Science, Matter, Energy, and Systems. Chapter 2
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1 Science, Matter, Energy, and Systems Chapter 2
2 Core Case Study: Carrying Out a Controlled Scientific Experiment F. Herbert Bormann, Gene Likens, et al.: Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in NH (U.S.) Compared the loss of water and nutrients from an uncut forest (control site) with one that had been stripped (experimental site)
3 The Effects of Deforestation on the Loss of Water and Soil Nutrients
4 Stepped Art Fig. 2-1, p. 28
5 2-1 What Is Science? Concept 2-1 Scientists collect data and develop theories, models, and laws about how nature works.
6 Science Is a Search for Order in Nature (1) Identify a problem Find out what is known about the problem Ask a question to be investigated Gather data Hypothesize Make testable predictions Keep testing and making observations Accept or reject the hypothesis
7 Science Is a Search for Order in Nature (2) Important features of the scientific process Curiosity Skepticism Peer review Reproducibility Openness to new ideas
8 The Scientific Process
9 Identify a problem Find out what is known about the problem (literature search) Ask a question to be investigated Perform an experiment to answer the question and collect data Analyze data (check for patterns) Scientific law Well-accepted pattern in data Propose an hypothesis to explain data Use hypothesis to make testable predictions Perform an experiment to test predictions Accept hypothesis Revise hypothesis Make testable predictions Scientific theory Well-tested and widely accepted hypothesis Test predictions Fig. 2-2, p. 30
10 Science Focus: Easter Island: Revisions to a Popular Environmental Story Some revisions in a popular environmental story Polynesians arrived about 800 years ago Population may have reached 3000 Used trees in an unsustainable manner, but rats may have multiplied and eaten the seeds of the trees
11 Scientists Use Reasoning, Imagination, and Creativity to Learn How Nature Works Important scientific tools Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning Scientists also use Intuition Imagination Creativity
12 Scientific Theories and Laws Are the Most Important Results of Science Scientific theory Widely tested Supported by extensive evidence Accepted by most scientists in a particular area Scientific law, law of nature Paradigm shift
13 Science Focus: The Scientific Consensus over Global Warming How much has the earth s atmosphere warmed during the last 50 years? How much of this warming is due to human activity? How much is the atmosphere likely to warm in the future? Will this affect climate? 1988: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
14 The Results of Science Can Be Tentative, Reliable, or Unreliable Tentative science, frontier science Reliable science Unreliable science
15 Environmental Science Has Some Limitations Particular hypotheses, theories, or laws have a high probability of being true while not being absolute Bias can be minimized by scientists Statistical methods may be used to estimate very large or very small numbers Environmental phenomena involve interacting variables and complex interactions Scientific process is limited to the natural world
16 Science Focus: Statistics and Probability Statistics Collect, organize, and interpret numerical data Probability The chance that something will happen or be valid
17 Animation: ph scale
18 Video: ABC News: Easter Island
19 2-2 What Is Matter? Concept 2-2 Matter consists of elements and compounds, which are in turn made up of atoms, ions, or molecules.
20 Matter Consists of Elements and Compounds Matter Has mass and takes up space Elements Unique properties Cannot be broken down chemically into other substances Compounds Two or more different elements bonded together in fixed proportions
21 Elements Important to the Study of Environmental Science
22 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Are the Building Blocks of Matter (1) Atomic theory Subatomic particles Protons (p) with positive charge and neutrons (0) with no charge in nucleus Negatively charged electrons (e) orbit the nucleus Mass number Protons plus neutrons Isotopes
23 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Are the Building Blocks of Matter (2) Ions Gain or lose electrons Form ionic compounds ph Measure of acidity H + and OH -
24 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Are the Building Blocks of Matter (3) Molecule Two or more atoms of the same or different elements held together by chemical bonds Chemical formula
25 Model of a Carbon-12 Atom
26 6 protons 6 neutrons 6 electrons Fig. 2-3, p. 36
27 Ions Important to the Study of Environmental Science
28 Loss of NO 3 from a Deforested Watershed
29 60 Nitrate (NO 3 ) concentration (milligrams per liter) Undisturbed (control) watershed Disturbed (experimental) watershed Year Fig. 2-4, p. 37
30 Compounds Important to the Study of Environmental Science
31 Organic Compounds Are the Chemicals of Life Inorganic compounds Organic compounds Hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons Simple carbohydrates Macromolecules: complex organic molecules Complex carbohydrates Proteins Nucleic acids Lipids
32 Matter Comes to Life through Genes, Chromosomes, and Cells Cells: fundamental units of life Genes: sequences of nucleotides within the DNA Chromosomes: composed of many genes
33 Cells, Nuclei, Chromosomes, DNA, and Genes
34 A human body contains trillions of cells, each with an identical set of genes. Each human cell (except for red blood cells) contains a nucleus. Each cell nucleus has an identical set of chromosomes, which are found in pairs. A specific pair of chromosomes contains one chromosome from each parent. Each chromosome contains a long DNA molecule in the form of a coiled double helix. Genes are segments of DNA on chromosomes that contain instructions to make proteins the building blocks of life. Fig. 2-5, p. 38
35 A human body contains trillions of cells, each with an identical set of genes. Each human cell (except for red blood cells) contains a nucleus. Each cell nucleus has an identical set of chromosomes, which are found in pairs. A specific pair of chromosomes contains one chromosome from each parent. Each chromosome contains a long DNA molecule in the form of a coiled double helix. Genes are segments of DNA on chromosomes that contain instructions to make proteins the building blocks of life. Stepped Art Fig. 2-5, p. 38
36 Matter Occurs in Various Physical Forms Solid Liquid Gas
37 Some Forms of Matter Are More Useful than Others High-quality matter Low-quality matter
38 Examples of Differences in Matter Quality
39 High Quality Low Quality Solid Gas Salt Solution of salt in water Coal Coal-fired power plant emissions Gasoline Automobile emissions Aluminum can Aluminum ore Fig. 2-6, p. 39
40 Animation: Subatomic particles
41 Animation: Carbon bonds
42 Animation: Ionic bonds
43 Animation: Atomic number, mass number
44 2-3 How Can Matter Change? Concept 2-3 When matter undergoes a physical or chemical change, no atoms are created or destroyed (the law of conservation of matter).
45 Matter Undergoes Physical, Chemical, and Nuclear Changes Physical change Chemical change, chemical reaction Nuclear change Natural radioactive decay Radioisotopes: unstable Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
46 Types of Nuclear Changes
47 Fig. 2-7a, p. 41
48 Radioactive decay Radioactive isotope Alpha particle (helium-4 nucleus) Gamma rays Beta particle (electron) Fig. 2-7a, p. 41
49 Fig. 2-7b, p. 41
50 Nuclear fission Uranium-235 Fission fragment n Energy n Neutron Uranium-235 Energy n n Energy n n Fission fragment Energy Fig. 2-7b, p. 41
51 Fig. 2-7c, p. 41
52 Nuclear fusion Fuel Proton Neutron Reaction conditions Products Helium-4 nucleus Hydrogen-2 (deuterium nucleus) 100 million C Energy Hydrogen-3 (tritium nucleus) Neutron Fig. 2-7c, p. 41
53 Radioactive decay Radioactive isotope Alpha particle (helium-4 nucleus) Gamma rays Beta particle (electron) Nuclear fission Uranium-235 Nuclear fusion Fuel Proton Neutron Hydrogen-2 (deuterium nucleus) Reaction conditions 100 million C Products Helium-4 nucleus Energy Neutron Uranium-235 Fission fragment n Energy n Fission fragment n Energy Energy n n Energy n Hydrogen-3 (tritium nucleus) Neutron Stepped Art Fig. 2-7, p. 41
54 We Cannot Create or Destroy Matter Law of conservation of matter Matter consumption Matter is converted from one form to another
55 Animation: Total energy remains constant
56 Animation: Half-life
57 Animation: Isotopes
58 Animation: Positron-emission tomography (PET)
59 Video: Nuclear energy
60 2-4 What is Energy and How Can It Be Changed? Concept 2-4A When energy is converted from one form to another in a physical or chemical change, no energy is created or destroyed (first law of thermodynamics). Concept 2-4B Whenever energy is changed from one form to another, we end up with lowerquality or less usable energy than we started with (second law of thermodynamics).
61 Energy Comes in Many Forms Kinetic energy Heat Transferred by radiation, conduction, or convection Electromagnetic radiation Potential energy Stored energy Can be changed into kinetic energy
62 The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation
63 15 Energy emitted from sun (kcal/cm 2 /min) Ultraviolet Visible Infrared Wavelength (micrometers) Fig. 2-8, p. 42
64 The Second Law of Thermodynamics in Living Systems
65 Solar energy Chemical energy (photosynthesis) Chemical energy (food) Mechanical energy (moving, thinking, living) Waste heat Waste heat Waste heat Waste heat Fig. 2-9, p. 43
66 Some Types of Energy Are More Useful Than Others High-quality energy Low-quality energy
67 Energy Changes Are Governed by Two Scientific Laws First Law of Thermodynamics Energy input always equals energy output Second Law of Thermodynamics Energy always goes from a more useful to a less useful form when it changes from one form to another Energy efficiency or productivity
68 Active Figure: Energy flow
69 Active Figure: Visible light
70 Animation: Martian doing mechanical work
71 2-5 What Are Systems and How Do They Respond to Change? Concept 2-5A Systems have inputs, flows, and outputs of matter and energy, and their behavior can be affected by feedback. Concept 2-5B Life, human systems, and the earth s life support systems must conform to the law of conservation of matter and the two laws of thermodynamics.
72 Systems Have Inputs, Flows, and Outputs System Inputs from the environment Flows, throughputs Outputs
73 Inputs, Throughput, and Outputs of an Economic System
74 Energy Inputs Throughputs Outputs Energy resources Heat Matter resources Economy Waste and pollution Information Goods and services Fig. 2-10, p. 44
75 Systems Respond to Change through Feedback Loops Positive feedback loop Negative, or corrective, feedback loop
76 Positive Feedback Loop
77 Decreasing vegetation......which causes more vegetation to die....leads to erosion and nutrient loss... Fig. 2-11, p. 45
78 Negative Feedback Loop
79 House warms Temperature reaches desired setting and furnace goes off Furnace on House cools Temperature drops below desired setting and furnace goes on Fig. 2-12, p. 45
80 Time Delays Can Allow a System to Reach a Tipping Point Time delays vary Between the input of a feedback stimulus and the response to it Tipping point, threshold level Causes a shift in the behavior of a system
81 System Effects Can Be Amplified through Synergy Synergistic interaction, synergy Helpful Harmful E.g., Smoking and inhaling asbestos particles
82 Human Activities Can Have Unintended Harmful Results Deforested areas turning to desert Coral reefs dying Glaciers melting Sea levels rising
83 Animation: Economic types
84 Animation: Feedback control of temperature
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