Parts of Speech. We stopped to rest in the shadow of an enormous rock. (noun) The baby will usually stop fussing if you rock her.

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1 Parts of Speech The words that make up sentences can be classified into nine grammatical categories or word classes. The function of a word in a sentence determines what part of speech it is. The word rock, for example, can belong to any one of three categories, depending on its context. We stopped to rest in the shadow of an enormous rock. (noun) The baby will usually stop fussing if you rock her. (verb) I used to listen only to rock music, but now I prefer rap. (adjective) Here s another example, illustrating three functions of the word since. We have not seen Lucy since Saturday. (preposition) We haven t seen Lucy since she left. (subordinate conjunction) We haven t seen Lucy since. (adverb) 1. NOUNS A noun is a word that names a person, place, object, quality, or concept. A. Common nouns are general names for persons, places, and objects: e.g., artist, politician; city, suburb; train, computer.

2 Concrete nouns name things that can be seen and touched: telephone, sister, puppy. Abstract nouns name thoughts, emotions, qualities, or values things that cannot be seen or touched: e.g., ambition, success, honesty. B. Proper nouns name specific persons, places, and things and are capitalized: Queen Elizabeth, Homer Simpson, Bugs Bunny, CN Tower, Calgary, General Motors. C. Collective nouns name groups of people or things that act as a single unit: jury, class, committee, herd. 2. VERBS A. A verb is a word or phrase that tells what the subject of the clause is or does. Action verbs tell what the subject does: The driver braked suddenly. Linking (or copula) verbs connect the subject to a word or phrase identifying or describing the subject of a sentence: The driver was my older brother. He felt sleepy. B. All verbs have different forms (called tenses) to indicate past, present, or future time. Our team played badly last night. (action verb in past tense) Mario thinks that we will win tonight. (present tense, future tense) I am not so confident. (linking verb in present tense) C. Auxiliary (or helping) verbs are used with a main verb to show tense or voice. The auxiliary verbs are be, have, do, may, can, ought, must, shall, will, and their various forms.

3 By November, we will have spent six months in Canada. (future perfect tense) D. The way verbs interact with their subjects is shown through a quality called voice. Active voice and passive voice verbs give different messages to the reader. Active voice verbs show the subject doing or acting: A woman in a BMW took my parking place. The tornado destroyed everything in its path. Passive voice verbs show the subject being acted upon: My parking place was taken by a woman in a BMW. Our home was destroyed by the tornado. 3. PRONOUNS Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns. They can act as subjects or objects. There are seven classes of pronouns: 1. Personal Pronouns Singular Plural (Subject/Object) (Subject/Object) 1st person I/me we/us 2nd person you/you you/you 3rd person he, she, it/him, her, it they/them We would like you to come with us, but they can fit only four people into the car.

4 2. Possessive Pronouns Singular Plural 1st person mine ours 2nd person yours yours 3rd person his, hers, its theirs The wonton soup is yours, the chicken wings are hers, the spareribs are mine, and the spring rolls are ours to share. 3. Indefinite Pronouns Singular Plural any, anyone, anybody, anything some, all, many everyone, everybody, everything some, all, many someone, somebody, something some people, some things no one, nobody, nothing, none (pl.) none (sing.) one several each both either, neither few, several, many Is no one curious about anything someone is doing for the good of us all? 4. Demonstrative Pronouns Singular Plural this these that those This paper is mine; these papers are yours. That is my magazine; I ve read those, so you can have them if you wish. 5. Relative Pronouns Singular and Plural (Subject/Object) who/whom; whoever/whomever; which/whichever; what/whatever; that; whose The Order of Canada, which was created in 1967, is awarded each year to Canadians who have distinguished themselves in the arts and sciences, politics, or community service, and whose contributions in whatever field are deemed worthy of national honour.

5 6. Interrogative Pronouns Singular and Plural (Subject/Object) who?/whom? which? what?/which? what? Jan is the leader on whom the team depended. Who could take her place? What can the team do now? 7. Reflexive/Emphatic Pronouns Singular Plural 1st person myself ourselves 2nd person yourself yourselves 3rd person himself, herself, itself themselves We had planned to go by ourselves, but since Sharon invited herself along, Leo and Jon should have included themselves on the outing, too. 4. ADJECTIVES An adjective is a word that modifies or describes a noun or pronoun. Adjectives usually answer one of these questions: What kind? Which? How many? what kind? which? how many? The exhausted young mother carried her two screaming babies. Pay special attention to the possessive pronoun adjectives: my, our; your; his, her, their. These words follow the same rules for agreement that govern the possessive pronouns listed above. Most adjectives have three forms: Positive (Base) Form: short, brief, concise Comparative Form: Add -er to one-syllable words: shorter, briefer Use more + base form for adjectives of two or more syllables: more concise

6 Superlative Form: Add -est to one-syllable words: shortest, briefest Use most + base form for adjectives of two or more syllables: most concise A few adjectives such as bad have irregular comparatives (worse) and superlatives (worst). Your dictionary will list these irregular forms. 5. ADVERBS An adverb is a word that modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs commonly answer the questions When? Where? How? Adverbs often but not always end in -ly. Rocco foolishly challenged the police officer. (adverb modifies verb) The baby is an extremely fussy eater. (adverb modifies adjective) My elderly father drives very slowly. (adverb modifies another adverb; adverb phrase modifies verb) 6. PREPOSITIONS A preposition is a word (or words) such as in, on, among, to, for, according to, instead of that introduces a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase = preposition + object of the preposition (a noun or pronoun).

7 Prepositional phrases can function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. Celeste is an old friend of mine from Paris. (prepositional phrases as adjectives modifying noun friend) I ll wait until seven o clock. (prepositional phrase as adverb modifying verb wait) We all hope for a better world. (prepositional phrase as noun object of verb hope) 7. CONJUNCTIONS Conjunctions are connecting words used to join two words, two phrases, or two clauses. Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, for, so, nor, yet) join grammatically equal elements in a sentence (e.g., the two parts of a compound subject; two independent clauses). Moreen and Gina are coming, but Tessa is not. Subordinating conjunctions are dependent clause cues: because, although, when, since, etc. They link dependent (or subordinate) clauses to independent clauses. Tom must go home early because he promised to cook dinner. Conjunctive adverbs are transitional expressions (e.g., however, therefore, nevertheless, in fact) usually used after a semicolon to join two independent clauses. I would like to go to the club tonight; however, I have no money. Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions used in pairs: e.g., both... and, not only... but (also), either... or, neither... nor. These constructions are intensifiers. They make the meaning of a statement more emphatic by focusing the reader s attention on each element separately.

8 For example, Helen is beautiful and intelligent. (coordinating conjunction = statement) Helen is both beautiful and intelligent. (correlative conjunctions = emphatic statement) Luca invited all his friends to the party and gave everyone a gift. (coordinating conjunction = statement) Not only did Luca invite all his friends to the party, but (also) he gave everyone a gift. (correlative conjunctions = emphatic statement) 8. ARTICLES An article precedes the noun it modifies. The definite article, the, may be used with a singular or a plural noun; it denotes a particular person or thing. The indefinite article, a/an, is generally used with a singular, countable noun, and signals an unspecified one of a number of others. (Use an before vowel sounds, not just vowels: e.g., an apple, an honest person.) The student sitting next to you is asleep. (a particular student) A student in the back row is snoring. (one of a number of students) A number of factors determine the use or non-use of articles. For a summary of rules governing articles, go to ESL Tips on this Web site. 9. EXPLETIVES Here and There are expletives, which are words used at the beginning of a sentence to postpone the subject until after the verb and thus emphasize it. Here is your mail. ( = Your mail is here.) There are hundreds of copies still available. ( = Hundreds of copies are still available.)