming that the speaker and hearer both know the same Peter, the function of the post-modi¼er is not to help identify which Peter is meant, but to give extra information. This information may be very relevant for the context, because people usually do not give information unless it is relevant, but it is not needed to understand who or what the head of the noun phrase refers to because this person or thing does not need to be identi¼ed. This type of modi¼er is called a non-restrictive modiýer. If the head noun is a proper name (like Fred, Germany, Budapest)ora unique/general thing (the earth, tennis, soccer) the clause is usually non-restrictive. The following illustrates how a non-restrictive clause does not identify which one, but gives extra information. Peter, who has recently moved, Peter (by the way), he recently moved to London In speaking these two types of modi¼ers are easily distinguished because they are pronounced di erently: restrictive ones have rising intonation (which gives more emphasis to that part of the sentence) and non-restrictive ones have falling intonation (which gives less emphasis to that part of the sentence). In writing, the distinction is marked with commas. A non-restrictive modi¼er, which has the falling intonation, is set o with commas. The restrictive one is not Post-modifiers of nouns

129 As the following two sentences show, commas or not can make a big di erence in meaning. The students who attended class regularly will do well on their exams. The students, who attended class regularly, will do well on the exam. In the ¼rst one, the students who will do well are only those who attended regularly and in the second one, all the students attended class regularly and all will do well. The meaning of each of these sentences is illustrated below: The students who attended class regularly will do well on their exams. The students who attended class regularly will do well on the exam. The students, who attended class regularly, will do well on the exam. The students, who attended class regularly, will do well on the exam. 128 Phrases

130 exercise 35 Analyze the following sentences by separating sentence constituents with slashes. Then, underline any post-modifying clause or phrase and circle the head noun. Identify them (a) as ¼nite clause, non-¼nite clause, or phrase and (b) as restrictive or nonrestrictive. 1 Lincoln, who was one of the truly great men of all time, led the US during the Civil War. 2 Lincoln once said that his wife had got a notion into her head that he would be assassinated. 3 His attempt to reassure her was to carry a cane on his nightly walks to the War Department. 4 Any person plotting to kill him was going to ¼nd a way to do it anyway, he believed. 5 Lincoln, a very public ¼gure, simply was not willing to live in fear despite this ever present threat. 6 The date of Lincoln s assassination, April 14, 1865, now seems to take on an ironic meaning. 7 The stories concerning President Lincoln s courage and humor have made him a legend. 2 Relative pronouns In Chapter 5 relative pronouns were discussed. We will now look at their functions within the relative clause. There are ¼ve relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, and that. Who, whom and whose are normally used to refer to persons (or animals or things seen as persons) and which refers to things. The pronoun that may be used for both, but only in restrictive clauses. In other words, that is used only when there are no commas! Post-modifiers of nouns

131 As mentioned earlier, these pronouns have a double function. They are subordinators introducing a dependent clause and at the same time they function as a clause constituent: they may function as subject, object, or adverbial within the clause itself. S:NP P:VP A:NP S:NP P:VP SA:NP Gary, who is my friend, moved last week. In addition, as you can see in the following example, the pronoun that may be left out, but only if it does not function as subject. S:NP P:VP SA:NP DO:NP S:NP P:VP A:NP The guy ( that) you met last night is my friend. The relative pronoun whose is di erent in that it is not an independent pronoun but a dependent one, like the possessive pronoun his. Therefore, it is not a clause constituent, but a phrase constituent: the determiner of a noun phrase. For example, the relative clause in the following example is related to the sentence You borrowed his bike, where his functions as determiner in the phrase. 130 Phrases

132 DO:NP S:NP P:VP The guy whose bike you borrowed moved last week. One problem that students may come across is the use of which with a possessive sense. Consider the following. For a person, a possessive is often formed with a possessive pronoun like his or a genitive, as in his bike or Gary s bike, and for the pronoun who,we can use the possessive form whose, e.g. whose bike. But for things, possession is usually expressed with a post-modifying of phrase. One would say the tyres of the bicycle rather than the bicycle s tyres. The same is the case for which. When which is used in a possessive construction it becomes of which, which occurs after the noun it modi¼es. However, even native speakers often have trouble with this construction and try to avoid it as much as possible. To solve the problem, sometimes whose is used for a thing, and in spoken English we might even hear a sentence like The bike of which the tyres are þat belongs to me. But the following example shows the grammatically correct construction. S:NP P:VP SA:AdjP The bike the tyres of which are ½at belongs to me Post-modifiers of nouns

133 exercise 36 In the following passage (from The Wind and the Boy by Bessie Head) underline all ¼nite relative clauses. Remember that they must modify a noun. Double underline this noun and circle the relative pronoun, (or indicate where the pronoun that could occur) and identify the function the relative pronoun has within the clause that it introduces. The ¼rst one has been done for you. subject Until they became ordinary, dull grown men, who drank beer and made babies, the little village boys were a special set all on their own. They were kings whom no one ruled. They wandered where they willed from dawn to dusk and only condescended to come home at dusk because they were afraid of the horrible things in the dark that might pounce on them. Unlike the little girls who adored household chores and drawing water, it was only now and then that the boys showed themselves as useful attachments to any household. When the ¼rst hard rains of summer fell, small dark shapes, which were quite naked except for their loincloths, sped out of the village into the bush. They knew that the ¼rst downpour had drowned all the wild rabbits, moles and porcupines in their burrows in the earth. As they crouched down near the entrances to the burrows, they would see a small drowned nose of an animal peeping out; they knew it had struggled to emerge from its burrow, which had been ½ooded by the sudden rush of storm water and as they pulled out the animal they would say, pityingly: Birds have more sense than rabbits, moles and porcupines. They build their homes in trees. 132 Phrases

134 3 Ellipsis in relative clauses When communicating, people try to be as e~cient as possible. One way to save time is to ellipt (= leave out) parts that are clearly understood in the context, especially if the part already occurs in a preceding part of the sentence. Compare the following sentences and note that a subject, a predicator, or subject and predicator may be ellipted. The dock workers are discontented and the dock workers have gone on strike. Peter is leaving tonight and Joan is leaving tomorrow. We lived in Kansas City from 1989 to 1991 and we lived in Monroe before that. One particular combination that is often ellipted in English is a subject (if it is clearly understood in the context) followed by a form of the be verb, but only in dependent clauses. This type of ellipsis takes place very frequently in relative clauses and the resulting post-modi¼er is no longer a ¼nite clause, but a phrase or a non-¼nite clause Where is Sandra, who is the girl who lives next door? Where is Sandra, the girl who lives next door? PostMod: F C PostMod: N P The following are all pairs of sentences, the ¼rst with a post-modi¼er realized by a ¼nite clause, the second with a post-modi¼er realized as a particular kind of phrase or non-¼nite clause. The realizations of the di erent post-modi¼ers have been given below. Where is Dr. Wilcox, who is the head of the English Department? Where is Dr. Wilcox, the head of the English Department? FC NP Dr. Wilcox, who is unable to attend the meeting, will be here later. Dr. Wilcox, unable to attend the meeting, will be here later. FC AdjP I do not know the people who are in this room. I do not know the people in this room. FC PP Post-modifiers of nouns

135 The student who has been sitting next to me all term is from Taiwan. The student sitting next to me all term is from Taiwan. FC NFC The vet treated the puppy that was hit by a car. The vet treated the puppy hit by a car. FC NFC The first person who was to fly to the moon was Neil Armstrong. The first person to fly to the moon was Neil Armstrong. FC NFC There are some post-modifying non-¼nite clauses with an -ing form in which there is no ellipted be verb. Also some to in¼nitive constructions have a meaning similar to a modal auxiliary. Compare the following pairs of sentences. I can t find the book that belongs to Chris. I can t find the book belonging to Chris. FC NFC I need a bag that I can carry on the plane. I need a bag to carry on the plane. FC NFC exercise 37 Underline all phrases and ¼nite and non-¼nite clauses that function as post-modi¼ers of nouns. Circle the noun that is modi¼ed. Identify how it is realized (what type of phrase or clause) and whether it is restrictive or non-restrictive. PP NFC restrictive restrictive In the summer of 1859, a French acrobat called Blondin strung a rope across the gorge just below Niagara Falls. On June 30, he was ready to walk from the United States to Canada across that rope, which was more than 150 feet above Niagara s violent waters. Blondin, sitting down on the rope halfway across, scared the crowd as he 134 Phrases

136 lowered a string to a boat below, pulled up a bottle and took a drink. Then he continued his terrifying walk. Eighteen minutes after he began his stroll, he was greeted by a crowd cheering tremendously as he stepped on the Canadian side. In less than seven minutes he completed his trip back to the United States. People coming to the Falls that summer to see what the acrobat would do next were never disappointed by Blondin, who always thought of di erent tricks. He walked across with a sack over his head! He pushed a wheelbarrow across! He did a headstand on the rope! And once Blondin, ready for a snack, took a table, chair and stove with him to the middle of the rope and ¼xed an omelet! One time, he convinced his manager, Harry Colcord, to ride across on his back; however, he did not try that stunt, a near disaster, again. A support wire snapped and jerked the main rope sideways. Finally, Blondin, managing to keep himself and his manager from falling, was able to land safely on the other side after forty- ¼ve agonizing minutes. 6.4 Verb phrases In Chapters 3 and 4, we have discussed verb phrases extensively. Here we will give a brief review again. A verb phrase consists of a group of verbs, which must contain a lexical verb (which is its head, as semantically the most important one) and which may be preceded by one or more auxiliary verbs. There is not really a good, standard term to name the function the group of auxiliaries that may precede the lexical verb may have. In many books, the group is simply called aux, which does not say much about its semantic contribution. We could argue that the group of auxiliaries are somewhat like Verb phrases

137 determiners of nouns, because just like them, they do not give information about the process itself but on how the speaker views the process. By using auxiliaries, the speaker may indicate whether he sees the process as ongoing, ¼nished, and so on. However, to avoid confusion with other methods and books, we shall call the function of this group aux. verb phrase aux:aux. verbs may have been head:lex. verb talking exercise 38 Underline each ¼nite and non-¼nite verb phrase. Note that some verbs, like surrounded are part of a post-modi¼er of a noun (here, surrounded with curly hair modi¼es dome). Which other non-¼nite verbs are like surrounded in that they are part of a phrase that is used as a post-modi¼er of a noun? After a few days, he began to say good morning, and looking up they found his face, a long head with a shining dark dome surrounded with curly hair given a strong liveliness by the sharp coarse strokes of grey hairs, the beautiful curved nose handed out so impartially to Indians, dark eyes slightly bloodshot from the sun, a wide muscular mouth smiling on strong uneven teeth that projected slightly like the good useful teeth of an animal. But it was by his legs they would have known him; the dark, dull-skinned feet with the few black hairs on the big toe, the long hard shaft of the shin tightly covered with smooth shiny skin, the pull of the tendons at his ankle like the taut ropes that control the sail of a ship. 136 Phrases

138 6.5 Adjective phrase An adjective phrase consists of an adjective which may be preceded and/or followed by other words. The premodi¼er is always an adverb phrase, but the post-modi¼ers can be an adverb phrase, a prepositional phrase, or even a clause. It is also possible to have a modi¼er that is partly in front and partly behind the head, called a discontinuous modiýer, abbreviated as disc-mod. adjective phrase premod:advp very head:adjective good adjective phrase premod:advp very head:adjective good post-mod:pp at swimming adjective phrase head:adjective good post-mod:advp enough * So that is regarded here as one subordinator to introduce an adverbial clause of result. adjective phrase ¼rst part of disc-mod so* head:adjective good rest of disc-mod:fc that he may participate in the Olympics Adjective phrase

139 adjective phrase ¼rst part of disc-mod too head:adjective good rest of disc-mod:fc to participate in the local games adjective phrase head:adjective post-mod: AdvP good head:adverb enough post-mod: NFC to participate in the Olympics adjective phrase head:adjective post-mod: FC afraid that he would lose exercise 39 Underline each adjective, and indicate with brackets the beginning and end of the phrase of which it is the head. The ¼rst has been done for you. After a few days, he began to say [good] morning, and looking up they found his face, a long head with a shining dark dome surrounded with curly hair given a strong liveliness by the sharp coarse strokes of grey hairs, the beautiful curved nose handed out so impartially to Indians, dark eyes slightly bloodshot from the sun, a wide muscular mouth smiling on strong uneven teeth that projected slightly like the good useful teeth of an animal. But it was by his legs they would have known 138 Phrases

140 him; the dark, dull-skinned feet with the few black hairs on the big toe, the long hard shaft of the shin tightly covered with smooth shiny skin, the pull of the tendons at his ankle like the taut ropes that control the sail of a ship. 6.6 Adverb phrase An adverb phrase is very similar to an adjective phrase in that it consists of an adverb, which may be preceded and/or followed by other words. Here, too, the premodi¼er is always an adverb phrase, and the post-modi¼ers can be an adverb phrase, a prepositional phrase or a ¼nite or non-¼nite clause. An adverb may also have a discontinuous modiýer. adverb phrase premod: AdvP very head:adverb easily adverb phrase head:adverb easily post-mod:advp enough Adverb phrase

141 adverb phrase head:adverb post-mod: AdvP easily head:adverb enough post-mod: NFC to go to the Olympics adverb phrase ¼rst part of disc-mod. so head:adverb easily rest of disc-mod:fc that he may participate in the Olympics adverb phrase head:adverb faster post-mod: FC than anyone else can imagine exercise 40 In the following adapted passage (also from The Catch by Nadine Gordimer) underline each adverb, and with square brackets indicate the beginning and end of the phrase of which it is the head. They idly watched him go, not because they were so envious of his ¼sherman s life that they would really have liked to live it themselves, but because it had about it the frame of their holiday freedom. They looked at him enough to think that they should have respect for one who has put a little space between himself and the rest of the world. It s a good life said the young man, the words not quite hitting the 140 Phrases

142 nail of this respect. I can just see you said the girl, smiling. She saw him in his blue creased suit, carrying a bottle of gin wrapped in brown paper, a packet of banana and the evening paper. 6.7 Prepositional Phrase A prepositional phrase has two constituents, a head, always realized by a preposition and a complement, always realized by a noun phrase. In the case of a prepositional phrase, it is not really consistent to call the preposition a head, as it is semantically not really the most important word of the whole phrase. As you saw in Chapter 5, the function of the preposition is merely to link and it could even be argued that it is a kind of subordinator. However, to keep things consistent for all ¼ve phrases, we will call the preposition the head of a PP. As you saw in Chapter 5, a preposition is usually a short word like in, on, or at, but there are also prepositions that consist of several words, in spite of, because of, in case of, and there are prepositions like concerning that have developed from verb forms. The complement of a preposition is always a noun-like construction. It can be a noun phrase or a clause (¼nite or non-¼nite) that functions as a noun. prepositional phrase head:preposition in complement: NP London Prepositional Phrase

143 prepositional phrase head:preposition complement: NP concerning the news that you told me prepositional phrase head:preposition complement: NP because of the fact that you were not able to arrive on time prepositional phrase afraid head:preposition of complement:fc what might happen prepositional phrase looking forward head:preposition to complement: NFC seeing you 142 Phrases

144 exercise 41 Underline each preposition and indicate with square brackets the beginning and end of the phrase of which it is the head. Note that some prepositional phrases are sub-components of other prepositional phrases. The ¼rst complex case has been done for you. After a few days, he began to say good morning, and looking up they found his face, a long head [with a shining dark dome surrounded [with curly hair given a strong liveliness [by the sharp coarse strokes [of grey hairs]]], the beautiful curved nose handed out so impartially to Indians, dark eyes slightly bloodshot from the sun, a wide muscular mouth smiling on strong uneven teeth that projected slightly like the good useful teeth of an animal. But it was by his legs they would have known him; the dark, dull-skinned feet with the few black hairs on the big toe, the long hard shaft of the shin tightly covered with smooth shiny skin, the pull of the tendons at his ankle like the taut ropes that control the sail of a ship. 6.8 Functions of phrases In the preceding sections you have seen how each di erent type of phrase may be analyzed into phrase constituents, each with its own function and realization. Now we will look at how these phrases may be used within a sentence, clause or other phrase. It is important to realize that when we analyze a sentence or a clause, it will have sentence or clause constituents. The functions of these constituents are S, P, DO, IO, BO, SA, OA,orA. The realization of a predicator is always a VP. The realization of the other constituents can be either phrases or clauses. If the constituent is a phrase, it can be analyzed further into phrase constituents with heads and modi¼ers. When the sentence constituent is a clause, no matter whether it is ¼nite or non-¼nite, it can be analyzed further into sentence/clause constituents such as S, P, DO, and so on Functions of phrases

145 All the di erent types of phrases we have discussed (except the verb phrase) can have functions at the sentence/clause level or at the phrase level. For example, at the sentence/clause level, a noun phrase may function as subject, direct object, indirect object, benefactive object, subject attribute or object attribute. At the phrase level, a noun phrase may function as a post-modi¼er in noun phrases, adjective phrases, and adverb phrases, or as complement in a prepositional phrase. To make these functions at sentence/clause level versus phrase level clear, we will look at one sentence in more detail. In the following sentence, there are two noun phrases functioning at sentence level, which we will call Level 1, the ¼rst one as subject, and the second one as subject attribute. Level 1 S:NP SA:NP He / was / a Hindu, a puny wisp of a man, with a shaven head and vague liquid eyes. If we look at the subject attribute, we can see all kinds of noun phrases functioning at di erent phrase levels. At level 2, a noun phrase functions as post-modi¼er of a noun. Level 2 SA:noun phrase post-mod: NP a Hindu, a puny wisp of a man, with a shaven head and vague liquid eyes This noun phrase post-modi¼er can be analyzed further and further. At the third level, the post-modi¼er itself contains another post-modi¼er, this time a prepositional phrase. 144 Phrases

146 Level 3 post-mod: NP post-mod: PP a puny wisp of a man, with a shaven head and vague liquid eyes The prepositional phrase can be analyzed further at level 4. A prepositional phrase always contains a complement, which is always realized by a noun phrase: Level 4 post-mod: PP complement: NP of a man, with a shaven head and vague liquid eyes The noun phrase that functions as complement of a preposition is post-modi¼ed again with a prepositional phrase at level 5: Level 5 complement: NP post-mod: PP a man, with a shaven head and vague liquid eyes Functions of phrases

147 The post-modifying prepositional phrase in turn contains a noun phrase at level 6: Level 6 post-mod: PP complement: NP with a shaven head and vague liquid eyes Now, we have identi¼ed all the functions of the noun phrases in the sentence He was a Hindu, a puny wisp of a man, with a shaven head and vague liquid eyes. Even though the sentence has ¼ve noun phrases, only two have a function at the ¼rst level: the sentence level. He is subject and a Hindu is the main part of the subject attribute. All the other noun phrases function at ever lower levels as post-modi¼er of a noun or as complement of a preposition We could show the same type of detailed analysis at the di erent levels for adjective phrases, adverb phrases, and prepositional phrases, but it would take too much room to do so. Therefore, a brief example is given here, one with the phrase functioning at the sentence/clause level, and one at the phrase level. The boy is quite tall. The tall boy Adjective phrase as subject attribute Adjective phrase as pre-modi¼er of a noun The boy walks quite fast. quite fast Adverb phrase as adverbial Adverb phrase as pre-modi¼er of an adjective The boy lives in the city. Life in the city Prepositional phrase as adverbial Prepositional phrase as post-modi¼er of a noun 146 Phrases

148 6.9 Summary In this chapter, we looked at the constituents of the ¼ve di erent types of phrases: noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases, and prepositional phrases. Below, the possible constituents and realizations of each phrase is brie½y summarized in separate tables. A noun phrase has the most possibilities. The head is either a noun or a pronoun. It may or may not have one or more determiners, premodi¼ers, and/or post-modi¼ers, each of which may have one of several realizations. Table 22 Noun Phrase Noun Phrase Functions Determiner(s) Premodi¼er(s) Head Post-modi¼er(s) Realizations article pronoun numeral sp. genitive AdjP cl. genitive noun pronoun AdvP AdjP PP NP FC NFC As you can see above, post-modi¼ers of nouns may be all kinds of di erent phrases or clauses. Post-modi¼ers may be restrictive or non-restrictive, depending on whether or not it is needed to identify the noun which it modi¼es. A restrictive clause, which helps identify, is not set o with commas, and a non-restrictive one, which gives extra information, is. A that clause is never set o with commas. When the post-modi¼er is a ¼nite clause, the subordinators are the relative pronouns who, whom, whose, which and that depending on whether they refer to persons or things. When the clause modi¼es a noun denoting a place or time, the relative adverbs where or when may be used. Non-¼nite relative clauses, which can often be Summary

149 considered ellipted clauses, may have a to in¼nitive, an -ing,oran-ed form. An adjective phrase has an adjective as its head. It may or may not have one or more premodi¼ers and/or post-modi¼ers, and even a discontinuous modi¼er. Table 23 Adjective phrase Functions Premodi¼er(s) Head Post-modi¼er(s) Discontinuous modi¼er Realizations AdvP adjective AdvP PP FC NFC An adverb phrase has an adverb as its head. Like an adjective phrase it may or may not have one or more premodi¼ers, post-modi¼ers, and a discontinuous modi¼er. Table 24 Adverb Phrase Functions Premodi¼er(s) Head Post-modi¼er(s) Discontinuous modi¼er Realizations AdvP adverb AdvP PP FC NFC Note that in our analysis, modi¼ers are always realized as either phrases or clauses, even though especially premodi¼ers often consist of only one word. The reason is that modi¼ers could consist of more than one word, which in turn could be analyzed into heads and modi¼ers. 148 Phrases

150 A prepositional phrase has a preposition as its head, and its complement is almost always realized by a noun phrase. In some cases, though, a ¼nite or non-¼nite clause can function as a complement of a preposition. Table 25 Prepositional phrase Functions Head Complement Realizations preposition NP FC NFC Finally, a verb phrase has a lexical verb as its head, and it may have one or more auxiliaries in front of it. The group of auxiliaries is called aux. Table 26 Verb phrase Functions Aux Head Realizations of mood of perfect aspect of progressive aspect of passive voice do lexical verb In Section 6.8, we also brie½y discussed the di erent functions these phrases may have. After the next chapter we will discuss in great detail how a sentence may be analyzed at ever deeper levels: how phrases may be used as constituents of either clauses or phrases. For right now, it is enough for you to realize that these di erent levels are possible Summary

151 exercise 42 In the following sentences (taken from The Catch by Nadine Gordimer), the constituents at sentence level have been set o with square brackets. For each constituent, identify its function (S, P, DO, etc.) and its realization (type of phrase or ¼nite or non- ¼nite clause). [They] [did [not] know * ] [his name,] and ** [now,] [although they might have asked the ¼rst day and got away with it,] [it] [was] [suddenly] [impossible,] [because he didn t ask them theirs.] So [their you s and he s and I s] [took on] [the positiveness of names,] and [yet] [they] [seemed to deepen *** ] [their sense of communication] [by the fact that they introduced none of the objectivity that names must always bring.] [He] [spoke [to them] [quite a lot] about **** ] [Johannesburg, to which he assumed they must belong, as that was his generalization of city life,] and [he] [knew,] [sympathetically] [that they were city people.] And [although they didn t live there, but somewhere near on a smaller pattern,] [they] [answered] [as if they did.] [They] [also] [talked [a little] of ] [his life, or rather of the processes of the sugar re¼nery from which his life depended.] [They] [found] [it] [fascinating]. * Did and know are one phrase. ** Coordinators are not constituents of sentences or clauses, so they can be skipped in the analysis. *** Here seem is regarded as a semi-auxiliary. **** Spoke and about belong to one phrase. 150 Phrases

152 7 Sentence constituents realized as clauses 7.1 Introduction We have now discussed almost all relevant facts that you need to analyze almost any English sentence at ever deeper levels. In Chapter 1 you saw that a sentence or clause may consist of two or more constituents: subject, predicator, subject attribute, direct object, indirect or benefactive object, object attribute and adverbial. In several chapters, we have talked about the realizations of constituents. In this chapter we will try to show how all the detail you have seen so far ¼ts together. We will also address some remaining issues, especially those concerning non-¼nite dependent clauses, but before doing so, we will brie½y review again the pertinent distinctions between sentences, clauses, and phrases. In Chapter 2, you saw that a sentence is an independent grammatical unit that expresses a complete thought. To be grammatically complete, it must contain a main clause with a subject and a predicate and the predicate must contain a ýnite verb. The following are not grammatically complete sentences for various reasons. because he was sick has been famous for many years him having been late over three times no main clause no subject no ¼nite verb In speaking, people often use incomplete sentences. In writing, especially academic or other formal writing, the use of grammatically incomplete sentences is usually avoided. A clause is a group of words that expresses a whole event or situation, containing a subject and a predicate. It is a grammatical unit that may be independent or dependent. A main or independent clause can stand by itself and form a grammatically complete Introduction

153 sentence. A dependent clause always starts with a subordinator, except when that is understood. (See Chapter 5.) There are three types of dependent clauses: those functioning as subject, object, or attribute, those functioning as post-modi¼ers of a noun, and those functioning as adverbials. Don was sick. I know that Don was sick. Don, who was sick, stayed home. Because Don was sick, he stayed at home. main clause clause functioning as D O clause modifying the noun Don clause functioning as A As you saw in Chapter 6, a phrase is a grammatically ordered group of related words that does not have a subject and/or predicate and functions as a constituent of a sentence, of a clause, or of another phrase. A phrase has one main word, called the head, and words in front or behind it. And as you can see from the examples below, phrases, especially noun phrases, may consist of more phrases and phrases may even contain dependent clauses, usually relative clauses. you behind you the door behind you the door behind you in the closet the door behind you in the closet that he recently bought. Sometimes it is di~cult to distinguish a clause from a phrase. What is even more confusing is that di erent books may use di erent terms for the same thing. The trouble comes in especially when a group of words has a verb, but not a ¼nite one. Compare the following: Robert was sick clearly a clause, in this case even a main clause, because it does not have a subordinator and it contains a subject, predicate and a ¼nite verb 152 Sentence constituents realized as clauses

154 because Robert was sick also clearly a clause, this time a dependent one, because it contains a subordinator, subject, predicate and ¼nite verb very sick clearly a phrase because there is no subject nor verb Robert being sick in some books, this is called a phrase because it does not contain a ¼nite verb; in others, it is called a non-ýnite clause because it contains a subject and a predicate In this book we will use the term non-ýnite clause (NFC) for groups of related words like Robert being sick, mainly because they have a subject and predicate and should be analyzed as clauses. In this chapter we will look especially at how each sentence constituent may be realized. Table 26 below gives an overview of the possible functions of sentence or clause constituents and their possible realizations. Table 26 Functions and realizations at sentence or clause level NP VP AdjP AdvP PP FC NFC S P DO IO/BO ( ) SA OA A Introduction

155 As you can see from Table 26, subjects and objects are always realized by a noun phrase or a clause. Subject attributes and object attributes may also be realized by a noun phrase or clause, or by an adjective phrase. Subjects, objects, and attributes will be dealt with together because they are quite similar. Predicators are always realized by verb phrases and indirect object and benefactive objects are usually realized by a noun phrase. We will not deal with these constituents in this chapter because we have already dealt with noun phrases and verb phrases extensively. Adverbials may have the most kinds of di erent realizations. We will deal with these in a separate section. 7.2 Subjects, objects, and attributes Subjects and objects are the main participants in an event or situation and are usually persons or things. Therefore, they are commonly realized by a noun phrase. Also subject and object attributes, when they name a category to which a person or thing belongs to, may be realized by a noun phrase. In Chapter 6, noun phrases were discussed in great detail. Here we will take a closer look at the ¼nite and non-¼nite clauses. Sometimes a whole event or situation is seen as a thing and can be seen as a participant. An event or situation is expressed by means of a clause. The type of clause that may function like an NP, often called a noun clause, may be ¼nite or non-¼nite. 1 Finite clauses A subject, object or attribute can be realized by a ¼nite clause. There are di erent types of ¼nite clauses: those related to a statement or a question. If the noun clause is related to a statement, it can be quoted directly, marked with quotation marks, or it is introduced by the subordinator that. However, that is often understood (= left out), especially when it introduces a direct object clause as in I heard that he was sick. The examples show a statement and a ¼nite clause related to the statement, functioning as direct object. 154 Sentence constituents realized as clauses

156 statement direct quotation indirect quotation Abraham Lincoln was one of the truly great men of all time. The encyclopedia states, Abraham Lincoln was one of the truly great men of all time. The encyclopedia claims (that) Abraham Lincoln was one of the truly great men of all time A clause may also be related to a question: a yes/no question or a question starting with an interrogative pronoun (called wh-question for short). If it is related to a yes/no question, the subordinator is if or whether. The examples show a yes/no question and ¼nite clauses related to the yes/no question, functioning as direct objects. yes/no question direct quotation as direct object indirect quotation as direct object Are you leaving early today? Eric asked are you leaving early today? Eric asked whether/if you are leaving early today. If the noun clause is related to a question starting with an interrogative pronoun, the interrogative pronoun who(ever), what(ever) or which(ever) or interrogative adverb when(ever), where(ever) or how(ever) gets the double function of a subordinator. Note that in the ¼nite dependent clause, which functions as subject, the word-order changes, and the helping verb do is not needed. wh-question wh-question as subject What did he do? What he did was lead the US during the Civil War, which was the greatest crisis in the US history. As you saw in Chapter 5, the subordinators that, if and whether do not have a function in the clause that they introduce, but interrogative pronouns and adverbs functioning as subordinators do when the next level is analyzed Subjects, objects, and attributes

157 no function in clause S:NP P:VP A:AdvP A:AdvP Eric asks if you are leaving early today. A:AdvP S:NP P:VP Eric asked when you were leaving. 2 Non-¼nite clauses Much more common than the ¼nite clauses just discussed are the non-¼nite ones with to in¼nitives, -ing forms, and sometimes even plain in¼nitive forms. Note how a sentence like Lincoln wanted to end slavery in the nation and keep the American Unit from splitting apart during the war can be analyzed. Lincoln wanted DO:NFC to end slavery in the nation and DO:NFC DO:NFC * From is part of the multi-word verb keep from. (to) keep the American Unit [from]* splitting apart during the war. 156 Sentence constituents realized as clauses

158 In this sentence there are non-¼nite clauses at di erent levels. At Level 1, the sentence level, there are two non-¼nite clauses to end slavery in the nation and to keep the American unit from splitting apart during the war. Both function as direct objects of want. At Level 2, within the second non-¼nite clause, there is another non-¼nite clause, which functions as the direct object of the verb keep from. exercise 43 Analyze each sentence at sentence level by setting o sentence constituents with square brackets and naming their function and realization. Do not analyze the constituents further. At a hearing of a Senate committee investigating working conditions in New York City in 1883, Conrad Carl, a tailor, testi¼ed that before the Civil War his had been a very still business, very quiet. Then the sewing machine appeared. We admit it stitched very nicely, nicer than the tailor could do. And the bosses said: We want you to use the sewing machine Then he was asked how this innovation a ected the tailors. Carl replied: We work now in excitement in a hurry. It is hunting; it is not work at all; it is a hunt. There are three types of non-¼nite clauses that may function as subject, object or attribute. Some have a to in¼nitive, some have an -ing form and some have a plain in¼nitive as the ¼rst verb in the non-¼nite verb phrase. For direct objects, the non-¼nite form used depends on the context and the particular meaning with which the lexical verb is used in the main clause. There are many lexical verbs, especially verbs expressing some mental state, attitude, or process like love, hate, want, enjoy, regret, manage, advise, suggest, imagine, suggest and so on that take non-¼nite clauses as their objects. Although the use of these di erent non-¼nite forms is quite complex and subject to very subtle semantic di erences, the following observations may be used as a general guide Subjects, objects, and attributes

159 Verbs that express a cause, a mental state, or an order related to something that will happen at a future time are followed by a to in¼nitive clause functioning as direct object. I caused him to fall. He wants to go home. He refused to answer. I told him to go home. He began to leave. Verbs like begin, continue, stop, which express a point in time in an event are originally transitive verbs that take a direct object. When used with a non-¼nite verb as object, they can also be seen as auxiliary verbs of aspect, very much like be in He is leaving. Verbs that have in their meaning an element of (dis)belief or (un)certainty or I am (not) sure it is true towards something can be followed by a non-¼nite to in¼nitive clause functioning as direct object. I believed him to be in his room. He claimed to be going home. The use of a non-¼nite plain in¼nitive clause as direct object is more limited. Only verbs expressing a very direct cause (have, let, make, and sometimes help) or very direct perception (see, notice, observe, hear, and feel) may take direct objects realized by a non- ¼nite plain in¼nitive clause. I had him leave. I made him leave. I let him leave. We helped him paint his room. I did/said something; this caused something directly. We saw him leave. We heard him leave. I felt the ant crawl on my toe. I saw/heard/felt something directly. 158 Sentence constituents realized as clauses

160 Finally, the -ing form is used as direct object after quite a few di erent types of verbs: those expressing a direct perception (also imagination), a feeling towards something, a positive or negative attitude towards something, a suggestion, or a playing around in the mind. I saw him walking down the street. I imagined sitting on the beach. I enjoy swimming in the summer. I regret leaving so early. I avoid working too hard. I suggest taking your time. We advise leaving early. I considered leaving early. As you may have noticed, some lexical verbs may take di erent non-¼nite clauses as their object, usually with a (slightly) di erent sense. Below some of these are illustrated, with their semantic di erences explained. I saw the ship sink. I saw the ship sinking. With the plain in¼nitive, the focus is more on the event as a whole and the sentence implies that the ship really sank. With the -ing form, the focus is more on an ongoing part of the event; this sentence does not have to imply that the ship sank completely. I remember taking out the garbage. I remembered to take out the garbage. With the -ing object, the event can be seen in the mind again. With the to in¼nitive object, the event is construed as something that still had to be done. I advise studying hard. I advise you to study hard Subjects, objects, and attributes

161 With the -ing object, only an idea is suggested. With the to in¼nitive object, the speaker is trying to impose his or her will on the listener exercise 44 In the following passage (from The Wind and a Boy by Bessie Head), several non- ¼nite clauses have been underlined. Which ones are used as direct objects of a sentence or a clause? Until they became ordinary, dull grown men, who drank beer and made babies, the little village boys were a special set all on their own. They were kings whom no one ruled. They wandered where they willed from dawn to dusk and only condescended to come home at dusk because they were afraid to encounter the horrible things in the dark that might pounce on them. Unlike the little girls who adored doing household chores and drawing water, it was only now and then that the boys showed themselves as useful attachments to any household. When the ¼rst hard rains of summer had started * to fall, small dark shapes, quite naked except for their loin-cloths, sped out of the village into the bush. They knew that the ¼rst downpour had drowned all the wild rabbits, moles and porcupines in their burrows in the earth. As they crouched down near the entrances to the burrows, they would see a small drowned nose of an animal peeping out; they knew it had struggled to emerge from its burrow, ½ooded by the sudden rush of storm water and as they pulled out the animal they would say, pityingly: Birds have more sense than rabbits, moles and porcupines. They build their homes in trees. * Start could be regarded as a lexical verb, in which case to fall is D O. It could also be regarded as a helping verb of aspect, in which to fall is part of the V P. Semantically, the latter case makes more sense. 160 Sentence constituents realized as clauses

162 3 Extraposed subject or object clauses As you have just seen ¼nite that clauses and non-¼nite to in¼nitive clause may be the subject of a sentence or a clause. However, in English, it sounds very awkward to have such a long subject. The following are examples of such awkward sentences. That he enjoys studying English is a fact. I think to study hard is necessary. To avoid using such long subjects, speakers usually prefer another type of construction. They put the pronoun it at the beginning of the sentence or the clause as a temporary subject and move the real subject after the subject attribute. The technical term for such a construction is extraposition. Extraposed constructions occur especially when the lexical verb expresses an opinion, or the subject attribute contains an adjective or noun expressing an evaluation, opinion or attitude (nice, a mistake, necessary, worthwhile, clear and so on). It is a fact that he enjoys studying English. I think it is necessary to study hard. To analyze such sentences, name it temporary subject and the that clause or to in¼nitive clause subject. TempS:pronoun P:VP SA:NP S:FC It is a fact that he enjoys studying English. It is also possible to have a temporary object. Compare the following sentences. The ¼rst one has a regular word-order pattern, the second one has an extraposed subject and the third one, an extraposed object. S:NFC P:VP SA:NP To work hard is my duty Subjects, objects, and attributes

163 TempS:pronoun P:VP SA:NP S:NFC It is my duty to work hard. S:NP P:VP tempdo:np OA:NP DO:NFC I consider it my duty to work hard. 7.3 Adverbials An adverbial gives some background information about an event or state of a airs. It may tell when, where, why, how, to what degree, under what condition, in spite of what condition an event or state of a airs may take place. Adverbials are commonly realized by adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, or sometimes even noun phrases. He left yesterday. He left by car. He left Monday. A : AdvP A:PP A:NP Very often, though, an adverbial is realized by a ¼nite or non-¼nite clause. As you saw in Chapter 5, a ¼nite clause functioning as adverbial is introduced by a subordinate conjunction such as because, although, or if. There is one type of ¼nite clause we have not discussed yet, which functions as an adverbial but looks very much like a relative clause. As you know, a relative clause modi¼es one particular noun in a phrase. Sometimes, though, a which clause is used to modify not one particular noun but a whole clause. In such cases, we no longer have to do with a noun modi¼er but a clause modi¼er, which per de¼nition is a adverbial. However, many prescriptive grammars discourage the use of such constructions because they argue that which should refer to a particular noun rather than a whole clause. This type of clause, which expresses some kind of afterthought is usually set o with commas. 162 Sentence constituents realized as clauses

164 I had to go to work at 6:00 in the morning three times a week, which I didn t like at all. The sentence above should be analyzed as follows: S:NP P:VP A:PP A:PP I had to go to work at 6:00 in the morning A:NP three times a week, A:FC which I didn t like at al. Adverbials are also frequently realized by non-¼nite clauses. These may be a to in¼nitive clause (usually to express a purpose or a hypothesis) or an -ing clause (usually to express a while or because meaning at the beginning and an at the same time or result meaning at the end of the sentence.) Non-¼nite adverb clauses may also modify adjectives as in He is too tired to run, with to run modifying the adjective tired. exercise 45 Analyze the following sentences into sentence constituents and name their realizations. Then state in your own words what the logical relationship between the non- ¼nite adverbial clause and the main clause is. The ¼rst one has been done for you. A:NFC S:NP P:VP 1 Running down the street, / he / fell down. Running down the street expresses a while or because meaning. 2 He ran down the street, stumbling over every thing that was in his way. 3 He went to the store to buy some groceries. 4 To think that he had so much homework, it surprises me he went out last night Adverbials

165 exercise 46 Analyze each sentence at sentence level by putting slashes to set o sentence constituents. Then give the function and realization of each sentence constituent. Do not analyze any further. The ¼rst one has been done for you. 1 Until they became ordinary, dull grown men, who drank beer and made babies, (A:FC) / the little village boys (S:NP) / were (P:VP) / a special set all on their own (SA:NP). 2 They were kings whom no one ruled. 3 They wandered where they willed from dawn to dusk and only condescended to come home at dusk because they were afraid to encounter the horrible things in the dark that might pounce on them. 4 Unlike the little girls who adored doing household chores and drawing water, it was only now and then that the boys showed themselves as useful attachments to any household. * 5 When the ¼rst hard rains of summer had started to fall, small dark shapes, quite naked except for their loin-cloths, sped out of the village into the bush. 6 They knew that the ¼rst downpour had drowned all the wild rabbits, moles and porcupines in their burrows in the earth. 7 As they crouched down near the entrances to the burrows, they would see a small drowned nose of an animal peeping out; they knew it had struggled to emerge from its burrow, ½ooded by the sudden rush of storm water and as they pulled out the animal they would say, pityingly: Birds have more sense than rabbits, moles and porcupines. They build their homes in trees. * What is unusual about this sentence pattern? 164 Sentence constituents realized as clauses

166 7.4 Punctuation marks Because punctuation marks in English are used according to rather strict rules, you can use them to help you locate di erent types of structures. In the following sections, we will discuss these rules to help you identify these structures. 1 Punctuation of compound structures When two main clauses, each with its own ¼nite verb phrase, are joined, there are two possible punctuation marks. First of all, the main clauses may be separated with a semi-colon. Secondly, the clauses may be joined with a coordinate conjunction, which is preceded by a comma. Such sentences should be analyzed as two separate clauses at Level 1. Remember that a coordinate conjunction is not considered a sentence or clause constituent, but a conjunctive adverb like nevertheless is considered an adverbial realized by an adverb phrase. A:NP S:NP P:VP S:NP The next Sunday it was raining, but Nalini P:VP P:VP DO:NP A:PP stood and waited for him outside his house. A : AdvP The next Sunday / it / was raining ; / nevertheless, / Nalini / stood and waited for / him / outside his house. Not only main clauses but also parts of sentences (subjects, whole predicates, predicators by themselves or other clause constituents) can be compounded. These sentence parts are usually connected with a coordinate conjunction. If only two sentence parts are connected with a coordinate conjunction, there is usually no comma before the coordinate conjunction Punctuation marks

167 S:NP The servants Predicate got the hampers ready and packed them in the back of the car. Often more than two sentence parts are connected, called items in a series. Note how in the following sentences, there is a comma separating each item, and a coordinate conjunction only before the last item. (In English, this last comma is optional). DO She told Norman how marvelous the picnics were they had at home, how the servants got the hampers ready and packed them in the back of the car, and how they then drove o to some lovely spot. Complement of Prep It might be in a deserted palace an amphitheater or a summer tank 2 Punctuating sentence/clause constituents To help you recognize clause constituents, you should be aware of the following rule: the obligatory basic constituents of a sentence or clause the subject, predicator, and its complement are never separated by commas. Therefore, there is no comma after a subject or before an object or attribute, even if they are dependent clauses. The only exception is a direct quote. She / heard / that he would have the day o. She / said, / I ll be darned if I give her the day o. The only constituent that is often not obligatory is an adverbial. If adverbials occur in their normal place, after the subject, predicate and complement, they are usually not set o with commas, but if they are long at the beginning of a sentence or if they 166 Sentence constituents realized as clauses

168 interrupt a sentence, they are. Also, a ¼nal adverbial, if it expresses a strong contrast at the end of the sentence, may be set o with a comma. She called him because she wanted to know what the assignment was. No comma for an adverbial at the end of a sentence. Because she wanted to know what the assignment was, she called him. A comma to set o a long adverbial at the beginning of a sentence. She called him, although she knew exactly what the assignment was. A comma to set o an adverbial at the end that expresses a strong concession or contrast. She called him, not because she wanted to know what the assignment was, but because she wanted to hear his voice. A comma to set o an interrupting adverbial. Even though clause constituents are usually not set o with commas, post-modi¼ers of nouns, no matter whether they are phrases, non-¼nite clauses, or ¼nite clauses, may be set o with commas, but only if they are non-restrictive (in practice, though, most modi¼ers are restrictive). At home her landlady, Mrs. Crompton, was feeling unwell. A non-restrictive post-modi¼er of landlady. She cooked her a meal that she would be able to digest easily. A restrictive post-modi¼er of meal Punctuation marks

169 exercise 47 In the following passage (from A Course of English Studies by Ruth Prawer Jhabvala), use slashes to set o sentence and clause constituents. Then add commas where necessary. Explain your choice. The number of commas used in the original passage are given in parentheses. (Since punctuation is also a matter of personal style, you may prefer to use more or fewer commas. Discuss the di erent possibilities and their stylistic e ects.) 1 The next Saturday it was raining but nevertheless Nalini stood and waited for him outside his house. (1) 2 At ¼rst he did not seem to be very pleased to see her and it was only when they had walked away from the house for some distance that he made her sit on the cross-bar of his bicycle. (2) 3 They rode like that together through the rain. (0) 4 It was like a dream she in his arms and feeling his breath on her face and everything around them the trees and the sky and the tops of the houses melting away into mist and soft rain. (4) 5 They went to the same shop and bought almost the same things but this time when they came out and she already saw the smile of farewell forming on his lips she quickly said Can t we have co ee somewhere? (4) 6 They went to a shop which served home-made rock cakes and had copper urns for decoration. (0) 7 It was full of housewives having their co ee break so the only table available was one by the coat rack which was rather uncomfortable because of all the dripping coats and umbrellas. (2) 8 Nalini didn t mind but Dr. Greaves sat hunched together and looking miserable. (1) 9 His thin hair was all wet and stuck to his head and sometimes a drop came dripping down his face. (0) 10 Nalini looked at him: Cold? she asked with tender concern. (1) 168 Sentence constituents realized as clauses

170 7.5 Summary In the introduction, we reviewed the di erences between sentences, main clauses, dependent clauses, which may be ¼nite or non-¼nite, and phrases. In Table 27, each is de¼ned and characterized. In the remainder of the chapter, we discussed mainly the ¼nite and non-¼nite clauses that may be used to realize subjects, objects, attributes, and adverbials. We also discussed using punctuation marks to help you ¼nd constituents. Finite and non-¼nite clauses may function as subject, direct object, subject attribute or object attribute. The subordinators in these ¼nite clauses are that, if or whether, or an interrogative pronoun, depending on whether the clause is related to a statement, yes/no questions or wh-question. Non-¼nite noun clauses may have a to in¼nitive, an -ing form or a plain in¼nitive, depending on the meaning of the lexical verb as used in the main clause. Finite that clauses and non-¼nite to in¼nitive clauses functioning as subject (or object) may be extraposed. In such sentences, we have two subjects (or objects), a temporary it and the real subject. Since subjects, objects, or attributes are necessary sentence constituents, they are never set o with commas, unless of course, there is a direct quotation. Finite and non-¼nite clauses may also function as adverbial. Non-¼nite adverb clauses may have a to in¼nitive or an -ing form. A to in¼nitive usually expresses purpose. An -ing form at the beginning usually has a while or because sense; an -ing form at the end usually has a result sense. Punctuation for an adverbial is determined by the place it has in the sentence. In its normal position at the end, there is no comma. At the beginning, especially if it is long, it is set o with a comma; in the middle, if it clearly interrupts the sentence, it is also set o with comma. Also, adverbials at the end expressing a strong contrast or afterthought may be set o with a comma. Finite and non-¼nite relative clauses may also function as post-modi¼er of a noun. Therefore, by themselves, they are never a sentence or a clause constituent, but a phrase constituent. They are set o with commas if they are non-restrictive Summary

171 Table 27 Distinguishing sentences, clauses and phrases Sentence It is a group of words that expresses a whole event or situation. It contains a subject and predicate. It must have a ¼nite verb. Main It is a group of words that expresses a whole event or situation. It contains a subject and predicate. It must have a ¼nite verb. It can stand by itself as a sentence or It can be the main part of a sentence. It is a group of words that expresses a whole event or situation. Clause It contains a subject and predicate. Finite It must have a ¼nite verb. It starts with a subordinator (but that may be understood). It cannot stand on its own, but functions as a clause or phrase constituent. Dependent It is a group of words that expresses a whole event or situation. It contains a predicate (the subject may be understood). Non-¼nite It does not have a ¼nite verb. It may or may not start with a subordinator. It cannot stand on its own, but functions as a clause or phrase constituent. Phrase It is a group of related words that does not express a whole event or situation. It does not have both a subject and a predicate. It cannot stand on its own, but functions as a clause or phrase constituent. 170 Sentence constituents realized as clauses

172 8 How to analyze sentences at all levels 8.1 Introduction In this ¼nal chapter we will show how you can analyze sentences at ever deeper levels from sentence level to dependent clause level to phrase level not only to show you how complex a sentence may be but also to show how a systematic approach can simplify analyzing complex sentences. To do so, we will show how all the separate items discussed in this book main clauses, dependent clauses, phrases, and word classes interrelate with each other. In the ¼rst few sections, we will quickly review some of the more troublesome facts with some practical hints about how to go about analyzing a sentence step by step. After that, a few sentences will be analyzed at ever deeper levels to give you some extended examples. 8.2 How to analyze non-canonical constructions The term construction is a catch-all term to refer to a sentence, ¼nite clause, non-¼nite clause or part of clause that is left over after some other part has been ellipted. As you saw in Chapter 1, and as you can see in Table 28, a typical (= canonical) English sentence or clause has one of several basic patterns, consisting of a number of constituents in a typical order. The complement may be a subject attribute or a direct object. If there is a direct object, there may also be one of the following: an indirect object, a benefactive object or an object attribute. Except for in a few particular cases, adverbials are optional How to analyze non-canonical constructions

173 Table 28 Review of typical sentence patterns no complement SA subject predicator DO (adverbial(s)) IO/BO + DO DO+OA However, as you have already seen in di erent chapters, passive and extraposed sentences are variations to this basic pattern. You have also seen that some clauses have parts that are ellipted. There are two other variations we have not discussed yet: existential and cleft constructions. We will brie½y review the ¼rst three and introduce the other two below. 1 Passive constructions Remember that a passive sentence can be recognized by its verb phrase, which contains be (or get) followed by a past participle. Even though a passive sentence contains a transitive verb, there is often not a direct object as the former direct object is now the subject of the sentence (See Chapter 4). In the case of a ditransitive verb, like give or buy, there may still be a direct object as the receiver, the former indirect object, can become the subject, too. The former subject becomes a prepositional phrase, often with by and is considered an adverbial. In the case of a complex transitive verb, the old object attribute becomes a subject attribute. Note how each type is analyzed below. S:NP P:VP A:PP The lecture was given by a teaching assistant. S:NP P:VP DO:NP A:PP The girl was given a book by her teacher. 172 How to analyze sentences at all levels

174 S:NP P:VP SA:NP The girl was considered a genius. Some conventionalized passive constructions, depending on their meaning, are no longer seen as passive verbs but multi-word auxiliaries of mood. For example, in the following sentence, to have been allowed has a meaning similar to the modal may expressing permission. In Chapter 4, it has also be suggested that passive constructions such as to be forced to or to be believed to could be analyzed as one auxiliary verb. S:NP P:VP DO:NP He has been allowed to attend the concert. He has been told to buy the ticket. He is believed to have bought one. Complete passive sentences are not all that common, but passive constructions do occur very commonly in post-modi¼ers of nouns. Remember that in dependent constructions a subject and be are often ellipted. In these ellipted clauses, the remaining parts can be analyzed as follows: S:NP P:VP SA:AdjP P:VP A:PP The lecture which was given / by a teaching assistant was interesting. 2 Extraposed constructions Another variation on the standard pattern is an extraposed construction (See Chapter 7). If the real subject is a that or a to in¼nitive clause and the predicate expresses an evaluation, opinion or attitude, the sentence may start with it and the real subject is moved How to analyze non-canonical constructions

175 after the predicate. Such sentences are analyzed as having two subjects, with it functioning as a temporary one. It is also possible to have a temporary object. temps:np P:VP SA:AdjP S:FC It is necessary that you study hard. It is nice of you that you called me. temps:np P:VP S:FC It is hoped that all students work hard. It seems that he is honest. S:NP P:VP tempdo:np OA:NP DO:NFC I consider it my duty to work hard. 3 Ellipsis As you have seen in several chapters, repeated or clearly understood sentence constituents may be ellipted, often resulting in compound predicates or other compound structures, which are rather straightforward to analyze. S:NP P:VP P:VP A:PP The dock workers are discontented and have gone on strike. S:NP P:VP A:AdvP S:NP A:AdvP Peter is leaving tonight and Joan tomorrow. In Chapter 5, it was also shown that many noun post-modi¼ers are related to relative clauses in which the relative pronoun and be are ellipted. When naming the constituent and realization of the post-modi¼er, we just name the left-over part. So in the sentence below, the direct object is a noun phrase. The noun phrase is realized by a head, postmodi¼ed by the prepositional phrase in the room. 174 How to analyze sentences at all levels

176 Level 1 S:NP P:VP DO:NP Level 2 det:art head:noun post-mod:p P I do [n t] know [the] [people] who are [in this room]. However, in some cases, it is di~cult to decide on how ellipted constructions should be analyzed. Should they be analyzed with the ellipted parts understood, or should we just analyze what is left? Consider the analyses of the clause that he is absent in the following example. On ¼rst sight, this clause looks like very much like any other relative clause modifying the noun fact, but when you consider that it is related to the clause which is that he is absent, you realize that the post-modifying clause is a clause functioning as a subject attribute, not a relative one. Therefore that is not a relative pronoun but a subordinating conjunction and has no function in the clause that it introduces. S:NP P:VP DO:NP post-modi¼er S:NP P:VP SA:FC S:NP P:VP SA:AdjP The fact which is that he is absent annoys me. Another tricky example comes from one of the following exercises. Consider the following sentence: When the act of sneezing exists because it communicates, it becomes symbolic: a handshake is for friendship or frankness, a bow for deference or submission, an a ected sob to evoke sympathy or pity How to analyze non-canonical constructions

177 The parts after the colon are obviously three items in a series: a handshake is for friendship or frankness, a bow for deference or submission, an a ected sob to evoke sympathy or pity. However, rather than using three full clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction, the author elected to use ellipted structures (leaving out a ¼nite form of the be verb). So, when we analyze the last two structures, should we consider them noun phrases with post-modi¼ers or should we consider them clauses with subjects and subject attributes? A bow for deference or submission by itself would be a good example of noun phrase with a prepositional phrase as post-modi¼er. However, we also need to look at context and in a case like this one, we should base our choice on what we know about good writing practice. A good writer will usually make use of parallel structures. Therefore, the preferred analysis for all three would be as follows: S:NP P:VP SA:PP (¼rst two) and SA:NFC (last one) a handshake is for friendship or frankness, a bow for deference or submission, an a ected sob to evoke sympathy or pity. To conclude this section on analyzing elliptical constructions, you should analyze what you see and not worry too much about ellipsis. However, in some unusual cases like the ones just discussed, it is useful to consider what the full clause would have been without parts ellipted. 4 Existential constructions with there A typical clause describes an event or situation. An event usually involves some kind of change or movement and a situation usually describes what or how something is. When describing such an event or situation, the speaker typically focuses on the thing or person he or she wants to say something about. But, sometimes the setting (the place) in which an entity exists receives more prominence, especially if the thing or 176 How to analyze sentences at all levels

178 person is not clear. In such cases, English clauses can start with there, which is a very vague indication of place. In such sentences, called existential constructions, the person or thing talked about is still the subject, but it occurs after the predicator. In some books there is considered a dummy subject ; in other books, it is called an adverbial. We will call it an adverbial because it does indicate a vague place. A : AdvP P:VP S:NP A:PP There are some mice in the cellar. A : AdvP P:VP S:NP There will come a time when he will regret this. 5 Cleft constructions There is one construction in English that looks very similar to a relative clause, but is di erent, especially because it occurs not only after nouns but also after other parts of speech. This construction, called a cleft construction, is used to give some extra emphasis to a particular part of a proposition. Note how in the following proposition di erent parts can be lifted out and given special emphasis. Benjamins published this book in 2000 in Amsterdam. It is Benjamins who published this book in Amsterdam. It is this book that Benjamins published. It was in 2000 that Benjamins published this book. It was in Amsterdam that this book was published. It was yesterday that the book was published. The basic construction is It is X who/that/which/, where X can be a subject, object, or adverbial in the non-emphasized sentence. But how should we analyze these cleft sentences? The who/that/which clauses after the emphasized nouns are di erent from relative clauses because they are never non-restrictive and the pronoun that is used in places where we do not normally expect it. However, to keep things simple we will consider them post-modi¼ers and analyze them as follows: How to analyze non-canonical constructions

179 S:NP P:VP SA:NP It is Benjamins who published this book in Amsterdam. SA:NP It is this book that Benjamins published. A:PP It is in 2000 that Benjamins published this book. A:PP It is in Amsterdam that this book was published. A : AdvP It is yesterday that the book was published. The following example shows how such a sentence may be analyzed at lower levels. S:NP P:VP SA:NP Post-mod: FC S:NP P:VP DO:NP A:PP It is Benjamins that / published / this book / in Amsterdam. The it cleft sentence can give prominence to subjects, objects, or adverbials, but when we want to give prominence to a predicator or subject attribute, we can use a what subject clause in what is called a pseudo-cleft construction. John is a fool. John writes books. You need to study a lot. What John is is a fool. What John does is write books. What you need to do is study a lot. 178 How to analyze sentences at all levels

180 Note how such sentences area analyzed. S:FC P:VP SA:NP SA:NP S:NP P:VP What / Bob / is is a fool S:FC P:VP SA:NFC DO:NP S:NP P:VP What Bob does P:VP DO:NP is write books. exercise 48 Identify the sentence type (normal, passive, existential, cleft, or extraposed) and analyze the sentences at sentence level naming functions and realizations of the constituents. 1 It is an unusual method to o er students a reading passage that is an almost literal word-for-word translation from French into English. 2 It is English words in French word order that make the text easy to understand. 3 I consider it helpful to quickly convey a sense of the overall patterns of French sentences. 4 In subsequent passages, there are common French words introduced into the reading materials, where they take the place of their English equivalents. 5 It is useful to start with a text that a monolingual English speaker can understand with no more than a minimum of explanation because the student is led, by gradual steps, to a text that is written in French How to go about analyzing long and complex sentences

181 8.3 How to go about analyzing long and complex sentences When sentences are rather short, it is usually rather easy to see how many clauses it has, which clause is the main one and which clauses may be dependent. However, as you have seen in the exercises, many sentences consist of a variety of constructions and it is not always easy to determine at ¼rst sight which one is the main clause and which structures are dependent ones and how the sentence should be analyzed. Remember that a compound sentence is analyzed as two separate sentences. If a sentence is complex, it is analyzed as one sentence with one or more dependent clauses functioning as sentence constituents. Therefore, before you start analyzing a sentence, it is important to ¼nd out whether it is a simple, compound, complex, or compoundcomplex one. To help you determine the type of sentence, you can go through the following steps: Step 1: Find ¼nite verbs First it is important to identify main clauses and dependent clauses. As only ¼nite clauses can be main clauses, you should ¼rst ¼nd ýnite verbs. At least one of the ¼nite clauses is a main clause. If there is more than one ¼nite clause, you want to know if the sentence contains only one or two or more main clauses. If there is a semi-colon (or sometimes a colon), you can be almost sure you have a compound sentence, with a main clause on each side. Step 2: Find coordinators and subordinators Another way to see whether there are main clauses or dependent ones is to ¼nd coordinators and subordinators; these will also help you see where clauses begin. (Remember that may be understood.) Clauses introduced by subordinators are always dependent clauses. 180 How to analyze sentences at all levels

182 Step 3: Determine sentence type Once you have identi¼ed main clauses and dependent clauses, you can classify the sentence type: If there is only one ¼nite clause, it is a simple sentence. If there are two complete, independent clauses, each with its own subject and predicate, separated by a semi-colon (or sometimes even a colon) or connected by a coordinate conjunction or a correlative conjunction, it is a compound sentence. If there is an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses, it is a complex sentence. Finally, if the sentence has both coordinate and subordinate clauses it is a compound-complex sentence. Note that in determining sentence types, we ignore non-¼nite dependent clauses. If a sentence has only one ¼nite clause (which has to be the main one) and one or more non-¼nite ones, we will consider it a simple one, mainly because English has so many non-¼nite clauses and verb forms used as adjectives, that it would be di~cult to decide when a non-¼nite verb form is part of a non-¼nite clause or not. exercise 49 In the following passage (from Language: The Loaded Weapon by Dwight Bolinger), underline ¼nite verbs and circle subordinators and coordinators. Identify main clauses and dependent clauses, and then determine whether the following sentences are simple, compound, complex or compound-complex. 1 Every act that every human adult performs communicates. 2 Within hours of birth, a human infant is already responding to the rhythms of the mother s speech, in a dance-like sharing of microbody motion. 3 Even involuntary acts communicate, they are symptoms, and they are modi¼ed in signi¼cant ways; a sneeze may be unavoidable, but the manner of it betrays attitudes of hygiene, courtesy, or self-restraint. 4 When the act exists because it communicates, it becomes symbolic: a handshake is for friendship or frankness, a bow for deference or submission, an a ected sob to evoke sympathy or pity How to go about analyzing long and complex sentences

183 8.4 How to go about analyzing long and complex noun phrases One particular di~culty in analyzing sentences is ¼nding out where a sentence constituent begins and where it ends. Especially noun phrases may be troublesome as they may be preceded by determiners and premodi¼ers and followed by all kinds of modi¼ers prepositional phrases, noun phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases, ¼nite clauses, and non-¼nite clauses all of which might also contain post-modi¼ers at ever deeper levels. To help you determine where a noun phrase begins and ends and to analyze it, you can go through the following steps: Step 1: Find the head First, to analyze these noun phrases it is important to ¼nd the head. Remember, that the head of a noun phrase may be preceded by a determiner or premodi¼er, but not by a preposition. Remember also that the head of a noun phrase cannot be terribly far into the phrase, unless there happen to be a great many premodi¼ers, which is very seldom the case. Step 2: Find the determiners Once you have found the head, ¼nd the determiners, which may include articles, pronouns, and numerals. Often there is only one article, pronoun, or numeral. However, sometimes there are two or three together. Remember that a specifying genitive (noun with s), which indicates ownership, is also considered a determiner. When there is more than one determiners, it is usually quite di~cult to argue which one is the more important, so if there is not clearly one word modifying another one, we will just analyze them as separate determiners. For example, the phrase all the men, can be analyzed as a noun phrase with two determiners: all and the. However, when we have a specifying genitive, the article in front of the genitive noun is usually the determiner of the genitive noun as in [[all][the president s] men]. In this phrase, the does not tell which men, but which president.we would analyze this as follows: all is a determiner realized by an inde¼nite pronoun and the president s is a determiner realized by a specifying genitive (see Chapter 6, section 2). 182 How to analyze sentences at all levels

184 noun phrase det:indef. pr. all det:spec. gen. the president s men Step 3: Find premodi¼ers Once you have found the determiners, ¼nd the premodiýers between the determiner(s) and the head. If there is more than one word, you must decide if they are together one modi¼er or if they form separate modi¼ers, in which case each separate one says something about the head noun. For example, in the phrase their pinky-brown bodies,we have to do with one premodi¼er pinky-brown, because pinky says something about the kind of brown, not the bodies. But in the phrase their smooth brown bodies we have to do with two separate premodi¼ers (both realized by adjective phrases) as both smooth and brown say something about bodies. noun phrase det:poss. pr. their premod:adjp pinky-brown bodies noun phrase det:poss. pr. premod:adjp premod:adjp their smooth brown bodies Finally, you may have noticed that sometimes one word like smooth is called an adjective and at other times an adjective phrase. It is called an adjective when it is the head of a phrase that is identi¼ed. It is called a phrase if it can potentially consist of more than one word as in very smooth. This is the case if you name the realization of a sentence How to go about analyzing long and complex noun phrases

185 constituent or a modi¼er. For example, in the sentence He is happy the subject attribute is realized by an adjective phrase as it could also be something like terribly happy. When you analyze the adjective phrase, happy is the head, realized by an adjective. A rule of thumb is that except for the head, all sentence constituents, clause constituents and phrase constituents are realized by phrases. Step 4: Find post-modi¼ers Once you have found the determiners and premodi¼ers, you have to ¼nd the postmodiýers. Again, you have to ask yourself if there is one (perhaps with several dependent ones) or more than one. For example, in the phrase the coat in the closet in the room upstairs there is only one post-modi¼er for the noun coat because the whole phrase says something about coat. The prepositional phrase in the room upstairs says something about closet, not coat. The noun closet has only one post-modi¼er too, as upstairs modi¼es only the noun room. noun phrase post-mod: PP post-mod: PP post-mod: AdvP the coat in the closet in the room upstairs But the phrase the coat in the closet that you wore last year has two post-modi¼ers, the ¼rst one is realized by the prepositional phrase in the closet and the second one by the ¼nite clause that you wore last night. 184 How to analyze sentences at all levels

186 post-mod: PP post-mod: FC the coat in the closet that you wore last night To determine whether a phrase or clause following a noun is part of the noun phrase or a separate constituent, try moving it. If it can easily be moved to another place in the sentence, then it is usually an adverbial. If it cannot be moved and the phrase or clause says something about only the noun in front of it, you can be sure it is a post-modi¼er of a noun. exercise 50 Analyze the following noun phrases into its constituents: determiners, premodi¼ers, head and post-modi¼ers and name their realizations. Do not analyze further. The ¼rst one has been done for you. 1 [the] rhythms [of the mother s speech * ] the rhythms of speech det:article head:noun post-modi¼er: P P 2 the mother s speech 3 our most complex system of signs 4 a structure of words and relationships that interpenetrates our world so thoroughly that nothing out there can be disentangled from it 5 a dance-like sharing of microbody motion * Note that of the mother s speech is a prepositional phrase. In this exercise you are asked not to analyze further, so all you have to do is identify it as post-modi¼er realized by a P P. However, the prepositional phrase consists of a preposition followed by a noun phrase. And if you are asked to analyze further, you can analyze the noun phrase, too, as in sentence How to go about analyzing long and complex noun phrases

187 exercise 51 In the following passage, also from Language: The Loaded Weapon by Dwight Bolinger, several nouns have been underlined. Indicate the beginning and the end of the phrase of which this noun is the head. If there is a post-modi¼er in the phrase, indicate how it is realized. The ¼rst one has been done for you. post-mod: F C [Every act that every human adult performs] communicates. Within hours of birth, a human infant is already responding to the rhythms of the mother s speech, in a dance-like sharing of microbody motion. Even involuntary acts communicate. They are symptoms, modi¼ed in signi¼cant ways a sneeze may be unavoidable, but the manner of it betrays attitudes of hygiene, courtesy, or self-restraint. When the act exists because it communicates, it becomes symbolic a handshake for friendship or frankness, a bow for deference or submission, an a ected sob to evoke sympathy or pity. And when the symbol ceases to look or sound like what it symbolizes, it becomes a sign. Language is our most complex system of signs an intricate structure of words and relationships that interpenetrates our world so thoroughly that nothing out there can be disentangled from it. To understand language as in large part the mirror of the world and the world as in large part the creature of language we must look at how this marvelous instrument is put together and how it works. 186 How to analyze sentences at all levels

188 exercise 52 The following sentence contains a noun phrase with an unusual number of postmodi¼ers at ever deeper levels. To analyze this noun phrase step by step, answer the questions below the passage. After a few days, he began to say * good morning, and looking up they found his face, a long head with a shining dark dome surrounded with curly hair given a strong liveliness by the sharp coarse strokes of grey hairs, the beautiful curved nose handed out so impartially to Indians, dark eyes slightly bloodshot from the sun, a wide muscular mouth smiling on strong uneven teeth that projected slightly like the good useful teeth of an animal. * The verbs began and to say could be regarded as a V P and D O or as one V P, where began has the function of a semi-auxiliary of aspect. The latter analysis makes more sense if we look at meaning especially. 1 How many separate post-modi¼ers does the noun face have? Set it/them o with square brackets. 2 How many separate post-modi¼ers does the noun head have (Note that the preposition with has several complements) 3 How many complements does the preposition with have? Set o each one o with square brackets. 4 In the following part of the sentence, several other nouns have been underlined. If the noun has a post-modi¼er set it o with square brackets. Be sure to set o the complete modi¼er, which in turn may include another noun that has a postmodi¼er. a long head with a shining dark dome surrounded with curly hair given a strong liveliness by the sharp coarse strokes of grey hairs, the beautiful curved nose handed out so impartially to Indians, dark eyes slightly bloodshot from the sun, a How to go about analyzing long and complex noun phrases

189 wide muscular mouth smiling on strong uneven teeth that projected slightly like the good useful teeth of an animal. 5 To help you visualize the complexity of such a noun phrase with post-modi¼ers at di erent levels, you can write down each modi¼er separately and show lower levels by indenting further. Identify the realization of each post-modi¼er. The ¼rst two have been done for you. a long head post-mod: P P with.animal. complement of PP:NP a shining dark dome surrounded with curly hair given a strong liveliness by the sharp coarse strokes of grey hairs, the beautiful curved nose handed out so impartially to Indians, dark eyes slightly bloodshot from the sun, a wide muscular mouth smiling on strong uneven teeth that projected slightly like the good useful teeth of an animal. 188 How to analyze sentences at all levels

190 8.5 How to go about analyzing sentences at di erent levels Now that we have reviewed a few troublesome facts and made clear that even a noun phrase can be analyzed at ever deeper levels, we will take the following sentence, taken from a previous exercise, as an example and analyze the whole sentence step by step until it cannot be analyzed any further. They did not know his name, and now, although they might have asked the first day and got away with it, it was suddenly impossible, because he didn t ask them theirs. Step 1: Find ¼nite verbs First ¼nd ýnite verbs to help you see how many ¼nite clauses there are. The ¼nite verbs are printed in boldface. They did not know his name, and now, although they might have asked the first day and got away with it, it was suddenly impossible, because he didn t ask them theirs. Step 2: Find coordinators and subordinators There is no semi-colon, but there are several coordinators and subordinators. The subordinators and coordinators are printed in boldface. They did not know his name, and now, although they might have asked the first day and got away with it, it was suddenly impossible, because he didn t ask them theirs. To see if we have to analyze one or more main clauses, we focus on coordinate conjunctions ¼rst How to go about analyzing sentences at di erent levels

191 Step 3: Find parts with main clauses There are two coordinate conjunctions, both are and. The ¼rst one connects two complete clauses: They did not know his name, and now, although theirs. The second and connects two predicates: might have asked the ýrst day and (might have) got away with it. We may conclude that this sentence is de¼nitely compound as it consists of two main parts, each to be analyzed separately. part 1 They did not know his name, coord. conj. and part 2 now, although they might have asked the first day and got away with it, it was suddenly impossible, because he didn t ask them theirs. Now each part of the compound sentence can be analyzed at Level 1 into sentence constituents (S, P, DO, IO, etc.). Below, the function and realization of each constituent at sentence level is named. The ¼rst part consists of only one clause. [[They] [did [not] know] [his name,]] Level 1: Part 1 into clause constituents Function: Realization They S NP did know P VP not A AdvP his name DO NP Each of the sentence constituents mentioned above consists of a phrase. Each of these can be analyzed at yet a second level, into phrase constituents. 190 How to analyze sentences at all levels

192 Level 2: Constituents of Part 1 at phrase level Function: Realization They N P head pronoun did know V P head lexical verb aux auxiliary verb not AdvP head adverb his name N P head noun det possessive pronoun As none of these phrases contain any other phrases or clauses, we have ¼nished analyzing Part 1 at all possible levels. Now we will analyze Part 2 at Level 1 into sentence constituents. We have already gone through Steps 1 and 2 and know that there are two subordinators, although and because, clear indications that there are some dependent clauses functioning as adverbials. The easiest way to go about analyzing this part is to ¼nd the boundaries of the dependent clause. Then we will have the main clause left over. now, [although they might have asked the first day and got away with it,] it was suddenly impossible, [because he didn t ask them theirs] The part that is left over is now it was impossible, clearly the main clause, which should have its own subject and predicate. The whole part can now be analyzed into sentence constituents at Level 1 as follows: [[now], [although they might have asked the first day and got away with it,] [it] [was] [suddenly] [impossible,] [because he didn t ask them theirs].] How to go about analyzing sentences at di erent levels

193 Level 1: Part 2 into clause constituents Function: Realization now A : AdvP although it A: FC it S: NP was P: VP suddenly A : AdvP impossible SA : AdjP because theirs A: FC Each of the sentence constituents mentioned above consists of either a phrase or a dependent clause. Each of these can be analyzed at Level 2, the phrases into phrase constituents and the clauses into clause constituents. First we will look at the constituents of the phrases then at those of the dependent clauses. Level 2: Constituents of main clause in Part 2 at phrase level Function: Realization now AdvP head : adverb it N P head : personal pronoun was V P head : lexical verb suddenly AdvP head : adverb impossible AdjP head : adjective None of these phrases have any further phrases or clauses to be analyzed, so we have ¼nished analyzing these. Now we will analyze the dependent clauses in Part 2: (although) [they] [might have asked] [the first day] (and) [got away with] [it]] 192 How to analyze sentences at all levels

194 Level 2: Constituents of ¼rst dependent clause in Part 2 at clause level Function: Realization although none subordinate conjunction they S: NP might have asked P: VP the first day A: NP and none coordinate conjunction got away with P: VP it DO: NP The constituents of the ¼rst dependent clause can be analyzed at level 3. Level 3: Constituents of ¼rst dependent clause in Part 2 at phrase level Function: Realization they N P head: personal pronoun might have asked V P head: lexical verb aux: auxiliary verbs the first day N P head: noun det: article det: numeral got away with V P head: lexical verb None of these phrases have any further phrases or clauses to be analyzed, so we have ¼nished analyzing these. Now we will analyze the second dependent clauses at level 2: [(because) [he] [did[n t] ask] [them] [theirs] How to go about analyzing sentences at di erent levels

195 Level 2: Constituents of second dependent clause in Part 2 at clause level Function: Realization because none subordinate conjunction he S: NP did ask P: VP not A : AdvP them IO: NP theirs DO: NP The constituents of the second dependent clause can be analyzed at Level 3. Level 3: Constituents of second dependent clause in Part 2 at phrase level Function: Realization it N P head : personal pronoun he N P head : personal pronoun did ask V P head : lexical verb aux : auxiliary verb not AdvP head : adverb them N P head : personal pronoun theirs N P head : possessive pronoun We have now ¼nished analyzing this sentence because none of the phrases analyzed contain further phrases or clauses to be analyzed; however, as you saw earlier, the levels within phrases and clauses can theoretically go further down inde¼nitely. A clause can contain further dependent clauses and a phrase can contain further phrases or dependent clauses. Of course, there is a practical limit. If sentences contain too many di erent levels, they become quite incomprehensible. 194 How to analyze sentences at all levels

196 exercise 53 Some of the post-modi¼ers in our previous exercise are non-¼nite clauses. Analyze each clause set o with brackets into its constituents. If the non-¼nite clause contains another clause, analyze it, too. (Do not analyze further at the phrase level.) The ¼rst one has been done for you. a long head P:VP A:PP P:VP with a shining dark dome [surrounded / with curly hair [given / DO:NP A:PP a strong liveliness / by the sharp coarse strokes of grey hairs,]] (with) the beautiful curved nose [handed out so impartially to Indians], (with) dark eyes slightly bloodshot * from the sun, (with) a wide muscular mouth [smiling on strong uneven teeth that projected slightly like the good useful teeth of an animal]. * It s reasonable to consider bloodshot an adjective here. 8.6 Analyzing sentences at di erent levels on your own In the previous section, we have shown how a sentence can be analyzed step by step. In the remainder of this section, you are guided through each step again, but now you will be asked to ¼ll in the relevant detail. You will be analyzing a short passage (from Miles City, Montana by Alice Munro) at sentence and clause levels. Read the passage below and answer the questions pertaining to it: Analyzing sentences at di erent levels on your own

197 (a) I don t think so. (b) I don t think I really saw all this. (c) Perhaps I saw my father carrying him and the other men following along, and the dogs, but I would not have been allowed to get close enough to see something like mud in his nostril. (d) I must have heard someone talking about that and imagined that I saw it. (e) I see his face unaltered except for the mud Steve Gauley s familiar, sharp-honed sneaky looking face and it wouldn t have been like that; it would have been bloated and changed and perhaps muddied all over after so many hours in the water. exercise 54 Answer the following questions and ¼ll in the blanks where necessary. 1. In this passage, there is only one simple sentence. Which one is it? 2. Analyze sentence (b) I don t think I really saw all this, by ¼lling in the blanks First, ¼nd ¼nite verbs. There are two verbs, namely and, so we can conclude we have at least clauses. Then ¼nd coordinators and subordinators. To see if we have a compound or sentence. There is no or correlative conjunction, but the word is understood after the verb. The understood that is here a ; therefore, we know this clause is a one, and the sentence is a one. The dependent clause functions as of the sentence. 196 How to analyze sentences at all levels

198 We can now ¼nish analyzing this sentence at di erent levels. Put the function and realization above each sentence and clause constituent at Level 1 and 2 in the next schema. (We will not worry about analyzing at phrase level, since all of them are rather simple.) I / do [n t] think I / really / saw / all this 3. Analyze sentence (c) Perhaps I saw my father carrying him and the other men following along, and the dogs, but I would not have been allowed to get close enough to see something like mud in his nostril by ¼lling in the blanks. First, ¼nd ¼nite verbs. There are several clauses, some ¼nite and some. For main clauses, the verb must always be. The ¼nite verbs in this sentence are and. There are quite a few non-¼nite verbs like and, but we will ignore those for the time being as they are always part of a clause. For now, we want to see if we have to do with one ore more independent sentence parts. To do so, we have to ¼nd coordinators. There are of them. They are,, and. Only one of these,, connects two independent sentence parts. We can conclude we have a sentence and we have to analyze it as separate sentences. We can now proceed with the analysis of Part 1 of this sentence: Perhaps I saw my father carrying him and the other men following along, and the dogs Analyzing sentences at di erent levels on your own

199 The subject is and the predicator is. The next questions is what did I see. Actually, I saw things: my father carrying him, the, and the. So this sentence has three. The one sentence constituent we have not named yet is perhaps, which functions as. Let s look further at the direct objects. Two of them are clauses, each of which can be analyzed at Level 2. In the ¼rst non-¼nite clause, the subject is, realized by a, the predicator is, realized by a, and the direct object is, realized by a. The second non-¼nite clause has as its subject, realized by a, and the predicator is following along, which happens to be a verb. The third direct object is realized by a. We have now ¼nished the analysis at clause levels of Part 1 of this sentence. Put the function and realization above each sentence and clause constituent in the next schema. 198 How to analyze sentences at all levels

200 Perhaps / I / saw / my father / carrying / him (and) the other men / following along, (and) / the dogs We can now proceed with the analysis of Part 2 of the sentence: but I would not have been allowed to get close enough to see something like mud in his nostril. This sentence part has quite a few verbs, but there is only one ¼nite one, which is. We may safely assume that this sentence part is simple even though we are likely to ¼nd one or more clauses. We will ¼rst ¼nd the main part of this clause, which must center around would, as it is the only ¼nite verb. This sentence is di~cult to analyze because it has a very complex verb phrase. What verbs are part of the ¼rst verb phrase? There are two ways we can answer this, both of which are correct: would have been allowed or would have been allowed to get, depending on whether we regard to be allowed as an verb or a lexical verb. For example, in a sentence like I allowed John to go the verb allow is clearly a verb, but in its very frequently used passive counterpart, He is allowed to go the whole phrase is allowed to could be substituted with the modal auxiliary and therefore to be allowed to can be regarded as a semi Analyzing sentences at di erent levels on your own

201 modal. We will go further with the second analysis, mainly because it will provide the simplest solution for the remainder of the sentence. Now that we have found the predicator we will have to decide what the function of the remainder of the clause is. Close enough to see something like mud in his nostril tells us answers the question where is he allowed to get. Therefore, we may conclude that this part functions as. The main word (head) in this adverbial is, which is an, so the adverbial is realized as an. But, close is followed by enough to see something like mud in his nostril. The main part of this post-modi¼er is the word, so the post-modi¼er of close is realized by an phrase. The adverb enough is in turn post-modi¼ed by to see something like mud in his nostril, which is a clause. In this clause, we have the verb phrase and a direct object. Finally, there is one word left in the sentence, namely, which is a conjunction and does not have a function in the clause. We have now ¼nished with the analysis of Part 2, including the analysis at phrase level of the close phrase. Put the function and realization of each constituent at the di erent levels shown in the schema. 200 How to analyze sentences at all levels

202 but / I / would / not / have been allowed to get / close enough to see / something like mud in his nostril. 4. Analyze the two following sentences at sentence and clause levels, ¼rst into sentence constituents and then each dependent clause into clause constituents. I must have heard someone talking about that and imagined that I saw it. I see his face unaltered except for the mud Steve Gauley s familiar, sharp-honed sneaky looking face and it wouldn t have been like that; it would have been bloated and changed and perhaps muddied all over after so many hours in the water. 8.7 Summary In this chapter you have seen how a sentence may be analyzed at ever deeper levels. First, you should ¼nd ¼nite verbs, coordinators and subordinators to help you identify main clauses versus dependent clauses Each main or dependent (¼nite or non-¼nite) clause should be analyzed into sentence or clause constituents (S, P, DO and so on). These constituents are realized by phrases or dependent clauses. A noun phrase can be analyzed further into determiner(s), premodi¼er(s), heads and postmodi¼er(s). Premodi¼ers are always realized by phrases and post-modi¼ers by either phrases or clauses. These can be analyzed further, too, until there are no more phrases or clauses to be analyzed. Adjective and adverb phrases may also have premodi¼ers and post-modi¼ers. The post-modi¼ers of adjectives and adverbs can also be phrases or clauses Summary

203 When there are several premodi¼ers or post-modi¼ers in a phrase, it is important to see at what levels these modi¼ers function. Are they part of one phrase with several dependent ones inside it, or are they phrases modifying the head separately. By going through the steps as outlined in this chapter, you should be able to analyze any English sentence, no matter how complex it is, unless of course a writer doesn t play by the rules! 202 How to analyze sentences at all levels

204 Key to the exercises exercise 3 Identify the functions of those constituents. The waitresses S / are basking P / in the sun A / like a herd of skinned seals, their pinky-brown bodies shining with oil. They S / are wearing P / their bathing suits DO / because it s the afternoon A. / In the early dawn and the dusk A / they S / sometimes A / go skinny-dipping, which makes this itchy crouching in the mosquito-infested bushes across from their small private dock a great deal more worthwhile. Donny S / has P / the binoculars, which are not his own but Monty s DO. / Monty s dad S / gave P / them DO /tohimio / for bird-watching A / but Monty S / isn t interested in birds. He S / has found P / a better use for the binoculars DO /: he S / rents / them DO / out to the other boys, ¼ve minutes maximum, a nickel a look or else a chocolate bar from the tuck shop, though he prefers the money. exercise 4 Name the function of the sentence constituents separated with slashes. Then indicate which pattern the sentence has. 1 Last week A / Michael S / showed P /usio / how to prepare a fruit leather DO. (giving pattern) 2 HeS / told P /usio / to buy over ripe and bruised fruit on sale DO. (giving pattern) 3 WeS / bought P / him BO / peaches, apricots, and strawberries DO. (buying pattern) 4 HeS / showed P /usio / how to cut up the fruit DO. (giving pattern) 5 HeS / put P / the fruit DO / through a food mill A. (doing pattern) 6 Then A /hes / put P / the fruit DO / in a large pot A. (doing pattern) 7 HeS / told P /meio / to add one tablespoon of honey per pound of fruit DO. (giving pattern) 8 HeS / heated P / the mixture DO. (doing pattern) 9 HeS / stirred P /itdo / until it boiled A. (doing pattern) 10 He S / cooked P / the mixture DO / for three minutes A. (doing pattern) 11 He S / prepared P / paper plates DO / to dry the fruit A. (doing pattern) 203 Key to the exercises

205 12 He S / used P / plastic wrap DO / to cover the plates A. (doing pattern) 13 After stretching the plastic around the plate A, /wes/ taped P /itdo / to the back A. (doing pattern) 14 The plastic S / had to be P / tight and ½at SA. (being pattern) 15 We S / spread P / a thin layer of fruit DO / on each plate A. (doing pattern) 16 We S / placed P / the plates, covered with cheesecloth DO, / in a shadow box A /todry in the sun A. (doing pattern) 17 We S / brought P / the plates DO / inside A / at night A. (doing pattern) 18 In about two days A / the fruit S / was P / dry SA. (being pattern) 19 After three days A, /hes/ brought P /usio / the dried fruit leather DO. (giving pattern) 20 We S / considered P / this snack DO / a real treat OA. (considering pattern) exercise 5 1 A sentence can only have one S. 2 A sentence can only have one DO. 3 Direct object, because IO or BO cannot occur in a sentence without a DO. (unless the sentence is a passive one, which will be discussed later.) 4 No, there is either an SA or a DO. 5 Yes, a sentence can have an unlimited number of adverbials. 6 Possible combinations: S+P+A S+P+DO+A S+P+DO+OA S+P exercise 6 Create two di erent sentences, (a) one with two main clauses and (b) one with a main clause and a dependent clause. The connector you may use has been given. 1 a The human liver weighs three to four pounds, so it is the heaviest organ in the human body. b The human liver, which is the heaviest organ in the human body, weighs three to four pounds. 2 a In 1858, the ¼rst mechanical washing machine was invented by Hamilton E. Smith, but it was a hand-cranked a air. 204 Key to the exercises

206 b In 1858, the ¼rst mechanical washing machine, which was a hand-cranked a air, was invented by Hamilton E. Smith. / In 1858, the ¼rst mechanical washing machine, which was invented by Hamilton E. Smith, was a hand-cranked a air. 3 a The aroma of co ee is not produced by the ca eine is contains, for ca eine imparts neither color nor ½avor. b The aroma of co ee is not produced by the ca eine is contains because ca eine imparts neither color nor ½avour. exercise 7 Underline each dependent clause. Then, set o sentence constituents with slashes and identify each constituent as S, P, SA, DO, IO/BO, OA, A. 1 Thomas A. Edison S / [did (not A) make P / the ¼rst electric light bulb DO /asitis popularly believed A. 1 Cherrapunji, India, which has an average annual rainfall of 427 inches, S /isp / the wettest place on earth SA. 2 A state of intoxication S /isp / a condition in which there is recognizable disturbance of intellect, movement and coordination SA. 3 The largest ¼sh anyone has ever caught S / was P / a white shark that weighed 2,176 pounds SA. 4 Only ¼ve percent of the people of the United States S / say P / that they dream in color DO. exercise 8 Set o sentences with a period. How many sentences does exercise 3 contain? Exercise 8 contains 3 sentences: 1 Now too. 2 I lived. 3 All river. 205 Key to the exercises

207 exercise 9 Circle all subordinators (here in boldface) and underline main clauses. What types of sentences are these? [[Now when I had mastered the language of this water] and [had come to know every tri½ing feature [that bordered the great river] as familiarly as I knew the letters of the alphabet]] I had made a valuable acquisition [but I had lost something too]. (This sentence is compoundcomplex. It contains two main clauses and several dependent ones.) I had lost something [which could never be restored to me [while I lived]]. (This sentence is complex. It contains dependent clauses.) All the grace, the beauty, the poetry had gone out of the majestic river. (This sentence is simple. It contains one main clause.) exercise 10 Underline coordinators and subordinators and set o dependent clauses with square brackets and sentence constituents (subject, predicator, etc.) with slashes. Then name the function of the sentence constituents. I S / had lost P / something [which could never be restored to me [while I lived]] DO. All the grace, the beauty, the poetry S / had gone P / out of the majestic river A. exercise 11 Underline all verb phrases and indicate whether they are simple or complex. My father came (simple) across the ¼eld carrying (simple) the body of the boy who had been drowned (complex). There were (simple) several men together, returning (simple) from the search, but he was (simple) the one carrying (simple) the body. The men were (simple) muddy and exhausted, and walked (simple) with their heads down, as if they were (simple) ashamed. Even the dogs were (simple) dispirited, (and they were) dripping (simple) from the cold river. When they all set out (simple), hours before, the dogs were (simple) nervy and (were) yelping (simple), the men tense and determined, and there was (simple) a constrained, unspeakable excitement about the whole scene. It was understood (complex) that they might ¼nd (complex) something horrible. 206 Key to the exercises

208 exercise 12 Identify each verb as lexical or auxiliary. came (lexical) carrying (lexical) had (auxiliary) been (auxiliary) drowned (lexical) were (lexical) returning (lexical) was (lexical) carrying (lexical) were (lexical) walked (lexical) were (lexical) were (lexical) dripping (lexical) set out (lexical) were (lexical) yelping (lexical) was (lexical) was (auxiliary) understood (lexical) might (auxiliary) ¼nd (lexical) exercise 13 Indicate whether the underlined verbs are ¼nite or not. Next morning shortly after sunrise, just as the light was (¼nite) beginning (non-¼nite) to come (non-¼nite) streaming (non-¼nite) through the trees, while I lay (¼nite) leaning (non-¼nite) on my elbow taking (non-¼nite) my bread and tea, and looking (non-¼nite) across the canyon, tracing (non-¼nite) the dip of the granite headlands, and trying (non-¼nite) to plan (non-¼nite) a way to the river at a point likely to be (non-¼nite) fordable, suddenly I caught (¼nite) the big bright eyes of a deer gazing (non-¼nite) at me through the garden hedge. She continued (¼nite) to gaze (non-¼nite), while I gazed (¼nite) back with equal steadiness, motionless as a rock. In a few minutes she ventured (¼nite) forward a step, exposing (non-¼nite) the ¼ne arching neck and forelegs, then snorted (¼nite) and withdrew (¼nite). exercise 14 Identify all the non-¼nite forms as plain in¼nitive, to in¼nitive, present participle, or past participle. Which two non-¼nite forms do not occur in this passage? beginning (present participle) to come (to in¼nitive) streaming (present participle) leaning (present participle) taking (present participle) looking (present participle) tracing (present participle) trying (present participle) to plan (to in¼nitive) to be (to in¼nitive) gazing (present participle) to gaze (to in¼nitive) exposing (present participle) The plain in¼nitive and the past participle do not occur in this passage. 207 Key to the exercises

209 exercise 15 Identify the form of each verb (present ¼nite, past ¼nite, plain in¼nitive, to in¼nitive, present participle, or past participle). came (past ¼nite) carrying (present participle) had (past ¼nite) been (past participle) drowned (past participle) were (past ¼nite) returning (present participle) was (past ¼nite) carrying (present participle) were (past ¼nite) walked (past ¼nite) were (past ¼nite) were (past ¼nite) dripping (present participle) set out (past ¼nite) were (past ¼nite) yelping (present participle) was (past ¼nite) was (past ¼nite) understood (past participle) might (past ¼nite) ¼nd (plain in¼nitive) exercise 16 Identify the type of verb (lexical verb, modal auxiliary, auxiliary of perfect aspect, progressive aspect, or passive voice or do) and identify the verb form of the verb. 1 Mary writes (lexical verb present ¼nite) a letter every day. 2 Mary wrote (lexical verb past ¼nite) a letter yesterday. 3 She will (auxiliary verb of mood present ¼nite) write (lexical verb plain in¼nitive) a great deal more in the next few years. 4 Mary has (auxiliary verb of perfect aspect present ¼nite) been (auxiliary verb of progressive aspect past participle) writing (lexical verb present participle) many letters. 5 Mary had (auxiliary verb of perfect aspect past ¼nite) been (auxiliary verb of progressive aspect past participle) writing (lexical verb present participle) many letters. 6 Mary is (auxiliary verb of progressive aspect present ¼nite) writing (lexical verb present participle) now. 7 Mary was (auxiliary verb of progressive aspect past ¼nite) writing (lexical verb present participle) yesterday. 8 She could (auxiliary verb of mood past ¼nite) be (auxiliary verb of progressive aspect plain in¼nitive) writing (lexical verb present participle) a letter to her grandmother. 9 She need (auxiliary verb of mood present ¼nite) not write (lexical verb plain in¼nitive) to her sister. 208 Key to the exercises

210 10 She is able (auxiliary verb of mood present ¼nite) to write (lexical verb to in¼nitive) a letter in about one minute. 11 An average letter is (auxiliary verb of passive voice present ¼nite) written (lexical verb past participle) in about 30 minutes. 12 One letter was (auxiliary verb of passive voice past ¼nite) written (lexical verb past participle) in 10 minutes. 13 The next letter to her boyfriend will (auxiliary verb of mood present ¼nite) be (auxiliary verb of passive voice plain in¼nitive) written (lexical verb past participle) in 5 minutes. 14 Half of her letters have (auxiliary verb of perfect aspect present ¼nite) been (auxiliary verb of passive voice past participle) written (lexical verb past participle) by hand. 15 Many of her letters had (auxiliary verb of perfect aspect past ¼nite) been (auxiliary verb of passive voice past participle) written (lexical verb past participle) in pencil. 16 By next year all her letters will (auxiliary verb of mood present ¼nite) have (auxiliary verb of perfect aspect plain in¼nitive) been (auxiliary verb of passive voice past participle) written (lexical verb past participle) on a word processor. exercise 17 In the following sentences, ¼ll in the blank with the correct form of a verb. Even though you will probably intuitively know which form to use, explain your choice by referring to the order and form rules. 1 Mary read a book yesterday. (This sentence needs a lexical verb because there isn t one. This verb must have a ¼nite form because it is the only one. It must be the past ¼nite form because of yesterday.) 2 She is reading now. (Sentence needs a ¼nite form because it is the ¼rst verb in the verb phrase; it must be a form of progressive be because the next verb has a present participle form; and it must be present because of the word now) 3 She will (could, should, etc.) read a great deal more in the next few years. (Sentence needs a ¼nite form because it is the ¼rst verb in the verb phrase; it must be a central modal because the next verb has a plain in¼nitive form; it doesn t matter if it is present or past because almost all central modals have a future meaning.) 4 Mary has been reading a lot recently. (Sentence needs a form of progressive be because the next verb has a present participle form; be must have the past participle form because it comes after perfect have.) 209 Key to the exercises

211 5 Mary could have read more if she had had more time. (Sentence needs a ¼nite form because it is the ¼rst verb in the verb phrase; it must be a central modal because the next verb has a plain in¼nitive form; here it must be the modal could because it refers to a past situation.) exercise 18 Identify the function of each underlined be verb. It was (lexical verb) in Burma, a sodden morning of the rains. A sickly light, like yellow tinfoil, was (auxiliary verb of progressive aspect) slanting over the high walls into the jail yard. We were (auxiliary verb of progressive aspect) waiting outside the condemned cells, a row of sheds fronted with double bars, like small animal cages. Each cell measured about ten feet by ten and was (lexical verb) quite bare within except for a plank bed and a pot of drinking water. In some of them brown silent men were (auxiliary verb of progressive aspects) squatting at the inner bars, with their blankets draped round them. These were (lexical verb) the condemned men, due to be (auxiliary verb of passive voice) hanged within the next week or two. exercise 19 Sentence constituents have been set o with slashes. First name each sentence constituent. Then identify the type of lexical verb (intransitive, copula, or transitive) in the verb phrase, which has been undelined. 1 One prisoner S / had been brought P (transitive) / out of his cell A. 2 HeS / was P (copula) / a Hindu, a puny wisp of a man, with a shaven head and vague liquid eyes SA. 3 HeS / had P (transitive) / a thick, sprouting moustache, absurdly too big for his body, rather like the moustache of a comic man on the ¼lms DO. 4 Six tall Indian warders S / were guarding P (transitive) / him DO (and) / getting P (transitive) / him DO / ready for the gallows OA. 5 Two of them S / stood by P (intransitive) / with ri½es and ¼xed bayonets A; 6 the others S / handcu ed P (transitive) / him DO, 7 passed P (transitive) / a chain DO / through his handcu s A 8 (and) ¼xed P (transitive) / it DO / to their belts A, 9 (and) / lashed P (transitive) / his arms DO / tight to his sides A. 10 They S / crowded P (intransitive) / very close about him A, / with their hands always on him in a careful, caressing grip, as though all the while feeling him to make sure he was there A. 210 Key to the exercises

212 11 It S / was P (copula) / like men handling a ¼sh which is still alive and may jump back into the water SA. * 12 (But) he S / stood P (intransitive verb or copula verb) / quite unresisting, yielding his arms limply to the ropes A, / as though he hardly noticed what was happening A. * Even though the part after the be verb starts with a preposition (like), this part is felt to be a SA rather than an A because it could be easily substituted with an adjective like soft or gentle. exercise 20 Name each sentence constituent (set o with slashes) and identify the type of lexical verb. 1 Here A /IS / will describe P (monotransitive) / an unconventional method that I have been using to help people learn to read French DO. 2 IS / begin P (intransitive) / by o ering students a reading passage that is an almost literal word-for-word translation from French into English A. 3 ItS / has P (monotransitive) / English words DO / in French word order A. 4 A text of this sort S / quickly A / conveys P (monotransitive) / a sense of the overall patterns of French sentences DO. 5 In subsequent passages A / the most common French words S / are introduced P (monotransitive passive sentence) / into the reading materials, where they take the place of their English equivalents A. 6 Step by step A / an ever larger portion of French words S / appears P (intransitive) / in the reading passages A / (and) the text S / progressively A / changes P (intransitive) / into French A. 7 Starting with a text that a monolingual English speaker can understand with no more than a minimum of explanation A /, the student S /isledp (monotransitive passive sentence) /, by gradual steps A /, to a text that is written in French A. 8 In other words A /IS / o er P (ditransitive) / students IO / a reading passage that is an almost literal word-for-word translation from French into English DO. 9 English words in French word order S / make P (complex transitive) / the text DO / easy to understand OA. 10 I S / consider P (complex transitive) / such a text DO / a helpful one in quickly conveying a sense of the overall patterns of French sentences OA. 11 In subsequent passages A, / there A / are P (intransitive) / common French words introduced into the reading materials, where they take the place of their English equivalents S. 211 Key to the exercises

213 12 Starting with a text that a monolingual English speaker can understand with no more than a minimum of explanation S /isp (copula) / useful SA / because the student is led, by gradual steps, to a text that is written in French A. exercise 21 Create sentences with di erent types of direct objects: (a) single word, (b) phrase, (c) ¼nite clause and (d) non-¼nite clause. (Answers may vary.) see order ask (a) I see you. (b) I saw a red cat. (c) I see (that) you want to tell me something. (d) I saw him reading the newspaper. (a) I ordered co ee. (b) I usually order a cup of tea. (c) She ordered that he stay in bed. * (d) He ordered me to bring him a cup of tea. (a) I asked her. (b) She asked her mother. (c) He has asked me if I could help him. (d) I will ask him to join me. * In a clause after a verb like order, the ¼nite verb is in the subjunctive mood, which has no -s ending for the third person singular. exercise 22 Name each sentence constituent (set o with slashes) and identify the type of transitive verb. Then change the active sentence into a passive one. 1 Everyone S / must have admired P (monotransitive) / him DO. He must have been admired (by everyone). 2 Students S / must pay attention to P (monotransitive) / the teacher DO. The teacher must be paid attention to (by students). 3 My brother S / has given P (ditransitive) / me IO / some book cases DO. Some book cases have been given to me (by my brother). I have been given some book cases (by my brother). 4 HeS / made P (monotransitive) / me leave immediately DO. I was made to leave immediately (by him). 212 Key to the exercises

214 5 WeS / believe P (monotransitive) / him to be honest DO. He is believed to be honest (by us). 6 WeS / are electing P (complex transitive) / her DO / chair OA. She is being elected chair (by us.) exercise 23 Identify the underlined past participle forms. Which ones are used as adjectives? the boy who had been drowned (part of passive verb phrase) The men were muddy and exhausted (adjective) as if they were ashamed (adjective). Even the dogs were dispirited (adjective) the men tense and determined (adjective) It was understood (part of passive verb phrase) exercise 24 Identify each underlined verb as auxiliary (of mood, perfect aspect, progressive aspect, or passive voice) or lexical (intransitive, copula, monotransitive, ditransitive, or complex transitive). If necessary, create a short sentence to help you identify the type of lexical verb. Between two oval hills of pink granite there s (copula) a small crescent of beach. The boys, wearing (monotransitive [they wear their bathing suits]) their bathing suits (as they never do (intransitive) on canoe trips but only around the camp where they might (aux. of mood) be (aux. of passive voice) seen (monotransitive [girls see them]) by girls), are (aux. of progressive aspect) doing (monotransitive) their laundry, standing up (intransitive) to their knees and swabbing (monotransitive) their wet T-shirts and underpants with yellow bars of Sunlight soap. This only happens (intransitive) when they run out of (monotransitive) clothes, or when the stench of dirty socks in the cabin becomes (copula) too overpowering. Darce, the counselor is (aux. of progressive aspect) supervising (intransitive), stretched out (monotransitive [he stretches himself out]) on a rock, taking (monotransitive) the sun on his already tanned torso and smoking (monotransitive) a fag. It s (aux. of passive voice) forbidden (monotransitive [someone forbids something])to smoke (intransitive) in front of the campers but he knows (monotransitive [he knows something]) this bunch won t (aux. of mood [will]) tell (intransitive). To be (copula) on the safe side he s (copula) furtive about it, holding (monotransitive) the cigarette down close to the rock and sneaking (monotransitive) quick pu s. 213 Key to the exercises

215 exercise 25 For the following expressions, ¼rst create a meaningful sentence. Then indicate the function of the verb (transitive or intransitive) and the type of multi-word verb. (Answers may vary.) How did that come about (= happen)? (intransitive phrasal) I came across (= discovered) a beautiful book. (transitive prepositional) We came by (= passed) your house last night. (transitive prepositional) Please come down (= descend) fast. (intransitive phrasal) He came in for (= experienced) a big surprise. (transitive phrasal-prepositional) Please come o your high horse. (= don t be so conceited) (transitive prepositional) He came on very strong. (= He ½irted very much with me) (intransitive phrasal) He came out. (= He told people he was homosexual) (intransitive phrasal) He came up with (= thought of) a good idea. (transitive phrasal prepositional) I am sure he will come round to (= eventually accept) my way of thinking. (transitive phrasalprepositional) exercise 26 Underline all nouns and identify whether it is (a) proper or common, and (b) count or noncount. dad (common, count) shot (common, count) time (common, count) Low Veld (proper, non-count) smoke (common, count) yelp (common, count) dog (common, count) troop (common, count) impala (common, count) grass (common, non-count) yards (common, count) ridge (common, count) wall (common, count) feet (common, count) buck * (common, count) pausing (common, non-count) swerving (common, non-count) feet (common, count) friend (common, count) sight (common, count) Nature (proper, non-count) beauty (common, non-count) * Buck is an unusual noun in that it is count, but does not get an -s to signal the plural. Other such nouns are sheep and ýsh. 214 Key to the exercises

216 exercise 27 Identify all words used as adjectives and adverbs. His thin strong bony legs passed by at eye level every morning as they lay, stranded on the hard smooth sand. Washed up thankfully out of the swirl and bu et of the city, they were happy to lie there, but because they were accustomed to telling the time by their nerves * response to the di erent tensions of the city, children crying in ½ats, lorries going heavily and bicycles jangling for early morning, skid of tyres, sound of frying and the human insect noise of thousands talking and walking and eating at midday the tensionless shore keyed only to the tide gave them a sense of timelessness that, however ** much they rejoiced mentally, troubled their habitimpressed bodies with a lack of pressure. So the sound of his feet, thudding nearer over the sand, passing their heads with the deep sound of a man breathing in the heat above the rolledup, faded trousers, passing away up the beach and shrinking into the ¼gure of an Indian ¼sherman, began to be something to be waited for. His coming and going divided the morning into three; the short early time before he passed, the time when he was actually passing and the largish chunk of warm midday that followed when he had gone. * This is a specifying genitive, which should not be regarded as an adjective. See section 6.2. ** However, is often used as sentence adverb. Here though it modi¼es the word much. exercise 28 Identify the word class of all underlined words and indicate whether they are used dependently or independently. His (personal pronoun dependent) they (personal pronoun independent) the (article dependent) they (personal pronoun independent) their (possessive pronoun dependent) thousands (numeral independent) them (personal pronoun independent) that (relative pronoun independent) his (possessive pronoun dependent) His (possessive pronoun dependent) that (relative pronoun independent) exercise 29 Underline all words used as coordinators. Set o the parts that they introduce or connect with square brackets. Has this author kept the structures connected with a coordinator parallel? His thin strong bony legs passed by at eye level every morning as they lay, stranded on the hard smooth sand. [Washed up thankfully out of the [swirl] and [bu et] of the city, they were happy to lie there], but [because they were accustomed to telling the time by their nerves response to 215 Key to the exercises

217 the di erent tensions of the city [children crying in ½ats], [lorries going heavily] and [bicycles jangling for early morning], [skid of tyres], [sound of frying] and [the human insect noise of thousands [talking] and [walking] and [eating] at midday] the tensionless shore keyed only to the tide gave them a sense of timelessness that, however much they rejoiced mentally, troubled their habit-impressed bodies with a lack of pressure]. So * the sound of his feet, thudding nearer over the sand, passing their heads with the deep sound of a man breathing in the heat above the rolled-up, faded trousers, [passing away up the beach] and [shrinking into the ¼gure of an Indian ¼sherman], began to be something to be waited for. His [coming] and [going] divided the morning into three; [the short early time before he passed], [the time when he was actually passing] and [the largish chunk of warm midday that followed when he had gone]. * So is a coordinate conjunction linking two independent sentences. They have not been set o with square brackets here. In this passage, the author has kept all items parallel. A few examples are given here: [swirl] and [bu et]: two nouns [Washed up there], but [because they at midday]: two main clauses, each starting with an adverbial [children crying in ½ats], [lorries going heavily] and [bicycles jangling for early morning]: three non-¼nite -ing clauses, each with its own subject. [skid of tyres], [sound of frying] and [the human insect noise of thousands talking and walking and eating at midday]: three nouns, each followed by an of phrase. [talking] and [walking] and [eating]: three non-¼nite verb. exercise 30 Underline all words used as subordinator. Set o the parts that they introduce with square brackets. Identify the subordinator as subordinating conjunction (SC), relative pronoun (RP) or relative adverb (RA), or as interrogative pronoun (IP) or interrogative adverb (IA). His thin strong bony legs passed by at eye level every morning [as (SC) they lay, stranded on the hard smooth sand]. Washed up thankfully out of the swirl and bu et of the city, they were happy 216 Key to the exercises

218 to lie there, but [because (SC) they were accustomed to telling the time by their nerves response to the di erent tensions of the city, children crying in ½ats, lorries going heavily and bicycles jangling for early morning, skid of tyres, sound of frying and the human insect noise of thousands talking and walking and eating at midday] the tensionless shore keyed only to the tide gave them a sense of timelessness [that (RP), [however much (SC) they rejoiced mentally], troubled their habit-impressed bodies with a lack of pressure]. So the sound of his feet, thudding nearer over the sand, passing their heads with the deep sound of a man breathing in the heat above the rolled-up, faded trousers, passing away up the beach and shrinking into the ¼gure of an Indian ¼sherman, began to be something to be waited for. His coming and going divided the morning into three; the short early time [before (SC) he passed] the time [when (RA) he was actually passing and the largish chunk of warm midday [that (RP) followed [when (SC) he had gone]]]. exercise 31 Underline all words used as prepositions. Set o the parts that they introduce with square brackets. His thin strong bony legs passed by [at eye level] every morning as they lay, stranded [on the hard smooth sand]. Washed up thankfully [out of the swirl and bu et] [of the city], they were happy to * lie there, but because they were accustomed [to telling the time] [by their nerves response [to the di erent tensions [of the city]]], children crying [in ½ats], lorries going heavily and bicycles jangling [for early morning], skid [of tyres], sound [of frying] and the human insect noise [of thousands] talking and walking and eating [at midday] the tensionless shore keyed only [to the tide] gave them a sense [of timelessness that, however much they rejoiced mentally, troubled their habit-impressed bodies [with a lack [of pressure]]]. So the sound [of his feet], thudding nearer [over the sand], passing their heads [with the deep sound [of a man breathing [in the heat [above the rolled-up, faded trousers]]]], passing away [up the beach] and shrinking [into the ¼gure [of an Indian ¼sherman]], began to be [something] to be waited [for]. His coming and going divided the morning [into three]; the short early time [before he passed], the time when he was actually passing and the largish chunk [of warm midday] that followed when he had gone. * To as part of a to in¼nitive is not considered a preposition. It is considered part of the verb, like -ing would be part of a verb like walking. 217 Key to the exercises

219 exercise 32 Identify the word class of each word. My (possessive pronoun) late (adjective) dad (noun) was (lexical verb) a (article) magni¼cent (adjective) shot (noun). One (cardinal numeral) time (noun) when (relative adverb) we (personal pronoun) were (auxiliary verb) hunting (lexical verb) in (preposition) the (article) Low Veld (noun) and (coordinate conjunction) had (auxiliary verb) paused (lexical verb) for (preposition) a (article) smoke (noun), there (adverb) was (lexical verb) the (article) yelp (noun) of (preposition) a (article) wild (adjective) dog (noun), and (coordinate conjunction) a (article) troop (noun) of (preposition) impala (noun) came (here used as auxiliary verb) bounding (lexical verb) over (preposition) the (article) tall (adjective) grass (noun). Opposite (preposition) us (personal pronoun), three hundred (cardinal numeral) yards (noun) o (adverb), was (lexical verb) a (article) stony (adjective) ridge (noun) like (preposition) a (article) wall (noun), six (cardinal numeral) feet (noun) high (adjective). You (personal pronoun) would (auxiliary verb) think (lexical verb) those (demonstrative pronoun) buck (noun) would (auxiliary verb) avoid (lexical verb) it (personal pronoun), but (coordinate conjunction) no (interjection), they (personal pronoun) went (lexical verb) straight (adverb) at (preposition) it (personal pronoun). One (cardinal numeral) after (preposition) the (article) other (inde¼nite pronoun), without (preposition) pausing (noun) or (coordinate conjunction) swerving (noun), they (personal pronoun) leapt (lexical verb) over (preposition) it (personal pronoun). They (personal pronoun) cleared (lexical verb) it (personal pronoun) by (preposition) three (cardinal numberal) feet (noun). I (personal pronoun) tell (lexical verb) you (personal pronoun), friend (noun), it (personal pronoun) was (lexical verb) a (article) beautiful (adjective) sight (noun). You (personal pronoun) can (auxiliary verb) not (adverb) beat (lexical verb) Nature (noun) for (preposition) beauty (noun), eh (interjection). exercise 33 Identify the underlined phrases. After a few days (PP) good morning (NP) looking up (VP) shining (AdjP) so impartially (AdvP) slightly bloodshot from the sun (AdjP) slightly (AdvP) like the good useful teeth of an animal (PP) taut (AdjP) control (VP) 218 Key to the exercises

220 exercise 34 Several nouns and pronouns have been underlined. Indicate with square brackets the beginning and end of the noun phrase and analyze the phrase further as has been done in the examples above. [a few (det:inde¼nite pronoun) days (head:noun)] [a (det:art) shining (pre-mod:adjp) dark (pre-mod:adjp) dome (head:noun) surrounded with curly hair given a strong liveliness by the sharp coarse strokes of grey hairs (post-mod:nfc)] [the (det:art) beautiful (pre-mod:adjp) curved (pre-mod:adjp) nose (head:noun) handed out so impartially to Indians (post-mod:nfc)] [dark (pre-mod:adjp) eyes (head:noun) slightly bloodshot from the sun (post-mod:adjp)] [strong (pre-mod:adjp) uneven (pre-mod:adjp) teeth (head:noun) that projected slightly like the good useful teeth of an animal (post-mod:fc)]. [his (det:possessive pronoun) legs (head:noun)] [the (det:article) dark (pre-mod:adjp), dull-skinned (pre-mod:adjp) feet (head:noun) with the few black hairs on the big toe (post-mod:pp)] [the (det:art) long (pre-mod:adjp) hard (pre-mod:adjp) shaft (head:noun) of the shin tightly covered with [smooth (pre-mod:adjp) shiny (pre-mod:adjp) skin (head:noun)] (post-mod:pp)] [the (det:art) pull (head:noun) of the tendons at his ankle like the taut ropes that control the sail of a ship (post-mod:pp)]. [his (det:possessive pronoun) ¼sherman s (premod:adjp) life (head:noun)] [their (det:possessive pronoun) holiday (pre-mod:adjp) freedom (head:noun)]. exercise 35 Analyze the following sentences at sentence level. Then, underline any adjective clauses and phrases. Identify them (a) as ¼nite clause, non-¼nite clause, or phrase and (b) as restrictive or non-restrictive. 1 Lincoln, who was one of the truly great men of all time (FC, non-restrictive), S:NP / led P:VP / the US DO:NP / during the Civil War A:PP. 2 Lincoln S:NP / once A:AdvP / said P:VP / that his wife had got a notion into her head that he would be assassinated (FC, restrictive) DO:FC. 3 His attempt to reassure her (NFC, restrictive) S:NP / was P:VP / to carry a cane on his nightly walks to the War Department (PP, restrictive) SA:NFC. 4 Any person plotting to kill him (NFC, restrictive) was going to ¼nd a way to do it anyway (NFC, restrictive) DO:FC /hes:np / believed P:VP. 219 Key to the exercises

221 5 Lincoln, a very public ¼gure (NP, non-restrictive), S:NP / simply A:AdvP / was P:VP / not A:AdvP / willing to live in fear SA:AdjP / despite this ever present threat A:PP. 6 The date of Lincoln s assassination (PP, restrictive), April 14, 1865 (NP, non-restrictive), S:NP / now A:AdvP / seems to take on * P:VP / an ironic meaning SA:NP. 7 The stories concerning ** President Lincoln s courage and humor (PP, restrictive) S:NP / have made P:VP / him DO:NP / a legend OA:NP. * Seems to take on is regarded as one VP. ** As you saw in Section 5.4 concerning can be used as preposition. exercise 36 Underline all ¼nite relative clauses. Double underline the head noun, circle the relative pronoun, (or indicate where the pronoun that could occur) (here given in bold) and identify the function the relative pronoun has within the clause that it introduces. Until they became ordinary, dull grown men, who S drank beer and made babies, the little village boys were a special set all on their own. They were kings whom DO no one ruled. They wandered where they willed from dawn to dusk and only condescended to come home at dusk because they were afraid of the horrible things in the dark that S might pounce on them. Unlike the little girls who S adored household chores and drawing water, it was only now and then that the boys showed themselves as useful attachments to any household. When the ¼rst hard rains of summer fell, small dark shapes, which S were quite naked except for their loin-cloths, sped out of the village into the bush. They knew it had struggled to emerge from its burrow, which S had been ½ooded by the sudden rush of storm water and as they pulled out the animal they would say, pityingly: exercise 37 Underline all phrases and ¼nite and non-¼nite clauses that function as post-modi¼ers of nouns. Circle the noun that is modi¼ed (here bold). Identify how it is realized and whether it is restrictive or non-restrictive. In the summer of 1859, (PP restrictive) a French acrobat called Blondin (NFC restrictive) strung a rope across the gorge just below Niagara Falls (PP restrictive). On June 30, he was ready to walk from the United States to Canada across that rope, which was more than 150 feet above Niagara s violent waters (FC non-restrictive). Blondin, sitting down on the rope halfway across (NFC non-restrictive), scared the crowd as he lowered a string to a boat below (AdvP restrictive), pulled up a bottle and took a 220 Key to the exercises

222 drink. Then he continued his terrifying walk. Eighteen minutes after he began his stroll, he was greeted by a crowd cheering tremendously as he stepped on the Canadian side (NFC restrictive). In less than seven minutes he completed his trip back to the United States (AdvP restrictive). People coming to the Falls that summer to see what the acrobat would do next (NFC restrictive) were never disappointed by Blondin, who always thought of di erent tricks (FC non-restrictive). He walked across with a sack over his head (PP restrictive)! He pushed a wheelbarrow across! He did a headstand on the rope! And once Blondin, ready for a snack (AdjP non-restrictive), took a table, chair and stove with him to the middle of the rope (PP restrictive) and ¼xed an omelet! One time, he convinced his manager, Harry Colcord (NP non-restrictive), to ride across on his back; however, he did not try that stunt, a near disaster (NP non-restrictive), again. A support wire snapped and jerked the main rope sideways. Finally, Blondin, managing to keep himself and his manager from falling (NFC non-restrictive), was able to land safely on the other side after forty-¼ve agonizing minutes. exercise 38 Underline each ¼nite and non-¼nite verb phrase. Which non-¼nite verbs are used in a postmodi¼er of a noun? After a few days, he began to say good morning, and looking up they found his face, a long head with a shining dark dome surrounded (post-mod of dome) with curly hair given (post-mod of hair) a strong liveliness by the sharp coarse strokes of grey hairs, the beautiful curved nose handed out (post-mod of nose) so impartially to Indians, dark eyes slightly bloodshot from the sun, a wide muscular mouth smiling (post-mod of mouth) on strong uneven teeth that projected slightly like the good useful teeth of an animal. But it was by his legs they would have known him; the dark, dull-skinned feet with the few black hairs on the big toe, the long hard shaft of the shin tightly covered (post-mod of shin) with smooth shiny skin, the pull of the tendons at his ankle like the taut ropes that control the sail of a ship. exercise 39 Underline each adjective, and indicate with brackets the beginning and end of the phrase of which it is the head. After a few days, he began to say [good] morning, and looking up they found his face, a [long] head with a [shining] [dark] dome surrounded with [curly] hair given a [strong] liveliness by the [sharp] [coarse] strokes of [grey] hairs, the [beautiful] [curved]nose handed out so impartially 221 Key to the exercises

223 to Indians, [dark] eyes [slightly bloodshot from the sun], a [wide] [muscular] mouth smiling on [strong] [uneven] teeth that projected slightly like the [good] [useful] teeth of an animal. But it was by his legs they would have known him; the [dark], [dull-skinned] feet with the few [black] hairs on the [big] toe, the [long] [hard] shaft of the shin tightly covered with [smooth] [shiny] skin, the pull of the tendons at his ankle like the [taut]ropes that control the sail of a ship. exercise 40 Underline each adverb, and with square brackets indicate the beginning and end of the phrase of which it is the head. They [idly] watched him go, not because they were so envious of his ¼sherman s life that they would [really] have liked to live it themselves, but because it had about it the frame of their holiday freedom. They looked at him [enough to think that they should have respect for one who has put a little space between himself and the rest of the world]. It s a good life said the young man, the words [not quite] hitting the nail of this respect. I can [just] see you said the girl, smiling. She saw him in his blue creased suit, carrying a bottle of gin wrapped in brown paper, a packet of banana and the evening paper. exercise 41 Underline each preposition and indicate with square brackets the beginning and end of the phrase of which it is the head. [After a few days], he began to say good morning, and looking up they found his face, a long head [with a shining dark dome surrounded [with curly hair given a strong liveliness [by the sharp coarse strokes [of grey hairs]]], the beautiful curved nose handed out so impartially [to Indians], dark eyes slightly bloodshot [from the sun], a wide muscular mouth smiling [on strong uneven teeth that projected slightly [like the good useful teeth [of an animal]]]. But it was [by his legs] they would have known him; the dark, dull-skinned feet [with the few black hairs [on the big toe]], the long hard shaft [of the shin tightly covered [with smooth shiny skin]], the pull [of the tendons] [at his ankle] [like the taut ropes that control the sail [of a ship]]. 222 Key to the exercises

224 exercise 42 The constituents at sentence level have been set o with slashes. For each constituent, identify its function and its realization. They S:NP / did (not A:AdvP) know P:VP / his name DO:NP, / and / now A:AdvP, / although they might have asked the ¼rst day and got away with it, A:FC /its:np / was P:VP / suddenly A:AdvP / impossible SA:AdjP / because he didn t ask them theirs A:FC. / So / their you s and he s and I s S:NP / took on P:VP / the positiveness of names DO:NP, / and / yet A:AdvP / they S:NP / seemed to deepen P:VP / their sense of communication DO:NP / by the fact that they introduced none of the objectivity that names must always bring A:PP./HeS:NP / spoke (to them IO:PP) (quite a lot A:AdvP) about P:VP / Johannesburg, to which he assumed they must belong, as that was his generalization of city life DO:NP,/ and/ hes:np / knew P:VP, / sympathetically A:AdvP / that they were city people DO:FC / And / although they didn t live there, but somewhere near on a smaller pattern A:FC, / they S:NP / answered P:VP / as if they did A:FC. / They S:NP / also A:AdvP / talked (a little A:NP)ofP:VP / his life, or rather (of) the processes of the sugar re¼nery from which his life depended DO:NP. / They S:NP / found P:VP /itdo:np / fascinating OA:AdjP /. exercise 43 Analyze each sentence at sentence level, naming the function and realization of sentence constituents. Do not analyze the constituents further. At a hearing of a Senate committee investigating working conditions in New York City in 1883 A:PP /, Conrad Carl, a tailor S:NP /, testi¼ed P:VP / that before the Civil War his had been a very still business, very quiet DO:FC. / Then A:AdvP / the sewing machine S:NP / appeared P:VP./ We S:NP / admit P:VP / it stitched very nicely, nicer than the tailor could do DO:FC. / And / the bosses S:NP / said P:VP /: We want you to use the sewing machine DO:FC / Then A:AdvP /he S:NP / was asked P:VP / how this innovation a ected the tailors DO:FC. / Carl S:NP / replied P:VP /: We work now in excitement in a hurry DO:FC./ItS:NP /isp:vp / hunting SA:NP /; it S:NP / [is P: VP / not A:AdvP / work SA:NP /atalla:pp /; it S:NP /isp:vp / a hunt SA:NP. exercise 44 Several non-¼nite clauses have been underlined. Which ones are used as direct objects of a sentence or a clause? to come home at dusk (used as DO) to encounter (not used as DO) doing household chores (used as DO) drawing water (used as DO) to fall (not used as DO) peeping out (not used as DO) to emerge from its burrow (not used as DO) 223 Key to the exercises

225 exercise 45 Analyze the following sentences into sentence constituents and name their realizations. Then state in your own words what the logical relationship between the non-¼nite adverbial clause and the main clause is. 1 Running down the street A:NFC, /hes:np / fell down P:VP. Running down the street expresses a while or because meaning. 2 HeS:NP / ran P:VP / down the street A:PP, / stumbling over every thing that was in his way A:NFC. Stumbling over his way expresses a while meaning. 3 HeS:NP / went P:VP / to the store A:PP / to buy some groceries A:NFC. To buy some groceries expresses a purpose meaning. 4 To think that he had so much homework A:NFC, /ittemps:np / surprises P:VP /me DO:NP / he went out last night S:FC. To think that he had so much homework expresses a hypothesis meaning. exercise 46 Analyze each sentence at sentence level by putting slashes to set o sentence constituents. Then give the function and realization of each sentence constituent. Do not analyze any further. 1 Until they became ordinary, dull grown men, who drank beer and made babies, A:FC / the little village boys S:NP / were P:VP / a special set all on their own SA:NP. 2 They S:NP / were P:VP / kings whom no one ruled SA:NP. 3 They S:NP / wandered P:VP / where they willed A:FC / from dawn to dusk A:PP / and / only A:AdvP / condescended P:VP / to come home at dusk DO:NFC / because they were afraid to encounter the horrible things in the dark that might pounce on them A:FC. 4 Unlike the little girls who adored doing household chores and drawing water, A:PP /it TempS:NP / was P: VP / only now and then A:AdvP / that the boys showed themselves as useful attachments to any household S: FC. 5 When the ¼rst hard rains of summer had started to fall, A:FC / small dark shapes, quite naked except for their loin-cloths, S:NP / sped out P:VP / of the village A:PP / into the bush A:PP. 6 They S:NP / knew P:VP / that the ¼rst downpour had drowned all the wild rabbits, moles and porcupines in their burrows in the earth DO:FC. 224 Key to the exercises

226 7 As they crouched down near the entrances to the burrows, A:FC / they S:NP / would see P:VP / a small drowned nose of an animal peeping out; DO:NP / they S:NP / knew P:VP / it had struggled to emerge from its burrow, ½ooded by the sudden rush of storm water DO:FC / and / as they pulled out the animal A:FC / they S:NP / would say P:VP /, pityingly: A:AdvP / Birds have more sense than rabbits, moles and porcupines. They build their homes in trees DO:FC. exercise 47 Set o sentence and clause constituents with slashes. Then add commas where necessary. Explain your choice. 1 The next / it / was raining, / (but) / nevertheless / Nalini / stood / and / waited for / him / outside his house. (1) (The comma is needed only before the coordinate conjunction but because it connects two main clauses) 2 At ¼rst / he / did [not] seem to be / very pleased to see her /, (and) it / was / only / when they had walked away from the house for some distance, / that he made her sit on the cross-bar of his bicycle. (2) (The ¼rst comma is needed to separate two main clauses. The second comma is needed to set o the adverbial when clause. Note that this second main clause has an extraposed construction and the when clause comes before the real subject.) 3 They rode like that together through the rain. (0) (No comma is needed because sentence has regular word order without interrupting elements.) 4 It / was / like a dream, [she in his arms and feeling his breath on her face], and [everything around them, [the trees] and [the sky] and [the tops of the houses], melting away into mist and soft rain]. (4) (This is really a simple sentence as it has only one ¼nite verb. There is a comma after dream to set o a non-restrictive post-modi¼er, which goes from [she rain]. This postmodi¼er, in turn, consists of two main parts [she face] and [everything rain]. These main parts, even though they are not full ¼nite clauses are separated with a comma to help the reader recognize them as main parts. After everything around them there are three non-restrictive post-modi¼ers, the trees and the sky and the tops of the houses, ina series. Since the author used and between these three items, no comma is needed. A comma is needed after this series to show that the non-restrictive post-modi¼er of everything has ended.) 225 Key to the exercises

227 5 They / went / to the same shop (and) / bought / almost the same things /, (but) this time, when they came out and she already saw the smile of farewell forming on his lips, / she / quickly / said, Can t we have co ee somewhere?. (4) (There is no comma before the ¼rst and because it connects only two predicates (not full clauses). A comma is used before but because it connects two full main clauses. Commas are needed to set o when lips because it is a non-restrictive post-modi¼er of this time. Finally, a comma is needed after said because the direct object is a direct quotation.) 6 They / went / to a shop which served home-made rock cakes (and) had copper urns for decoration. (0) (No commas are needed because there is regular word order, the which clause is restrictive, and the conjunction and connects only predicates.) 7 It / was / full of housewives having their co ee break/, (so) the only table available / was / one by the coat rack, which was rather uncomfortable because of all the dripping coats and umbrellas. (2) (A comma is needed before the coordinating conjunction so because it connects two complete main clauses. A comma is needed to set o the non-restrictive which clause after the phrase one by the coat rack. 8 Nalini / did [n t] mind/, (but) / Dr. Greaves / sat / hunched together (and) looking miserable. (1) (A comma is needed before the coordinating conjunction but to set o the two main clauses. No comma is needed before and because it connects predicates.) 9 His thin hair / was / all wet (and) stuck / to his head (and) sometimes / a drop / came dripping / down his face. (0) (In this sentence, a comma could be placed before the second and as it connects two complete main clauses. However, the author probably decided not to use one because the clauses are rather short and simple.) 10 Nalini looked at him: Cold?, she asked with tender concern. (1) (The colon is used to show that the ¼rst clause expresses some type of announcement. The comma is used after cold to set o a direct quote; note that the order of the second clause is unusual. The direct quotation is a direct object. 226 Key to the exercises

228 exercise 48 Identify the sentence type (normal, passive, existential, cleft, or extraposed) and analyze the sentences at sentence level naming functions and realizations of the constituents. 1 IttempS:NP /isp:vp / an unusual method SA:NP / to o er students a reading passage that is an almost literal word-for-word translation from French into English S:NFC. (extraposed sentence type) 2 ItS:NP /isp:vp / English words in French word order that make the text easy to understand SA:NP. (cleft sentence type) 3 IS:NP / consider P:VP /ittempdo:np / helpful OA:AdjP / to quickly convey a sense of the overall patterns of French sentences DO:NFC. (extraposed sentence type) 4 In subsequent passages A:PP, / there A:AdvP / are P:VP / common French words introduced into the reading materials, where they take the place of their English equivalents S; NP. (existential sentence type) 5 IttempS:NP /isp:vp / useful SA:AdjP / to start with a text that a monolingual English speaker can understand with no more than a minimum of explanation S:NFC / because the student is led, by gradual steps, to a text that is written in French A:NFC. (extraposed sentence type) exercise 49 Underline ¼nite verbs and circle subordinators and coordinators (in boldface here). Identify main clauses and dependent clauses (here in italics), and then determine whether the following sentences are simple, compound, complex or compound-complex. 1 Every act that every human adult performs communicates. (complex) 2 Within hours of birth, a human infant is already responding to the rhythms of the mother s speech, in a dance-like sharing of microbody motion. (simple) 3 Even involuntary acts communicate, / they are symptoms, / and they are modi¼ed in signi¼cant ways; (compound ¼rst part) / a sneeze may be unavoidable, / but the manner of it betrays attitudes of hygiene, courtesy, or self-restraint. (compound second part) (compound whole sentence) 4 When the act exists [because it communicates], / it becomes symbolic: a handshake is for friendship or frankness, a bow for deference or submission, an a ected sob to evoke sympathy or pity. (compound-complex) 227 Key to the exercises

229 exercise 50 Analyze the following noun phrases into its constituents: determiners, premodi¼ers, head and post modi¼ers and name their realizations. Do not analyze further. 1 the / rhythms / of the mother s speech the det:article rhythms head:noun of speech post modi¼er:pp 2 the mother s / speech the mother s det: specifying genitive speech head:noun 3 our / most complex / system / of signs our det:poss. pronoun most complex premodi¼er:adjp system head:noun of signs post-modi¼er:pp 4 a / structure / of words and relationships / that interpenetrates our world so thoroughly that nothing out there can be disentangled from it a det:article structure head:noun of rel.ships post-modi¼er:pp that it post-modi¼er:fc 5 a / dance-like / sharing / of microbody motion a det:article dance-like premodi¼er:adjp sharing head:noun of motion post-modi¼er:pp exercise 51 Indicate the beginning and the end of the phrase of which the noun is the head. If there is a post modi¼er in the phrase, indicate how it is realized. [Every act / that every human adult performs post-mod:fc] [hours / of birth post-mod:pp] [the / rhythms / of the mother s speech post-mod:pp] [ a dance-like sharing / of microbody motion post-mod:pp] [involuntary acts] 228 Key to the exercises

230 [symptoms, / modi¼ed in signi¼cant ways a sneeze may be unavoidable post-mod:nfc] [the / manner /ofitpost-mod:pp] [attitudes / of hygiene, courtesy, or self-restraint post-mod:pp] [a handshake] (remember for friendship or frankness is considered an SA) [a bow] (remember for deference or submission is considered an SA) [an / a ected / sob] (remember to evoke sympathy or pity is considered an SA) [an / intricate / structure / of words and [relationships / that interpenetrates our world so thoroughly that nothing out there can be disentangled from it post-mod:fc] post-mod:pp (of structure)] [language] exercise 52 1 How many separate post modi¼ers does the noun face have? Set it/them o with square brackets. The noun face has only one post-modi¼er. After a few days, he began to say good morning, and looking up they found his face, [a long head animal]. 2 How many separate post modi¼ers does the noun head have? Set each one o with square brackets. The noun head has only one post-modi¼er. a long head [with animal] 3 How many complements does the preposition with have? Set each one o with square brackets. The preposition with has four complements. with [a shining grey hairs], [the beautiful curved nose Indians], [dark eyes the sun], [a wide muscular mouth animal]. 229 Key to the exercises

231 4 If the underlined noun has a post-modi¼er set it o with square brackets. Be sure to set o the complete modi¼er, which in turn may include another noun that has a post-modi¼er. a long head with a shining dark dome [surrounded with curly hair (given a strong liveliness by the sharp coarse strokes of grey hairs)], the beautiful curved nose [handed out so impartially to Indians], dark eyes [slightly bloodshot from the sun], a wide muscular mouth [smiling on strong uneven teeth (that projected slightly like the good useful teeth of an animal)]. 5 Identify the realization of each post modi¼er. a long head NP with.animal PP a shining dark dome NP surrounded with curly hair NFC given a strong liveliness by the sharp coarse strokes NFC of grey hairs, PP the beautiful curved nose NP handed out so impartially to Indians, NFC dark eyes NP slightly bloodshot from the sun, AdjP a wide muscular mouth NP smiling on strong uneven teeth NFC that projected slightly like the good useful teeth FC of an animal. PP exercise 53 Analyze each clause printed in italics into its constituents. If the non-¼nite clause contains another clause, analyze it, too. Do not analyze further at the phrase level. a long head with a shining dark dome [surrounded P:VP / with curly hair A:PP [given P:VP / a strong liveliness DO:NP / by the sharp coarse strokes of grey hairs A:PP,]] (with) the beautiful curved nose [handed out P:VP / so impartially A:AdjP / to Indians IO:PP,] (with) dark eyes [slightly bloodshot SA:AdjP / from the sun A:PP], (with) a wide muscular mouth [smiling SA:NFC / on strong uneven teeth A:PP [that S:NP / projected P:VP / slightly like the good useful teeth of an animal A:AdvP]]. 230 Key to the exercises

232 exercise 54 1 There is only one simple sentence. Which one is it? (a) I don t think so 2 Analyze sentence (b) I don t think I really saw all this, by ¼lling in the blanks. There are two ýnite verbs, namely do and saw, so we can conclude we have at least two clauses. To see if we have a compound or complex sentence we have to ¼nd coordinators and subordinators. There is no coordinate conjunction or correlative conjunction, but the word that is understood after the verb think. The understood that is here a subordinator ; therefore, we know this clause is a dependent one, and the sentence is a complex one. The dependent clause functions as direct object of the sentence. I S:NP /dop:vp (n t A:AdvP) think P(cont) [I S:NP / really A:AdvP / saw P:VP / all this DO:NP] DO:FC 3 Analyze sentence (c) Perhaps I saw my father carrying him and the other men following along, and the dogs, but I would not have been allowed to get close enough to see something like mud in his nostril by ¼lling in the blanks. There are several clauses, some ¼nite and some non-¼nite. For main clauses, the verb must always be ¼nite. The ¼nite verbs in this sentence are saw and would. There are quite a few non- ¼nite verbs like carrying and following, but we will ignore those for the time being as they are always part of a non-¼nite clause. For now, we want to see if we have to do with one ore more independent sentence parts. To do so, we have to ¼nd coordinators. There are three of them. They are and, and and but. Only one of these, but, connects two independent sentence parts. We can conclude we have a compound sentence and we have to analyze it as two separate sentences. Part 1: Perhaps I saw my father carrying him and the other men following along, and the dogs The subject is I and the predicator is saw. The next questions is what did I see. Actually, I saw three things: my father carrying him, the other men following him, and the dogs. So this sentence has three direct objects. The one sentence constituent we have not named yet is perhaps, which functions as adverbial. 231 Key to the exercises

233 Let s look further at the direct objects. Two of them are non-¼nite clauses, each of which can be analyzed at Level 2. In the ¼rst non-¼nite clause, the subject is my father, realized by a noun phrase, the predicator is carrying, realized by a verb phrase, and the direct object is him, realized by a noun phrase. The second non-¼nite clause has as it s the other men, realized by a noun phrase, and the predicator is following along, which happens to be a phrasal verb. The third direct object is realized by a noun phrase. We have now ¼nished the analysis at clause levels of Part 1 of this sentence. Put the function and realization above each sentence and clause constituent in the next schema. Level 1: Perhaps A:AdvP /IS:NP / saw P:VP / my father carrying him DO 1 :NFC /(and) / the other men following along, DO 2 :NFC / (and) / the dogs DO 3 :NP Level 2: my father S:NP / carrying P:VP / him DO:NP ; the other men S:NP / following along P:VP Part 2: but I would not have been allowed to get close enough to see something like mud in his nostril. This sentence part has quite a few verbs, but there is only one ¼nite one, which is would. We may safely assume that this sentence event though we are likely to ¼nd one or more non-¼nite clauses.. There are two ways we can answer this, both of which are correct: would have been allowed or would have been allowed to get, depending on whether we regard to be allowed as an auxiliary verb or a lexical verb. For example, in a sentence like I allowed John to go the verb allow is clearly a lexical verb, but in its very frequently used passive counterpart, He is allowed to go the whole phrase is allowed to could be substituted with the modal auxiliary may and therefore to be allowed to can be regarded as a semi-modal Close enough to see something like mud in his nostril answers the question where is he allowed to get. Therefore, we may conclude that this part functions as adverbial. The main word (head) in this adverbial is close, which is an adverb, so the adverbial is realized as an adverb phrase. But, close is followed by enough to see something like mud in his nostril. The main part of this post modi¼er is the word enough, so the post modi¼er is realized by an adverb phrase. The adverb enough is in turn post-modi¼ed by to see something like mud in his nostril, which is a non-¼nite clause. In this clause, we have the verb phrase to see and a direct object something like mud in his nostril. Finally, there is one word left in the sentence, namely but, which is a coordinate conjunction and does not have a function in the clause. 232 Key to the exercises

234 but /IS:NP / would P:VP / not A:AdvP / have been allowed to get (P cont.) / [close (enough (( to see P:VP / something like mud in his nostril DO:NFC) Post-mod:NFC) A:AdvP) A:AdvP] 4 Analyze the two following sentences at sentence and clause levels, ¼rst into sentence constituents and then each dependent clause into clause constituents. a b IS:NP / must have heard P:VP / someone talking about that DO:NP / and / imagined P:VP / that I saw it DO:FC. someone S:NP / talking about P :VP / that DO:NP. that / I S:NP / saw P:VP /itdo:np. IS:NP / see P:VP / his face unaltered except for the mud Steve Gauley s familiar, sharp-honed sneaky looking face DO:NP /and/its:np / wouldn t have been P:VP / like that SA:PP; /its:np / would have been bloated * P:VP / and / changed P:VP / and / perhaps A:AdvP / muddied P:VP / all over A:AdvP / after so many hours in the water A:PP. * It could be argued that bloated, changed and muddied function as SA. We opted for regarding it as part of the VP, because the phrase after so many nouns in the water highlights a process rather than a state. 233 Key to the exercises

235 Users Guide to the Practice Program Follow the Installation Instructions on pages 5 and 6. When you click on English Sentence Analysis, you will see the Menu Screen. Click on the Chapter Bar and the Practice Program prepares a set of exercises for you. 234 Users Guide to the Practice Program

236 After you have clicked on the Chapter Bar, you will see an exercise screen like the following: Check if the answer is correct or incorrect 8 Set of special symbols 2 Provide correct answer 9 Help menu 3 Go to Menu Screen 10 Theory module 4 Go back to ¼rst exercise 11 Exit 5 Go back one exercise 12 Instructions 6 Go forward one exercise 13 Go to feedback 7 Go to last exercise visited 14 Score bar note If your screen is not complete, as the above, reset your screen resolution to or higher (see Windows Help). 235 Users Guide to the Practice Program

237 Before you start answering the questions, you are advised to read what the Chapter is about in the Theory Module (see page 237). How to answer the exercise questions. Read the instructions for the exercise. Answer the question. For multiple choice, click the appropriate for one correct answer or for more than one correct answer. For drag and drop, click on the appropriate answer from the list on the right and hold down the left mouse button. A pencil icon will pop up. When the pencil is marked with a prohibition sign, drag it to the appropriate gap. When the prohibition sign disappears, release the mouse button. For ¼ll in the blank, click on the gap and type your answer. To change your answer, click the gap again. Use the delete and backspace buttons on your keyboard to erase words or letters and type a changed answer. If there are more gaps in one exercise, press Enter on your keyboard to move to the next gap. Check whether your answer(s) is/are correct Your answer is correct; click for feedback or go to the next question. Your answer is incorrect; click for feedback. Read the feedback (which appears on a screen like the following). If you need more detail, click on one of the underlined words to go to the Theory Module. 236 Users Guide to the Practice Program

238 Answer the question again. In most cases, you will get points if your second attempt is correct! If your answer is still incorrect, click for the target answer and feedback. Repeat this procedure to complete a set of exercises (about 25 in total). Exit the program at any time. Your results are saved. Using the Theory Module Two ways to get to the Theory Module: Enter the Theory Module from an exercise page to get information about the exercise topic. If you enter from the Chapter menu (see page 234), you get a general ideo of the contents of the Theory Module. Click on the underlined word in the Feedback Screen. 237 Users Guide to the Practice Program

239 You will see a Theory page like this Main structure of the Theory Module 7 Browse through pages 2 Chapter titles 8 Search for a speci¼c item 3 Section titles 9 Help 4 Get overview of pages visited 10 Close Theory Module 5 Go back to last page visited 11 Click on underlined word for more 6 Browse through pages detail 238 Users Guide to the Practice Program

240 Keeping track of your scores You can keep track of your scores while working on an exercise or by looking at the Chapter Menu. At the bottom of the Exercise Screen you will see the Score Screen. The top bar shows how many points you can earn with a question or exercise. Remember that if your ¼rst answer is incorrect, you can still earn points with a correct second try! The second bar shows the current score in the unit of exercises you are working on. The bottom bar shows how many questions you have already answered. The number at the bottom right shows how many questions there are in the set you are working on. To get a pass you must score at least 80% on each sub-topic in a set. If you score below 80% on any of the sub-topics, a new set of questions will appear, focusing only on those topics you have not mastered yet. Note that your overall score may be over 80% even if you have not received 80% on each separate topic. If your score is still below 80% on the second try, another adapted set will be presented. If you still score below 80% after about four runs of new exercises, the exercises are recycled, focusing again on your problem area(s) only. Remember that the Practice Program saves your results, so you can quit at any time and when you open it again, you can start from where you left o. You can also keep track of your scores by looking at the Menu Screen (see page 234) by looking at the icons on the left of the Chapter Bar: you have not done any exercises in this unit, 239 Users Guide to the Practice Program

241 you have not completed all exercises in this unit, you have done all the exercises, but your score on some topics is below 80%, and you have successfully completed all exercises in this unit. For more detailed information about your progress in a chapter, click on one of these icons and a screen with Set information will pop up (see Help menu for more detail). The small rectangle with colored bars on the right side of the Chapter Bar is another score indicator. A green top bar indicates that your score on any of the topics is 80% or higher; a yellow bar indicates your overall score is 80% or higher, but your score on at least one of the topics is below 80%, and a red bar indicates your overall score is below 80%. The lower blue bar indicates the percentage of the exercises in this unit you have done. Reporting to your tutor On paper To report your progress and scores, you can print out the Chapter Menu by clicking the Printer button at the bottom right of the Chapter Menu (see page 234). Your name will occur at the bottom right hand of the paper. On disk Open the Windows Explorer (Windows 95\98\NT) or File Manager (Windows 3.x). Open the folder C:\Hologram\Modules\Results. (If you have installed the Practice Program in a di erent folder, browse to this folder and open the subfolder \Modules\Results.) 240 Users Guide to the Practice Program

242 In this folder you will ¼nd the following nine ¼les: AVERAGE.DB and AVERAGE.PX SETS.DB, SETS.MB and SETS.PX ESA.DB, ESA.PX, ESA.XG0 and ESA.YG0 Copy all and only these ¼les on disk. Check the disk for viruses before handing it to your tutor. The ¼les should ¼t on one 1.44 Mb disk. If not, compress the ¼les by using a compression program like WinZip. By Copy the ¼les as above and compress them with WinZip or another compressions program. (It is easier to attach one compressed ¼le instead of the 9 separate ¼les.) Attach the compressed ¼le to the message and send it to your tutor. For new information and FAQs go to Users Guide to the Practice Program

243 Index -ed form 50 -ing form 50, 91, 156, 159 A a few 99 a great deal of 99 a great many 99 a lot of 99 abstract nouns 89 active sentence 57 active voice 57 actor 72 adjective 77, 183 adjective clause subordinator 105 adjective clauses 39, 152 adjective phrase 119, 120, 137, 183 adjectives 92 adverb 92, 94 adverb clause subordinator 106 adverb clauses 152 adverb in multi-word verb 81 adverb phrase 119, 139 adverbial 22, 30, 162 adverbials 46 agent 72 appear 25 articles 100, 114 assume 27 attribute 19, 22 aux 136 auxiliary verb 48 B base form 51 basic verb forms 51 be 25, 54, 60, 62 become 25 being pattern 25 believe 75 benefactive object 26 C call 27 can 55, 62 cardinal numerals 99 central modals 56 certify 27 classifying genitive 123 clause 34, 151 cleft constructions 177 closed word class 88 come 62 common nouns 89 communicative function 18 comparative form 92 complement 23 complement of preposition 141 complex sentence 37, 181 complex transitive verb 27, 73, 172 complex transitive verbs 67 complex verb phrase 47 compound object 101 compound sentence 36, 101, 181 compound subject 101 compound-complex sentence 42, 181 concerning 141 concrete nouns 89 conjunction 101 conjunctive adverb 37, 93, 102, 117 connectors 101, 115 consider 27 constituent 23, 46 construction 171 conventionalized passive construction 77, Index

244 coordinate conjunctions 36, 101 coordinator 36, 101, 180 copula verbs 25, 65 correlative conjunctions 36, 101 could 55, 62 count nouns 89 crown 27 D dare 56, 62 declarative 17 declare 27 deem 27 demonstrative pronouns 97 dependent clause 35, 37, 152, 170 dependent pronoun 95 determiners 95, 100, 120, 122, 182 direct object 22 direct quotation 155 direct quotation as direct object 155 discontinuous modi¼er of adjectives 137 discontinuous modi¼er of adverb 139 ditransitive verbs 26, 67, 73, 172 do 57, 60, 62 doing/seeing pattern 26 drive 27 E each other 98 elect 27 ellipsis 174 ellipsis in relative clauses 133 exclamatory 17 existential constructions 176 extraposed constructions 161, 173 extraposed object 161 extraposed subject 161 extraposition 161 F feel 25, 158 ¼nite adverb clause 162 ¼nite clause 69 ¼nite dependent clause 170 ¼nite noun clause 154 ¼nite verb 49, 151, 180, 189 ¼nite verb forms 49 force 71 function 21, 46, 87, 118 functions of phrases 143 G get 62 giving/buying pattern 26 go 62 grammatical form 18 grow 25 H have 54, 60, 62, 158 head 118, 182 hear 158 help 158 helping verbs 48 how(ever) 155 I idiomatic noun preposition verbs 81 imperative 17 inde¼nite pronouns 98 independent clause 35, 151 independent pronoun 95 indirect object 22, 26 indirect quotation 155 indirect quotation as direct object 155 interjections 112 interrogative 17 interrogative adverb 93 interrogative pronoun 97, 155 intransitive verb 24, 65 irregular verb 51 it s/its 96 K keep on 62 L let 158 lexical verb 48, 64 look 25 M main clause 35, 151, 170 main verb 48 make 25, 27, 28, 158 making/considering pattern 27 many a 99 marginal modal 56 mass nouns 89 may 55, Index

245 might 55, 62 modal auxiliary 55 modals 55 modify 92 monotransitive verbs 26, 67 multi-word verbs 80 multi-word prepositions 109 must 55, 62 N name 27 need 56, 62 non-canonical constructions 171 non-¼nite clauses 74, 91, 156 non-restrictive post-modi¼ers 126 non-count nouns 89 non-¼nite adverb clause 163 non-¼nite clause 69, 153 non-¼nite dependent clause 170 non-¼nite noun clause 156 non-¼nite verb 50 notice 158 noun clause 152, 154 noun clause subordinator 104 noun phrase 119 nouns 88 number 50 numeral 98, 99, 114 O object attribute 46 objects 46 observe 158 one another 98 open word class 88, 113 order 71 ordering of auxiliary verbs 58 ordinal numerals 99 ought to 56, 62 P parallel structures 102 participants 19 passive auxiliary 72 passive be 57, 59 passive constructions 72, 172 passive sentence 57, 172 passive voice 57 past participle 50, 77 past tense 50 patient 72 perfect have 54, 59 person 50 personal pronouns 96 phrasal prepositional verbs 81 phrasal verbs 81 phrase 44, 70, 86, 118, 152, 170 phrase constituents 119 plain in¼nitive 50, 158 possessive pronouns 96 post-modi¼ers of nouns 120, 125, 184 post-modi¼er 184 predicate 23 predicator 22, 23 premodi¼er 183 premodi¼ers of nouns 120, 183 preposition in multi-word verb 81 prepositional phrase 119, 141 prepositional verbs 81 prepositions 109 present participle 50 present tense 50 process 19 progressive be 54, 59 pronoun 95, 114 proper nouns 89 prototypical sentence patterns 24 prove 25, 27 pseudo-cleft construction 178 punctuating compound structures 165 punctuating dependent structures 166 punctuating sentence/clause constituents 166 punctuation of post-modi¼ers 167 Q quanti¼ers 98 R realization 46, 87 realizations 118 reciprocal pronouns 98 re½exive pronouns 98 regard 27 regular verb 51 relative adverb 93, 105 relative clause subordinator 105 relative clauses 39, 105, 152 relative pronouns 96, 105, 129 remain Index

246 restrictive post-modi¼ers 126 running pattern 24 S see 75, 158 seem 25 semi-colon 37 semi-modals 56, 76 sentence 33, 34, 151, 170 sentence adverbs 93 sentence constituents 31 setting 19, 20 shall 55, 62 should 55, 62 simple sentence 35, 181 simple verb phrase 47 smell 25 so 99 sound 25 specifying genitive 123, 182 specifying modi¼er 126 start 62 statement 155 subject 22, 46 subject attribute 25, 46 subjunctive may, might etc. 55 subjunctive mood 55 subordinate clause 35 subordinating conjunction 105, 106 subordinators 36, 97, 104, 152, 180 supposed to 75 T taste 25 tell 71 temporary object 161, 174 temporary subject 161 tensed verb 49 that 96, 152, 154 there 176, 177 to be 75 to be able to 56, 62 to be allowed to 56, 62, 75 to be believed to 62 to be forced to 62 to have to 56, 62 to in¼nitive 50, 156, 158 to seem to 62 to want to 56, 62 transitive verb 65, 172 transitive verbs and passive sentences 72 turn 25 U used to 56, 62 V varieties 16 verb phrase 46, 119 verb phrases 135 verbs 91 W what(ever) 155 when(ever) 155 where(ever) 155 which 96 which clause as adverbial 162 which(ever) 155 who 96 who(ever) 155 whom 96 whose 96, 130 wh-question 155 will 55, 62 wipe 27 word class 86, 113 word order 30 would 55, 62 Y yes/no question Index