What is the human nature in Buddhism?

Transcription

1 What is the human nature in Buddhism? 45)Kim, Jong-Wook * 차 례 Ⅰ. Opening : Human Nature Ⅶ. Pure Mind in its Own Nature Ⅱ. Rationality and Animality (自性淸淨心) and the Emptiness(空性) Ⅲ. Mind and Life Ⅷ. Ālaya-vijñāna (阿賴耶識) Ⅳ. Rebirth and Deliverance Ⅸ. Tathāgata-garbha (如來藏) Ⅴ. Realization of Awakening from Ⅹ. Buddha Nature (佛性) Ignorance (轉迷開悟) Ⅺ. Closing: Buddha Nature (佛性) as Ⅵ. Contamination (染) and Purity (淨) the Emptiness (空性) Summary In Buddhism, humans exist not between the relationship of two subjects of the creator and the created, or the heaven and the earth, but they exist between the world of ignorance and the world of awakening solely based on their mindset. It is noteworthy that this existence is not in the form of mere "floating", but in progression of distinctive direction: "realization of awakening from ignorance"(轉迷開悟). The fact that the humans live in a two-tiered complex world of ignorance and awakening and the move from one state to another merely requires the change in the mindset reflects that the study of humans in Buddhism begin with the exploration of mind in the setting of non-essential reality and essential possibility or that of contamination and purity. This scrutiny of humans in the setting of contamination and purity stands in contrast to the view of humans in the setting of rationality and animality, good and evil, and stillness (靜) and motion (動) in the West, Confucianism, and Taoism, respectively. The Buddhist view of * Professor, Department of Buddhist Studies in Dongguk University

2 2 佛敎學報 第 48 輯 humans can be summarized as "mind by nature is pure, and it is not a subject that can be soiled"(心性本淨 客塵所染). Prajñāparamita-sutra and Madhyamika argue that the basis for the belief "mind by nature is pure, and it is not a subject that can be soiled" lies on the emptiness, but they do not go in-depth to explain what happens inside the mind itself. Yogacara attempts to gain a comprehensive understanding of the setting of purity and contamination expressed in the above belief through the notion of ālaya-vijñāna (阿賴耶識). Yogacara attempts to compile the two-tiered complexity of ignorance and awakening and contamination and purity embedded in everyday human life and the possibility of realization of awakening from ignorance, which is also expressed as "the acquisition of truth through the transformation of consciousness" (轉識得智) in Yogacara, by the way of ālaya-vijñāna and the three-nature theory. Nevertheless, it puts more emphasis on the notion "the mind is not a subject that can be soiled" that explains the mindset of an ordinary person rather than on the part "the mind by nature is pure." tathāgata-garbha thought belief seeks the integration of the two parts by developing on the notion "the mind by nature is pure." Tathāgata-garbha implies the two-tiered complexity of ignorance and awakening as reflected on the statement "mind by nature is pure, and it is not a subject that can be soiled," and Buddha nature shows that its theoretical foundation lies on the emptiness; both concepts of tathāgata-garbha and Buddha nature point to the possibility of deliverance for sattva. Buddha nature is more than a simple translated term, but it embeds the interaction between the Buddhist philosophy and the traditional Chinese philosophy. Hypostatization of Buddha nature has reaffirmed that Buddha nature can be found in one's mind as human nature to the follower of Buddhism in China. Furthermore, noumenaliation of Buddha nature stirred the realization of the fact that mentalized Buddha nature is no different from the emptiness in true nature as the essential principle of all virtues. It clearly follows that the human nature is Buddha nature, and more specifically "Buddha nature as the emptiness" in Buddhism. Buddha nature as the emptiness can overcome the limitations of humanism to result in the theory of human nature that brings together the nature and humans in harmony. Buddha nature and Dharma nature are both the emptiness, and it follows that nature of humans and the other parts of the world meet in the commonality of the emptiness. Key Words nature as essence, nature as instinct, ālaya-vijñāna, tathāgata-garbha, Buddha nature as the emptiness

3 What is the human nature in Buddhism? 3 Ⅰ. Opening : Human Nature Before exploring the Buddhist view on human nature, one needs to understand what human nature is. Human nature refers to the "natural state of humans," in other words the natural characteristics of humans, more explicitly how humans are as a part of the nature. Nevertheless, whether these characteristics are interpreted as something "fundamental" or something that humans are "born with" gives the phrase "human nature" hugely different meanings. In the former, the natural characteristics become the "essence," and in the latter, they become the "instinct." Both the Greek origin ousia and Latin origin essentia of the word "essence" are the participle form noun of a verb "to be" as in "being as having been." It refers not only to the "being of the present" but also to the "being of continuous nature." In that the essence remains the same so long as an object exists, the word "essence" implies the perpetual invariability. Because it is something that remains the same to allow the "being," essence is 'the fundamental property'(基體性, hypokeimenon). It carries a primary and exclusive nature to set apart an object from others. This nature is necessary for an object to answer to its purpose, and it further extends to the fact that essence carries the nature of a rightful ideal. Essence of humans means "goodness" (arête) when referring to the commendable state of a person, and it means "humanity"(anthropinon, humanitas) when referring to the characteristics unique to humans. Furthermore, in that essence if an invariable fundamental property and such an immutable universal can be appreciated only through rational thinking, essence of humans becomes something rational and spiritual. Consequently, it is not an overstatement to say there underlies a belief that human nature is rationality and spirituality in the interpretation of human nature as the essence of humans, which has been in the mainstream of the Western philosophy throughout the history. "Instinct" is an inclination that something is born with from the most natural state. As one can deduce from the origin in (upward) + stinguere (to prick) = provocation word "instinct" more specifically refers to the innate "impulse." the This impulsive inclination is closely related with the basic desires for an individual's and specie's survival, and that is why instinct is oftentimes considered as a physical inclination. It led the people who look at the body as an obstacle to spiritual freedom with consideration

4 4 佛敎學報 第 48 輯 of human nature only in the spiritual essence plane to suppress human instinct to an extreme degree. However, the modern biology finds that instinct is a specie-level behavioral pattern that emerged in the process of evolution in the form of genetics; it is not something that can be suppressed but instead it is something that should be acknowledged. Something that can be found only in humans but not in other animals is the human nature as "essence" ; similarly, something that can be found in both humans and other animals but found more prevalently in humans is the human nature as "instinct." From this view, the difference between humans and other animals is more quantitative rather than qualitative. In short, whether one interprets human nature as the essence or the instinct can stir much dispute. Ⅱ. Rationality and Animality In Greek philosophy, humans are born with the unavoidable destiny to die, just like animals, in the natural structure made of gods, humans, and animals. Unlike humans as 'mortal beings'(thnetos), gods are 'immortal beings'(athanatoi); humans in transcendent urge (eros1)) to overcome the mortal state into the immortal state have constantly suppressed mortal animality and developed immortal divinity within themselves. Greek view of humans primarily aimed to find the divine elements from themselves and make themselves equal to gods. Humans' unavoidable destiny to death make them yearn for immortality, and for that end, humans had to find an element of immortal divinity(theion) within themselves to break away from being mere mortal animals. And this element of divinity was the rationality and spirituality that acknowledges the immutable universe. The rationality and spirituality are something additionally bestowed (epiktesis) upon humans to set them apart from other animals; they are the unique "human condition"(anthropinon) and the original and rightful "being"(ousia), thus are "goodness" (arete2)). Moreover, the human 1) Eros is an urge to overcome the present condition of mortality, perishablity, and mutability and become immortal, imperishable, and immutable. Sex, philosophy, and religion fundamentally imbue eros with overcoming the finitude of numbers through reproduction, exploring invariable laws (logos) in variable phenomena, and making spiritual commitment to eternity by denouncing the significance of this life, respectively. 2) Greek philosophy is characterized by the effort to understand goodness (arete) in entirety, and

5 What is the human nature in Buddhism? 5 nature expressed in human condition and goodness is something "good"(agathos) inbred through the spirit. Such an effort to overcome the finitude of humans destined with death further continued in the Medieval Christian philosophy. The human nature was defined by the "resemblance to gods" of immortality. In short, Greeks defined the human nature as rationality(logos) and spirituality(nous), which is the capability that allows one to acknowledge the immutable universe, and Christians defined the human nature as reason(ratio3)) that allows people to understand the God and sin(peccatum) that is the autonomous disobedience to the God. Nevertheless, Copernican transition from geocentricism to heliocentricism changed everything. The earth is no longer the center of the universe, but it is a just one of many planets rotating around the sun; humans have become to perceive themselves as mere beings lost in space without direction and place of comfort.4) Without a well-defined stand of their own within the universe, the world maintained by the divine orders is rid of all significance in relations to the humans' presence, and humans are left with no choice but to return to themselves, the only point of certainty left in their being. Whether it be spiritual (Hegel), material (Marx), or physical (Nietzsche), an emphasis of humans' subjectivity has to inevitably evolve into humanism making humans the center and owner of the world. Moreover, people in modern society do not need to involve gods or God as they did in ancient or medieval times to reach this conclusion. Similarly, they do not need to secure a sense of superiority through a comparison of themselves against mere beasts. Inner world and society alone are sufficiently evident of humans' excellence. The trend of scientific materialism that emerged in the 19th century, however, reduced all things into materialistic causality, and further began to see little difference between animals and humans in their origin. The end outcome of this trend that attempts to explain all humanness as animality is Darwin's evolutionism. The core concept in evolutionism is that of "natural selection." In other words, it says that all animals began universality as going beyond excellence in task. Refer to W. Jaeger s Paideia I(Berlin, 1954), S.30 for more detail. 3) Reason here can also be known as spirituality (animus) or rational spirit (anima rationis), in that humans imitate the divine reason. Refer to F. Copleston s A History of Philosophy II (Seogwansa,1989), pp for more details on rational spirit. 4) Refer to E. Coreth, Was Ist der Mensch? (Jongno Books, 1989), p

6 6 佛敎學報 第 48 輯 from a single-cell organism and that the organism, after a series of continuous and irregular mutation and evolution, resulted in many "beings" of which only those that apt to adapting to the environment survived. In short, the nature has a way of selecting what it remains by the rule of "survival of the fittest." This theory of natural selection can be interpreted from two different views. On one hand, the natural selection theory makes humans the strongest and most advanced being that have survived through the course of evolvement, and this belief can be considered as a biological variation of humanism. Evolvement of the simple to the complex implies progress from the lower-level to the higher level, and this means that the present being is becomes more whole than the past being, and the future being more so than the present. Consequently, the fact that humankind has survived in the nature and in fact ruling over the nature proves that humans are the fittest. Moreover, the fact that the developed Western civilization has ruled over the agricultural civilizations elsewhere also implies that the West is the fittest. The theory of evolution, in return, becomes the source of the sense of superiority in forms of imperialism, racism, and tribalism well beyond humanism. On the other hand, evolution by the way of natural selection can be interpreted that humans originated from beasts to instantly turn the sense of superiority into the sense of inferiority. The notion that humans evolved from other animals implies that humans are nothing but "naked apes." Humans are no longer children of Adam but offspring of apes, and they become closer to animals than to gods. This is the part that threw most of the Europeans of the time off their feet, and the controversy around the beginning of life the dispute whether it is evolution or creation continues to date. The rise of evolution that claims the continuity that exists between animals and humans has driven the discussion about the human nature to a new horizon. Previously, the discussion about the human nature was made in finding the "qualitative" difference between humans and others. That qualitative difference is the "essence" of humans that constitutes the "humanness," which had to be realized and promoted. And the "essence" was found in rationality and spirituality. However, in ethology, it is argued that the difference between humans and other animals is that of "degree" rather than that of "essence;" the difference lies only in qualitative terms regarding certain characteristics. Ethologists are trying to study behaviors known to be unique to humans and show that surprisingly large number of them can be found in other animals.5) 5) Refer to Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors (GoryeoOne Media, 1995), p by C. Sagan and A. Druyan for more discussion around all unique human traits merely differ in degree

7 What is the human nature in Buddhism? 7 For instance, aggression, geocentricism, abilities for exploitation, personal possession and exchange, and use of tools are also found in chimpanzees; patterns of mutual dependence within a group or herd are common among most mammals; and signs of sociality are demonstrated by ants and bees. Furthermore, when the behavioral pattern learned within a group and passed down through generations is considered culture of its kind, it can be said that a group of chimpanzees carry a small-scale culture or custom of its own. An ability to make the distinction between oneself and others is called self-recognition, and orangutans and dolphins that recognize their image reflected on a mirror is an exhibition of self-recognition. Also, the language ability can be reduced to an ability to communicate one's thoughts with the use of language or symbols, which clearly exists in chimpanzees and bonobos. At this point, the question rises on what rationality is. Considering rationality as an ability of abstraction and conceptualization, such an ability is exhibited by chimpanzees that sometimes ask the name of a new object using the sign language to a certain degree. In the end, rationality is the outcome of the continuous use of highly-advanced language, and just another word for the astonishing accomplishments made by complex neurons. Then, the pride that humans took as a "rational animal" becomes nothing more than the pride in the fact that the mammal's ability has become more advanced in humans. Human nature is bound by the scope of animality, and holds its significance only in terms of "instinct," which is a unique biological method of adaptation genetically passed down to one species. What about a cold-blooded murder who argues that he is by all means not responsible because the crime he committed was a mere expression of his animalistic instinct? Ethologist would argue that human nature includes rationality to suppress aggression as well as aggression itself, but it is not easy to explain how one animality (rationality) can control another animality (aggression) and how there is a difference in the degree of rationality even among humans in possession of the same nature. Therefore, it would be a difficult to discuss the autonomy of a behavioral subject and corresponding responsibility within the framework of the biological determinism of its kind. An emphasis on the continuity that exists between animals and humans can break down the sense of superiority among humans and become a clue to the realization of the continuity that exists between humans and the nature; yet the question still remains to if the "animalization" of humans is the only alternative to the human-oriented theory rather than being essence from animals

8 8 佛敎學報 第 48 輯 of its nature. Moreover, whether human nature is defined by the humans' resemblance with gods in search for immortality as in the ancient and medieval times or it is defined by the subjectivity of humans themselves in the yearn to dominate the world of reality in place of gods after letting go of the dream of immortality, if the adaptation of human nature in accordance with the preceding intention is justifiable remains unclear. Buddhist view on human nature might offer the appropriate answer to these questions. Ⅲ. Mind and Life The Chinese Buddhist philosophy was founded under the heavy influence of Taoist and Confucian treatises of human nature; the study of human nature in Chinese Buddhism as a whole can benefit from the brief overview of the theory of human nature within the Chinese philosophy. It would not be an overstatement to say that the Chinese philosophy began from the scrutiny of human nature. At the center of heated discussions among scholars of the Chun Qiu and Zhan Guo periods when the foundation for the Chinese philosophy was laid, there lied the discussion of human nature. During this period of extreme political turmoil following the collapse of the Zhou Dynasty, society needed the rise of strong and virtuous ruler more than anything, and the number one virtue of the ruler was the ability to fully understand the nature of the ruled. Moreover, "Heaven and Men as One" (天人合一) relationship, which is the ultimate basis for the Chinese philosophy, says that divinely bestowed human nature is the element of heaven embedded in humans to bring together the two into one. The underlying trend of various discussions on human nature unfolded throughout the history of the Chinese philosophy is reflected in one word "nature"(性). Nature(性) in Chinese character is the compound letter of "mind"(心) and "life"(生). Life(生) is something that one is born with from the time of birth (與生俱生) by the divine prescription (天之就), in short something that one carries in birth (生而有)6), and naturally, it follows that nature is the characteristics that one carries from its most "natural state," birth. These natural characteristics can be perceived as the physiological characteristics to make life(生) stand for instinct and desire, and it can also be viewed 6) Meng, Peiyuan, translated by Lee, Sang-seon, Chinese Philosophy of Mind Nature (Beopin Culture, 1996), p

9 What is the human nature in Buddhism? 9 as spiritual characteristics to make life(生) stand for basic life form in the nature itself remaining intact without the interference of superficial desires. Both views interpret the human nature with a focus on the commonalities rather than difficulties between humans and nature or animals ; the notion of human nature is approached in the context of all-encompassing nature. Mind(心) is the interpretation of the human nature with a focus on difficulties of humans from other natural objects, and it is founded upon the concept of ethical moral. This is also the basic principles of the traditional Confucian philosophy. Mencius gave more emphasis on mind(心) than on life(生) in his interpretation of nature(性) to argue that the virtue of benevolence and righteousness exist in a person's mind to set humans apart from beasts as the essence making humans human. Neo-Confucians from the Song period went one step further to state nature(性) as the moral essence reflects the principle(理) of the whole universe to link the discussion of human nature with ontology. Therefore, nature(性) as life(生) refers to the physical (形而下者) after the birth (生以後), and nature(性) as principle(理) refers to the metaphysical (形而上者) before the birth (生而前). It is clear that the two-tiered notion of human nature in nature(性) as life(生), "natural state that one is born with" and in nature(性) as mind(心), "making humans human" bears much resemblance to the Western philosophy on human nature as instinct and essence. The human nature in the Chinese philosophy makes the distinction between natural characteristics and ethical morality based on "object-oriented view (物上看) and "principle-oriented view (理上看), and the human nature in the Western philosophy makes the distinction between animality and rationality based on "de facto view" and "de logo view"7) ; one cannot deny the much similarity that the two bear. Ⅳ. Rebirth and Deliverance Now is the time to study the theory of human nature in Buddhism. The basic view of humans in Buddhist philosophy needs to be first discussed to clearly set the direction of this study. In the West, the study of humans is made in a subordinate relationship between the creator and the created and in a superiority relationship among the created. In China, it is made in a relationship of moral union between the heaven and the earth. 7) Refer to Kim, Hyeong-hyo, Philosophy of Mensius and Xun Zi (Samjiwon, 1990), p

10 10 佛敎學報 第 48 輯 Nevertheless, the study of humans takes a completely different route in Buddhism by the course of rebirth and deliverance. Rebirth(輪廻, saṃsāra) is a living being's experience of various sufferings of birth, ageing, illness, and death in different forms based on the gravity of its actions and behaviors, and deliverance(解脫, mokșa) is the freedom one gains from the cycle of rebirth. Humans(人, manușya) in fact are one of the six cycles in rebirth. Manu of manușya means "thought," and humans are "named manușya because they plan and act based on thoughts and observations (以能用意思惟觀察所作事 故名末奴 沙)."8) Furthermore, humans are able to transform such a discrete thought process into the undiscriminating wisdom, and "because they have thoughts, body, language, and pride, which they can fully overcome, they are called humans."9) Humans can remain in rebirth or realize deliverance based on their state of mind ; "six ways of rebirth"(六道 : 地獄, 餓鬼, 畜生, 阿修羅, 人, 天) and "four states of deliverance"(四聖 : 聲聞, 緣覺, 菩薩, 佛) can be summarized into two states of "the world of ignorance"(迷界) and "the world of awakening"(悟界) dependent on a subject's mindset. When all things are considered as fixed substances in the state of "being"(有), the ignorance within the six ways are resulted, and when all are considered under the non-substantial notions of the empty(空), the provisional(假), and the middle(中), the awakening in four states are resulted. The ten worlds under either rebirth or deliverance do not exist separately beyond the mindset of either ignorance or awakening. The saying "everything depends on the mindset"(一切唯心造) is reflective of the fact that the world appears differently based on a person's mindset; yet it is not the voice of abstract conceptualism as is the case in the creation by the will of gods (or God) and the planning by the absolute power of divinity. 8) Refer to Abhidharma-mahā-vibhāṣā-śāstra (阿毗達磨大毘婆沙論) Vol. 172 ; Mochitsuki Encyclopedia of Buddhism Vol. 5, p ) Refer to Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra (大般涅槃經) 18, TT. vol. 12, 469-c

11 What is the human nature in Buddhism? 11 Ⅴ. Realization of Awakening from Ignorance (轉迷開悟) In Buddhism, humans exist not between the relationship of two subjects of the creator and the created, or the heaven and the earth, but they exist between the world of ignorance and the world of awakening solely based on their mindset. It is noteworthy that this existence is not in the form of mere "floating"(浮游), but in progression of distinctive direction: "realization of awakening from ignorance"(轉迷開悟). Buddhist philosophy, in fact, is founded upon the definition of humans in the state of two-tiered complexity in ignorance and awakening and in the possibility of the realization of awakening from ignorance by their mindset. "One suffers when obsessing about one being"(一切皆苦) without knowing that "all things lack the fixed substantial nature"(諸法無我) to "continuously change"(諸行無常), but "the flame of delusion subsides"(涅槃寂靜) upon the realization of the fundamental truth. The study of "the occurrence of suffering"(集) through directly encountering the phenomenon of "suffering"(苦) will able one to learn "the way to eliminate the suffering"(道), and thus far reach "the state of suffering-free life"(滅). These teachings in the common doctrine of different Buddhist sects are both the expression of the relationship between ignorance and awakening. This thought process is particularly well-reflected on the 12 conditions of the interdependence. "Ignorance"(無明) on dharma10) leads one to put forward "the will of earthly life"(行), and "discriminate the all substantial and non-substantial beings"(識, 名 色, 六入, 觸), "feel the pleasure and pain"(受), and "yearn for and obsess over the pleasure"(愛, 取), as one considers such a distinction "eternally fixed"(有) to suffer the vain course of "birth, ageing, illness, and death in life"(生, 老死). Nevertheless, the 12 conditions of the interdependence includes not only the occurrence of the suffering but also the elimination of the suffering. The fact that suffering begins with ignorance implies that the elimination of ignorance ends the 10) There is no concept more complex and important than dharma, in Indian philosophy. It carries some twenty meanings as rules, sentences, customs, standards, order, laws, principles, duties, rights, justice, propriety, morals, good deeds, true facts, truth, doctrines, teachings, nature, essence, elements, objects, incidents, and beings. M. Monier-Williams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Oxford, 1960), p.510 ; N. N. Bhattacharyya, A Glossary of Indian Religious Terms and Concepts (Manohar Publications, 1990), pp This study adopts the dharma s meaning as relationship of anitya and anātman in the Buddhist worldview

12 12 佛敎學報 第 48 輯 suffering. The relationship between ignorance and awakening can be summarized that though humans are in the world of ignorance filled with suffering, the awakening itself will lead them to the world free of such suffering. Ⅵ. Contamination (染) and Purity (淨) Buddha in the world of awakening refers to the one who has realized the truth of dharma, and dharma itself exists regardless of the Buddha's being. This leads to the essence of relationship between ignorance and awakening. All things exist in one universe of which the fundamental nature is dharma; even if one is lost in the world of ignorance without being aware of the dharma as he/she carries an inappropriate mindset, the life in the world of awakening after understanding the dharma is more in line with the true nature of this one universe. Ignorance and reality of this world of ignorance are in fact deviated from the natural state of being, after being "contaminated by the earthly agony"(染汚, kilissana), and awakening and the possibility of entering the world of awakening is the natural state of being, "pure and free of the earthly agony"(淸淨, pabhassara, suddhi). The fact that the humans live in a two-tiered complex world of ignorance and awakening and the move from one state to another merely requires the change in the mindset reflects that the study of humans in Buddhism begin with the exploration of mind in the setting of non-essential reality and essential possibility or that of contamination and purity. This scrutiny of humans in the setting of contamination and purity stands in contrast to the view of humans in the setting of rationality and animality, good and evil, and stillness (靜) and motion (動) in the West, Confucianism, and Taoism, respectively. The Buddhist view of humans can be summarized as "mind by nature is pure, and it is not a subject that can be soiled"(心性本淨 客塵所染). This traditional belief in Buddhism is further explicitly stated in Anguttara Nikaya as the following; "All you bhikkhu, your mind shines brightly. It is soiled by a temporary agony of this world."11) The word "āgantuka" translated into "temporary" in this text means "leaving after a short stay like a guest(客)," and it can be even thought of as dust(塵) that shortly lands on the face of a mirror, to make it like a "dust-like guest"(客 11) Refer to Anguttara Nikāya, Ⅰ-6; The Book of the Gradual Sayings translated by F. L. Woodward (Pali Text Society, 1979), p

13 What is the human nature in Buddhism? 13 塵). If the contamination is such a temporary phenomenon, the true nature of one's being must be pure, shining brightly. Although the "true nature of mind"(cittā-prakṛti) is not explicitly worded, Buddhism asserts that the "mind by nature is pure." The earthly agony can be made a guest only when the mind is the owner, and by putting the mind at the center, "the mind becomes the basis for all things, and it becomes the owner and the ruler"(心爲法本 心尊心使).12) Therefore, "when the mind is contaminated, sattva is soiled, and when the mind is purified, sattva is also purified"(心惱故衆生惱 心淨故衆生 淨).13) The statement, "mind by nature is pure, and it is not a subject that can be soiled" can be explained by using an analogy of cloud and moonlight. Cloud (earthly agony) may block the moonlight temporarily, yet when the cloud drifts away, the moon (mind) shines brightly as it did before. As a matter of fact, the moon shines its light equally brightly before and after it is blocked by the cloud. It follows that the mind itself is "immutable"(不變) as it is "neither born nor died"(不 生不滅) ; this points to the state of true nature (眞如) that remains the same regardless of conflicting consciousness of life and death rather than implying the absolute being or immortality of the supernatural being. Thus, the "pure" state of mind, too, refers to the being free of bilateral valuation of good and evil rather than the absolute good that stands on the opposite side of the absolute evil. "Do no evil deeds but many good deeds to purify your mind as it is Buddha's teaching"(諸惡莫作 衆善奉行 自淨其意 是諸佛 敎)14) in "the seven fundamental cautions of Buddhism"(七佛通誡), does not lecture the mere ethical principle of stopping the evil and practicing the good; it requires one to recover its purity beyond the distinction of good and evil by returning to the "original state before the good and evil were divided"(善惡未分前本來面目). Therefore, "mind by nature is pure" in Buddhism cannot be considered as the same as the Mencian doctrine of humans' innate goodness that presses on "the four levels of spiritual virtue"(四端). 12) Dhammapada, Chapter 1. 13) Miscellaneous Doctrine of Āgama (雜阿含經), TT. vol. 2, 69-c 14) Dhammapada, Chapter

14 14 佛敎學報 第 48 輯 Ⅶ. Pure Mind in its Own Nature(自性淸淨心) and the Emptiness(空性) Mind as it first began can be perceived as "natural state" (prakṛti), and this mind can be called as the "pure mind in its natural state" (prakṛti-prabhāsvara-citta). And in that the "natural state" is the characteristics unique to "self-being," "own nature (自性, svabhāva)," the "pure mind in its natural state" is sometimes referred to as the "pure mind in its own nature." At the first glance, the notion of the "pure mind in its own nature" appears to stand in conflict with the basic teaching of Mahayana Buddhism that makes the lack of own nature and emptiness the true form of the universe. However, the emptiness in the lack of own nature, and the purity of own nature do not differ from each other in that they are the expression of true nature as things are. This state of true nature that can only be expressed as "they are as they are (如如, tathatā)" is interpreted as the "state in which the independent existence (自性) in an isolated form is inevitably denied because all things are mutually dependent (緣起)" in the context of lack of own nature, whereas it is understood as "natural state without the need for an addition or a subtraction (不增不減) by the bilateral distinction" in the context of own nature. The state of true nature is perceived through the negation of isolation (own nature) in the former, and through the emphasis of natural state in the latter. A number of discourses in Prajñāparamita-sutra that exerts a notion of "empty view (空觀)" argue, "All beings including "those beyond the triviality of life and death" (善 逝, Buddha) lack the own nature, thus they are called the pure in its own nature (一切 法與善逝等而無自性 此如是說卽自性淸淨)"15), thus interpreting the purity of own nature as the lack of own nature, in short, the emptiness. Furthermore, they also state, "the true nature of the mind is neither born nor died and always kept pure because both the mind and its image are empty (心性不生不滅 常是淨相 心心相空故)"16) to interlink the pure mind of its own natural state with the emptiness. It can be deduced that the pure mind of its own nature with the emptiness are not two notions in contradiction with each other; nature of human with the purity in its own nature as the essence of the mind lies in emptiness. 15) Many Principles of Virtue in Prajñāparamita as Buddha Mother (佛母般若波羅蜜多圓集要義 釋論), TT. vol. 25, 907-a. 16) Dà-zhì-dù-lùn (大智度論), TT. vol. 25, 204-a

15 What is the human nature in Buddhism? 15 Ⅷ. Ālaya-vijñāna (阿賴耶識) Prajñāparamita-sutra and Madhyamika argue that the basis for the belief "mind by nature is pure, and it is not a subject that can be soiled" lies on the emptiness, but they do not go in-depth to explain what happens inside the mind itself. Yogacara attempts to gain a comprehensive understanding of the setting of purity and contamination expressed in the above belief through the notion of ālaya-vijñāna (阿賴耶識,). The word "ālaya" has the meaning "to store" (藏), and ālaya-vijñāna consequently means the consciousness (藏識) that accumulates and possesses the potential formative ability (種子, bīja) resulted from the psychological experiences. It is commonly believed that the subject of usual experiences is the self, and the object of such experiences exist outside; however, the subject of experiences is in fact the mind, and "everything (唯識, vijñapti-m) is but the contents (vijñapti) delivered through the work of the mind" (vijñapti-mātra, 唯識). In Yogacara, we are just binding the sustainability of the mind that is brought to life and put to death every moment by the notion of self and obsessing over it. A potential consciousness that overseas the self-consciousness (7th consciousness, 意) and the object consciousness (6th consciousness, 識) as the subject of mind flow (心相續) is called the only-consciousness, also known as ālaya-vijñāna (8th consciousness, 心). Ālaya-vijñāna oversees all acts of human, and it becomes the source of both purity and contamination as well as the good and the evil; the mind is kept pure and contaminated and an act becomes good and bad because of ālaya-vijñāna. The middle-way property of such a two-tiered complexity also appears in the three-nature theory, which categorizes the state of all beings into three types. Yogacara sees all beings in the world of consciousness as the interaction of seven preceding consciousnesses with ālaya-vijñāna to form a subject in the mutually dependent relationship (依他起性, paratantra-svabhāva). Here, the beings are substantiated through the use of language by the consciousness itself to be further distinguished and obsessed (遍計所執性, parikalpita-svabhāva), yet all things formed through the mutually dependent relationship are in fact completed in the state of emptiness from the beginning (圓成實 性, pariniṣpanna-svabhāva). The reality of obsession and possession and essential possibility of complete nature of truth are brought together around the notion of dependence. Moreover, the inter-connected world may be separated temporarily, but they are by nature already

16 16 佛敎學報 第 48 輯 complete under the philosophy of momentary contamination (客染) and natural purity (本淨). The complete nature of truth implies the essence of dependence as the emptiness. Therefore, Madhyamika and Yogacara ultimately do not contradict each other as nothingness and being do. Dependence as the emptiness brings together consciousness and the state of true nature, and in return, the distinction between the owner and guest fades away (無二). Both the object and mind go to non-existence (境識俱泯), and it would be a misunderstanding to summarize Yogacara as subjective idealism. Ⅸ. Tathāgata-garbha (如來藏) Yogacara attempts to compile the two-tiered complexity of ignorance and awakening and contamination and purity embedded in everyday human life and the possibility of realization of awakening from ignorance, which is also expressed as "the acquisition of truth through the transformation of consciousness" (轉識得智) in Yogacara, by the way of ālaya-vijñāna and the three-nature theory. Nevertheless, it puts more emphasis on the notion "the mind is not a subject that can be soiled" that explains the mindset of an ordinary person rather than on the part "the mind by nature is pure." Tathāgata-garbha thought seeks the integration of the two parts by developing on the notion "the mind by nature is pure." Tathāgata-garbha (如來藏) is a compound terminology made of 'tathāgata', or the knower of truth, and 'garbha' (胎, infant or womb). Tathāgata (Buddha) is the one who has realized (agata) the state of true nature (tatha), and the state of true nature is applicable to all beings in the universe as their essence; all sattva is born with the possibility to become Buddha. It is important to note that the embryo of Buddha implies that its growth will lead one to becoming Buddha and to become the same kind (gotra) as Buddha, in the term of possibility; yet in terms of reality, it is not yet Buddha, and in fact remains in the state of embryo if the development is not made. The identity between Buddha (tathāgata) and sattva emerging in the possibility-level refers to the fact that the "mind by nature is pure," and the difference between the two highlighted in the reality-level points to the fact "the mind is not a subject that can be soiled." Śrīmālā-siṃha-nāda-sūtra (勝髮經) states that when the abundance in the true nature is temporary and vein, therefore "empty," the soiled mind is made the "empty tathāgata-garbha (空如來藏)."17) Similarly, when the abundance in the true nature is abundant and therefore "not-empty," the pure mind in its natural state is made the

17 What is the human nature in Buddhism? 17 "non-empty tathāgata-garbha (不空如來藏)." The empty and non-empty embryos of Buddha (tathāgata-garbha) are distinguishable by the suppression and realization of the same state of true nature; the two are fundamentally the entirety lacking the own nature. Moreover, the essence of Buddha is the emptiness, and the embryo of Buddha is merely a worldly expression of the emptiness rather than stating the opposite of the emptiness. Buddha nature is another expression indicative of the non-contradictory nature between the notions of "the embryo of Buddha" (tathāgata-garbha) and the emptiness. While there are a number of Sanskrit vocabularies that corresponds to the concept "Buddha nature," Buddha-dhātu is most commonly used in the academic circle.18) Buddha is a being who has seen "the principle in universe" (法, dharma) and realized it in awakening. Therefore, all beings who have seen the principle in universe can become Buddha, and everyone in universe is open to the possibility of becoming Buddha. This possibility is reflected on the word dhātu. The origin of the word "dhātu", "dhā" means "to cause," or "to bring about," as well as "to place," or "to locate." By the former meanings, dhātu is "something that causes (因)," and Buddha-dhātu means "essence that makes one Buddha," or "element of Buddha." By the latter meanings, dhātu is "something caused and placed (界)," and Buddha-dhātu is "to become the same gotra as Buddha based on the essence of its kind." Buddha nature can be interpreted as buddha-garbha (佛藏) by the former, and it can be interpreted as buddha-gotra (佛姓) by the latter.19) Similar interpretation schemes can be applied to dharma-dhātu (法性, 法界) as well. Dharma-dhātu refers to "connective formation (緣生性, pratītyasamupannatva)" as the "source of phenomena in all beings," in other words essential nature (法性) by the first interpretation. It refers to "everything formed by the essential principle of connectivity that brings all beings together as one family or gotra (pratītyasamutpannā dharmāḥ, 緣己 生法) in other words "the system of essential principle" (法界) by the second interpretation. To call the one who has seen the principle (dharma) as Buddha, the essence of Buddha has to lie on principle (dharma) ; this principle is the essential principle as the origin of the universe, and the essential principle implies the connectivity and the emptiness. Thus, Buddha nature is the essential principle and the emptiness. Basis for the possibility of deliverance and the basis for the existence of the universe meet the 17) Śrīmālā-siṃha-nāda-sūtra (勝髮經), TT. vol. 12, 221-c. 18) Refer to Cho, Soo-dong, Tathāgata-garbha, (Imun Publishing, 1997), pp ) Refer to Dakasaki, Jikidoo, translated by Jeon, Chi-soo, What is Buddha Nature? (Yeoshiamun, 1998), p

18 18 佛敎學報 第 48 輯 same ground on the emptiness. Consequently, "Buddha nature is the true nature revealed through the emptiness of humans and the world (佛性者 卽是人法二空所顯眞如),"20) the inseparable emptiness of humans and the world is Buddha nature (無二之性 卽是佛 性).21) As a result, "the lack of Buddha nature means the lack of the emptiness (無佛性 者 卽無空性)."22) Ⅹ. Buddha Nature (佛性) Tathāgata-garbha implies the two-tiered complexity of ignorance and awakening as reflected on the statement "mind by nature is pure, and it is not a subject that can be soiled," and Buddha nature shows that its theoretical foundation lies on the emptiness; both concepts of tathāgata-garbha and Buddha nature point to the possibility of deliverance for sattva. Nevertheless, since the notion of tathāgata-garbha was first created in India, the expression "Buddha nature" has become more frequently used. Ratnagotravibhāga (宝性論), which first organized the notion of tathāgata-garbha, was nearly forgotten by the time of Chinese Buddhism. The replacement of embryo of Buddha (tathāgata-garbha) with Buddha nature in Chinese Buddhism can be attributed to the translation of Buddha-dhātu to Buddha nature that allowed the Chinese people to understand and accept the general concept more at ease. Therefore, Buddha nature is more than a simple translated term, but it embeds the interaction between the Buddhist philosophy and the traditional Chinese philosophy. The first characteristics in the Chinese modification of Buddha nature is the hypostatization of Buddha nature. In the translation of Buddha-dhātu to Buddha nature, the word "nature" (性) is more than a mere suffix of abstract noun, but it is bestowed the characteristics unique to humans (人性) differentiated from properties of general objects (物性) or those of animals (獸性) in accordance with the Confucian treatise of human nature. Buddha-dhātu, which signified the basis for deliverance possibility, has become a part of human nature, and the hypostatization has facilitated the Chinese people's understanding of the teaching "mind by nature is pure" in the Buddhist philosophy in line with the theory of mind nature that has coincided the theory of 20) Fó-xing-lùn (佛性論), TT. vol. 31, 787-b. 21) Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patrairch (六祖壇經), Virtue of Acts and Behaviors, TT. vol. 48, 349-c. 22) Fó-xing-lùn (佛性論), TT. vol. 31, 788-a

19 What is the human nature in Buddhism? 19 human nature since the time of Mencius. Zhu Daosheng said, "Breaking down the goodness in nature, the goodness (善, zen)is the profoundness of the principles (理, dharma) and nature is the return to the origin (性 善者 妙理爲善 返本爲性也)"23) by interpreting the notion "goodness in nature" through the Buddhist view, and Hui Neng paraphrased "the mind by nature is pure" to "humans by nature are pure (人性本淨)."24) The hypostatization and mentalization of Buddha nature was followed by "nature is the mind, and mind is the nature (性卽是心 心卽是 佛), lighting the mind lead one to see the nature (明心見性), and seeing the nature makes one Buddha (見性成佛)," which is the fundamental belief of Zen Buddhism.25) Moreover, such hypostatization and mentalization of Buddha nature has allowed the Neo-Confucianism to take in Buddhist philosophy more easily. The second characteristics in the Chinese modification of Buddha nature is the noumenalization of Buddha nature. Noumenalism perceives that all beings are harmoniously "interacting with one another" (用, phenomenon) by taking their natural origin their ground (體, noumenon). Noumenalism in China originated from Taoist belief, "all beings are created from the way dao (萬物皆有道而生)."26) Dao takes the nature (自然, being as things are) as its essence, and the nature takes dao as its noumenon to result in the notion, "substance is the nature (卽體卽性)" from teaching, "dao is the nature (道卽自然)" to link the nature with noumenon. This approach to nature through the lens of noumenon differs from Mencian approach through the lens of mind nature. In Buddhism, the state of true nature as the essential principle and the emptiness is the origin of all beings, and Buddha nature is no different from the essential principle; Buddha nature in principle takes on the characteristics of natural origin as noumenon. Noumenalization (體化) of nature in China leads to the that of Buddha nature, and Buddha nature within oneself substantiated as the origin of all beings are called the original nature (本性) or the own nature (自性). Hui Neng states, "seeing the original nature myself (自見本性), the true nature is made clear in my own mind suddenly (自心頓現眞如本性), and "all dharmas are made in compliance with the own nature (萬法從自性生), thus all dharmas are embedded in the own nature (萬法在自性)."27) The own nature here is different from the own nature 23) Commentary on Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra (大般涅槃經集解), TT. vol. 37, 531-c. 24) Lai, Yanghǎi, translated by Kim, Jin-mu, Buddhism and Confucianism (Unjusa, 1999), p ) Refer to Xu, Xiǎoyue, translated by Kim, Jin-mu, Zen and the Philosophy of Lao-Tsu (Unjusa, 2000), p. 354, ) Refer to Wang, Bi, Lao-tsu Chu (老子註), Chapter

20 20 佛敎學報 第 48 輯 denied in Mahayana Buddhism that argues that the emptiness is the lack of own nature. The own nature in Hui Neng's words is an expression of the belief that the one and only true nature equally exists within all beings themselves as reflected in the statement, "All states are true as they are, and it follows that bodhi is the own nature (萬境自如如 若如是見 卽是無上菩提之自性也)." It is the lack of own nature (無自性) when focusing on the fact that there cannot exist an isolated being in the state that all beings are in their inter-connected true nature, and the own nature (自性) when focusing on the fact that such a state is put to being on its own without being determined by the conscious distinction. Therefore, the lack of own nature and own nature itself do not differ from each other in that they reveal the true nature, and paradoxically, the emptiness as the true nature is both the lack of own nature and own nature itself, and thus the real nature (實性). This ultimately accepts the true emptiness (眞空) as the true form of "the mysterious reality" (妙有) leading Hui Neng to say, "the own nature is the true emptiness (自性眞空)."28) Nevertheless, to consider both Buddha nature and own nature as the emptiness means that Buddha nature is non subatance even if it is perceived as the original being. In Western philosophy, the noumenon symbolizes the non-material world of immutability that can only be understood through the spirit (nous), and the phenomenon symbolizes the meaningless material world where the immutable noumenon brings things about (phainomenai). In contrast, Chinese philosophy uses the notion of noumenal body (體) to refer to the whole fused into one, and the notion of action (用) to refer to various interaction of much dynamic within the whole. In other words, noumenon and phenomenon exist separately in Western philosophy, while body and action co-exists in an interactive relationship (相卽) in Chinese philosophy. Noumenal body is neither a separate existence separable from humans and other all beings nor a supernatural subject that has a function of universal creation in Chinese philosophy. There is nothing that can hold true outside the emptiness in true nature, and this emptiness becomes a universal ground upon which all beings co-exist in harmony, and therefore it is called the noumenon. The noumenon as the emptiness is the unique being non-existent yet real, therefore it cannot be limited to a fixed substance. So long as the emptiness that cannot be substantiated is the essence of Buddha nature, Buddha nature should be considered as a hopeful language that confirms the possibility for the 27) Refer to Buddhism and Confucianism, Ibid. p. 101 ; Zen and the Philosophy of Lao-Tsu, Ibid. p ) Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patrairch (六祖壇經), Virtue of Paramit, TT. vol. 48, 350-a

21 What is the human nature in Buddhism? 21 realization of the emptiness and connectivity rather than as a solid property bestowed on a subject substantially. Ⅺ. Closing: Buddha Nature (佛性) as the Emptiness (空性) Hypostatization of Buddha nature has reaffirmed that Buddha nature can be found in one's mind as human nature to the follower of Buddhism in China. Furthermore, noumenaliation of Buddha nature stirred the realization of the fact that mentalized Buddha nature is no different from the emptiness in true nature as the essential principle of all virtues. It clearly follows that the human nature is Buddha nature, and more specifically "Buddha nature as the emptiness" in Buddhism. At this point, the study of philosophical significance of "Buddha nature as the emptiness" is necessary. First, Buddha nature as the emptiness implies the non-fixedness of human nature and corresponding possibility of freedom. In both Western philosophy and traditional Chinese philosophy, human nature is divided into the instinctual element (instinct 生) and essential element (essence 心), and only one part of animality and rationality, body and soul, material and spirit, the bad and the good, and naturality and morality was highlighted as human nature. Such a limitation of human nature as a certain characteristics, ones lacking such ability in nature is inevitably excluded from the consideration, and moreover, humans themselves are imposed an infringement to their freedom by such limitations of elements. In other words, the definition of human nature as certain "things" is resulted from the premeditated intention to rule the others through the dominance of such nature, yet greater effort is made in this regard, the subject of ruling is imprisoned by the name of nature. The view of interdependence in Buddhism, however, perceives both the desire ( 愛) in instinct and rationality ( 識) in essence are the outcome of willed activities ( 行) for the purpose of continued survival of oneself, and they are in fact brought about from the ignorance (無明) on the interdependence and the emptiness. Humans as interdependent beings are not that of simplicity that can be reduced into a fixed substance, but that of complexity that takes part in the inter-connected multi-layer system. In this chain of relationships, human nature cannot be anything but the emptiness. Consequently, humans with Buddha nature as its nature cannot be defined by the impulse of desires, consideration of rationalities, or will of blindness; they are not

22 22 佛敎學報 第 48 輯 limited by such prescriptions but are free. The true freedom lies not in the autonomous practice of desires, thoughts, and wills or in the spontaneity of self as the subject of such things. Instead, it is lies in the conquest of desires, thoughts, and wills by the way of middle path (中道) and in the acceptance of true nature by emptying them out (空化). The origin of the word freedom (自由), from the viewpoint of dhyana (禪), also shows that it does not "begin from the rational self (自我由)" but "begins from the own nature of true form (自性由)." Human nature is not in the thinking and the expansion and reproduction of this ability to think (rationality) as the source of its superiority; "human nature is found in the constant mobility and mutability to allow one to think yet not remain in that thought (念而不念 無住者 爲人本性),"29) and it in itself is the freedom in the emptiness. Second, Buddha nature as the emptiness can overcome the limitations of humanism to result in the theory of human nature that brings together the nature and humans in harmony. Buddha nature(佛性) and Dharma nature(法性) are both the emptiness, and it follows that nature of humans and the other parts of the world meet in the commonality of the emptiness. Consequently, human nature as the emptiness is not an expression of human's superiority over others; rather it is the sign of its inseparable (不二) connectivity with the nature. There is no room for any form of humanism that exerts humans' superior nature to the rest of the world. Humans as "sattva with Buddha nature as the emptiness" instead of as "animals with rationality" are neither the incarnation of conquest armed with the weapon of rationality nor the slave of animal desires. Humans are the decentralized being that does not argue its place in the center while constantly paying attention to other beings of the universe connected with themselves by the chain of life. The rightful way to overcome the challenges of humanism is not in making humans yet another species of animals as is the case in Western ethology, but it is in the realization and restoration of the mutually dependent inter-connectivity (and the emptiness) between humans and other beings of the universe. Only when the nature and humans come together in reconciliation on the common ground of non-substantial mutual dependence between connectivity and the emptiness as their nature, the ecological peace of its truest form will come about. 29) Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patrairch (六祖壇經), Virtue of Thoughtlessness

23 What is the human nature in Buddhism? 23 Bibliography Abhidharma-mahā-vibhāṣā-śāstra (阿毗達磨大毘婆沙論) Anguttara Nikāya, translated by F. L. Woodward, The Book of the Gradual Sayings (Pali Text Society, 1979) Commentary on Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra (大般涅槃經集解), TT. vol. 37 Dà-zhì-dù-lùn (大智度論), TT. vol. 25 Dhammapada Fó-xing-lùn (佛性論), TT. vol. 31 Lao-tsu Chu (老子註) Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra (大般涅槃經) 18, TT. vol. 12 Many Principles of Virtue in Prajñāparamita as Buddha Mother (佛母般若波羅蜜多圓 集要義釋論), TT. vol. 25 Miscellaneous Doctrine of Āgama (雜阿含經), TT. vol. 2 Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patrairch (六祖壇經), TT. vol. 48 Śrīmālā-siṃha-nāda-sūtra (勝髮經), TT. vol. 12 N. N. Bhattacharyya, A Glossary of Indian Religious Terms and Concepts (Manohar Publications, 1990)Cho, Soo-dong, Tathāgata-garbha, (Imun Publishing, 1997) F. Copleston s A History of Philosophy II (Seogwansa,1989) E. Coreth, Was Ist der Mensch? (Jongno Books, 1989) Dakasaki, Jikidoo, translated by Jeon, Chi-soo, What is Buddha Nature? (Yeoshiamun, 1998) W. Jaeger s Paideia I(Berlin, 1954) Kim, Hyeong-hyo, Philosophy of Mensius and Xun Zi (Samjiwon, 1990) Lai, Yanghǎi, translated by Kim, Jin-mu, Buddhism and Confucianism (Unjusa, 1999) Lee, Sang-seon, Chinese Philosophy of Mind Nature (Beopin Culture, 1996) Mochitsuki Encyclopedia of Buddhism Vol. 5 M. Monier-Williams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Oxford, 1960) C. Sagan and A. Druyan, Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors (GoryeoOne Media, 1995) Xu, Xiǎoyue, translated by Kim, Jin-mu, Zen and the Philosophy of Lao-Tsu (Unjusa, 2000)

24 24 佛敎學報 第 48 輯 국문 요약 불교에서 인간의 본성이란 무엇인가? 김 종 욱 서양에서 인간에 관한 논의는 인간을 창조주와 피조물 사이의 종속 관계, 또는 같 은 피조물인 인간과 자연 사물 간의 우열 관계에서 다루고, 중국에서는 인간을 천 지의 도와의 도덕적 합일이라는 천인 관계 속에서 다룬다. 그러나 불교에서 인간은 윤회와 해탈의 과정이라는 전혀 다른 맥락에서 다루어진다. 다시 말해 불교에서 인 간은 창조신과 피조물, 하늘과 땅이라는 두 실재자 사이에서가 아니라, 오직 그의 마음가짐에 따라 미계와 오계 사이에서 존재한다. 그러나 이런 존재는 단순한 부유 가 아니라, 어리석음을 딛고 깨달음으로 나아간다는 뚜렷한 방향성을 지니고 있다. 이처럼 인간을 미오의 이중적 복합성과 마음가짐에 따른 전미개오의 가능성으로 규 정하는 방식은 불교의 거의 모든 사상에 담겨 있다. 그런데 인간의 상황이 미오의 이중적 복합성으로 되어 있고, 전미개오가 오직 마음가짐의 전환으로 이루어진다는 것은, 불교에서 인간의 탐구가 마음의 탐색으로부터 시작하며, 그것이 비본래적 현 실성과 본래적 가능성 혹은 염과 정의 구도에서 수행된다는 것을 보여준다. 인간을 염과 정의 구도에서 탐색하는 것은 서양에서 이성과 동물성, 유가에서 선과 악, 도 가에서 정과 동의 구도에서 인간을 보는 것과 대비된다. 불교적 인간관의 이런 구 조를 한마디로 표현하면 심성본정 객진소염 (心性本淨 客塵所染)이다. 반야사상과 중관사상은 심성본정 객진소염 의 가능 근거가 공성에 있음을 주장 할 뿐, 마음 자체의 작용에 대해서는 깊이 있게 다루지 않았다. 이를 보완하기 위해 유식사상에서는 심성본정 객진소염 이라는 정과 염의 구조를 알라야식을 통해 종 합적으로 파악한다. 그러나 유식 사상에서는 인간의 상황에 담긴 미오나 염정의 이 중적 복합성과 전미개오의 가능성을 알라야식과 3성 이론을 통해 나름대로 종합하 고 있지만, 심성본정보다는 범부의 마음 상태를 해명하는 객진소염 쪽에 비중을 더 두었던 것이 사실이다. 이에 비해 여래장 사상에서는 심성본정 쪽에 강조점을 두고 객진소염과의 통합을 모색하고 있다. 심성본정 객진소염이라는 미오의 이중적 복합 성을 함축하고 있는 것이 여래장이고, 그것의 이론적 토대가 공성에 있음을 보여주

25 What is the human nature in Buddhism? 25 고 있는 것이 불성이지만, 여래장과 불성은 모두 중생의 성불 가능성을 가리킨다는 점에서는 차이가 없다. 그런데 인도에서 여래장 사상이 성립된 이래 후대로 갈수록, 여래장보다는 불성이라는 표현이 더 잦아지고, 특히 중국불교에 이르러서는 여래장 사상을 체계화한 보성론이 거의 잊혀질 정도가 되었다. 그러므로 불성이란 단순한 번역 용어 이상이며, 거기에는 불교 사상과 중국 전통 사상 간의 상호 침투 관계가 함축되어 있다고 할 수 있다. 이러한 불성의 중국적 수용의 첫번째 특징은 불성의 인성화이다. 불성론이 인성화 심성화됨에 따라, 후대의 신유학은 오히려 보다 더 쉽 게 불교의 사상을 흡수할 수 있게 되었다. 불성의 중국적 수용의 두 번째 특징은 불 성의 본체화이다. 불교에서는 법성과 공성으로서의 진여실상이 만물의 근본이고, 불 성은 이런 법성과 다르지 않으므로, 불성 역시 기본적으로는 본체의 성격을 지닌다 고 할 수 있다. 이제 중국에서 성이 체화(體化)되어감에 따라, 불성도 본체화되며, 이렇게 내 속에 있는 만법의 근원으로서 본체화된 불성을 일러 본성 또는 자성(自 性)이라 부른다. 그런데 불성과 자성이 모두 공성이라고 하는 것은, 비록 불성을 본 체로 간주한다 하더라도 그것이 곧 실체는 아니라는 것을 보여 준다. 서양철학에서 는 본체와 현상이 실체적으로 분립하지만, 중국철학에서는 체와 용이 상즉하고 있 는 것이다. 이처럼 중국의 불교인들에게 불성의 인성화는 불성이 인간의 본성으로서 자신의 마음 속에서 드러날 수 있다는 확신을 심어 주었고, 불성의 본체화는 그렇게 심성 화된 불성이 만법의 근본인 진여 공성과 다르지 않다는 자각을 불러 일으켜 주었다. 불교에서 인간의 본성은 불성이며, 그것도 공성으로서의 불성 인 것이다. 이런 공 성으로서의 불성은 인간 본성의 비고정성과 그로 인한 자유의 가능성을 함축한다. 또한 공성으로서의 불성은 인간중심주의를 극복함으로써 자연과 인간을 화해시킬 수 있는 조화로운 인간본성론을 창출할 수 있다. 그리고 불성과 법성이 모두 공성 이라는 것은, 인간의 본성과 자연의 본성이 공성으로서 일치한다는 것을 의미한다. 핵심어 본질로서의 본성, 본능으로서의 본성, 알라야식, 여래장, 공성으로서의 불성 논문접수일 : 심사완료일 :