HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS

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1 HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS A.O.Babatunde and O.V. Mejabi Faculty of Communication and Information Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin. 6.0 INTRODUCTION When more than one thing is needed to work together before an action can take place, we say we have a system. The computer needs several things before it can be used to solve problems. Therefore, we say the computer is a system. We may have systems around us even in our body. How we eat or what happens to the food we eat is a system. This is called the Digestive System. We need mouth, tongue, teeth and stomach for us to make good use of the food we eat. In explanation of this; food is put in the mouth as INPUT; the food is digested and changed into useful things that our body needs; this is called PROCESSING, the undigested food from the body in the form of waste passed out; this is called OUTPUT. In the same way, relating this to computer, data is given to computer as INPUT, computer acts on the input by performing some operations on them; this called PROCESSING, the computer produces something after processing; this is called OUTPUT. These three stages of input, process and output are called COMPUTING and it gives the reason for referring to the computation as an I-P-O system. (Gbadeyan Et.al 2007) 6.1 WHAT IS A COMPUTER? A computer is an electronic device which accepts and processes data by following a set of instructions (PROGRAM) to produce a result (INFORMATION). Since the ultimate aim of a computer is to produce information, the art of computing is often referred to as information processing. (Ayo, 1994) 6.2 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS It is difficult to identify any one device as the earliest computer, partly because the term "computer" has been subject to varying interpretations over time. Originally, the term "computer" referred to a person who performed numerical calculations (a human computer), often with the aid of a mechanical calculating device. The history of the modern computer begins with two separate technologies - that of automated calculation and that of programmability. Examples of early mechanical calculating devices included the abacus, the slide rule and the Antikythera mechanism (which dates from about BC). The hero of Alexandria (c AD) built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums that might be considered to be a means of deciding which parts of the mechanism performed which actions and when. This is the essence of programmability.

2 The "castle clock", an astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, is considered to be the earliest programmable analog computer. It displayed the zodiac, the solar and lunar orbits, a crescent moon-shaped pointer traveling across a gateway causing automatic doors to open every hour, and five robotic musicians that played music when struck by levers operated by a camshaft attached to a water wheel. The length of day and night could be re-programmed every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year. The end of the middle Ages saw a re-invigoration of European mathematics and engineering, and Wilhelm Schickard's 1623 device was the first of a number of mechanical calculators constructed by European engineers. However, none of those devices fit the modern definition of a computer because they could not be programmed. In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard made an improvement to the textile loom that used a series of punched paper cards as a template to allow his loom to weave intricate patterns automatically. The resulting Jacquard loom was an important step in the development of computers because the use of punched cards to define woven patterns can be viewed as an early, albeit limited, form of programmability. It was the fusion of automatic calculation with programmability that produced the first recognizable computers. In 1837, Charles Babbage was the first to conceptualize and design a fully programmable mechanical computer that he called "The Analytical Engine". Due to limited finances, and an inability to resist continuously changing with the design, Babbage never actually built his Analytical Engine. Large-scale automated data processing of punched cards was performed for the U.S. Census in 1890 by tabulating machines designed by Herman Hollerith and manufactured by the Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation, which later became IBM. By the end of the 19th century a number of technologies that would later prove useful in the realization of practical computers had begun to appear: the punched card, Boolean algebra, the vacuum tube (thermionic valve) and the teleprinter. During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers. A succession of steadily more powerful and flexible computing devices were constructed in the 1930s and 1940s, gradually adding the key features that are seen in modern computers. The use of digital electronics (largely invented by Claude Shannon in 1937) and more flexible programmability were vitally important steps, but defining one point along this road as "the first digital electronic computer" is difficult Notable achievements include: EDSAC was one of the first computers to implement the stored program architecture of von Neumann. Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was the first working machine featuring binary arithmetic, including floating point arithmetic and a measure of programmability. In 1998 the Z3 was proved to be Turing

3 complete, therefore being the world's first operational computer. The nonprogrammable Atanasoff Berry Computer (1941) which used vacuum tube based computation, binary numbers, and regenerative capacitor memory. The secret British Colossus computers (1943) which had limited programmability but demonstrated that a device using thousands of tubes could be reasonably reliable and electronically reprogrammable. It was used for breaking German wartime codes. The Harvard Mark I (1944), a large-scale electromechanical computer with limited programmability. The U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory invented Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, ENIAC (1946), which used decimal arithmetic and is sometimes called the first general purpose electronic computer (since Konrad Zuse's Z3 of 1941 used electromagnets instead of electronics). Initially, however, ENIAC had an inflexible architecture which was not flexible essentially requiring rewiring to change its programming. Several developers of ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up with a far more flexible and elegant design, which came to be known as the "stored program architecture" or Von Neumann architecture. This design was first formally described by John von Neumann in the paper First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, distributed in A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture commenced around this time, the first of these being completed in Great Britain. The first to demonstrate its workability was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or "Baby"), while the EDSAC, completed a year after SSEM, was the first practical implementation of the stored program design. Shortly thereafter, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paper EDVAC was completed but did not witness full-time use for an additional two years. Nearly all modern computers implement some form of the stored-program architecture, making it the single trait by which the word "computer" is now defined. While the technologies used in computers have changed dramatically since the first electronic, general-purpose computers of the 1940s, most still use the von Neumann architecture. Microprocessors are miniaturized devices that often implement stored program central processing units (CPUs). Computers that used vacuum tubes as their electronic elements were in use throughout the 1950s. Vacuum tube electronics was largely replaced in the 1960s by transistor-based electronics, which are smaller, faster, cheaper to produce, require less power, and are more reliable. In the 1970s, integrated circuit technology and the subsequent creation of microprocessors, such as the Intel 4004, further decreased size and cost and further increased speed and reliability of computers. By the 1980s, computers became sufficiently small and cheap to replace simple mechanical controls in domestic appliances such as washing machines. The 1980s also witnessed availabilities of home computers and the now common personal computer. With the evolution of the Internet, personal computers are becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the household. In 2005, Nokia started to call its top-line smart phones of the N-series "multimedia computers" and after the launch of the Apple Phone in 2007, many are now starting to add the smart phone category among "real" computers. In 2008, if the category of

4 smartphones is included in the numbers of computers in the world, the biggest computer maker by units sold is no longer Hewlett-Packard (HP), but Nokia. 6.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPUTERS One of the ways in which computers are classified is by type of data processed is broadly referred to as types of computers. Statisticians generally classify data collected by counting as discrete data e.g. head count, number of Mangoes etc. Similarly, data collected through measurement are called continuous data. Examples are temperature, height, weight etc. This concept will help us to understand the types of computers. Computers are also classified by their different generations or by their size, or by the different purposes for which they are meant CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE OF DATA PROCESSED i. Analog Computers Analog computers are those that represent data in a continuous manner using physical variables such as pressure, temperature etc. An example is the analog watch. The outputs of analog computers are usually represented in the form of smooth curves or graphs from which information can be read. These computers are less accurate than digital output since their accuracy depends on the user or reader of such output. These classes of computers are used for scientific/engineering purposes and are not concerned with commercial data processing. A good example of this class of computer is the computer used in hospitals for measuring blood pressure of patients, also a filling station gasoline pumps work purely on analog processes. The volume of fuel pumped out is converted into two measurements (i) price to the nearest kobo, and (ii) volume of fuel to the nearest litre. Other simple devices are the slide-rule, and the car speedometer. ii. Digital Computers These are computers that represent data in discrete or discontinuous manner using binary system. A digital watch is an example of a digital device. The output from digital computers are usually in the form of discrete values. This class of computers are commonly found in the business environments, and they include Desk calculators, Adding machines, and most of the computers we have around (IBM, BBC, Radio Shack Personal Computers (PC), Laptops, Desktops etc. iii. Hybrid Computers As the name implies, this class of computers combines the features of both digital and analog computers. Their outputs could be in the form of discrete or continuous value or a combination of both. This class of computers is commonly found in highly scientific environments. Example is an electronic calculating scales used in food stores.

5 Of these three; digital computers are the most common, since they lend themselves to use in business, scientific and even home environments CLASSIFICATION BY GENERATIONS The classifications of computers sometime discussed to in reference to the different generations of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. Below is a summary of each generation and the developments that led to the current devices that we use today. (i) First Generation ( ): Vacuum Tubes The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in (ii) Second Generation ( ): Transistors Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output. Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology. The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry. (iii) Third Generation ( ): Integrated Circuits

6 The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors. These were interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to many because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors. (iv) Fourth Generation (1971-Present): Microprocessors The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as it became possible to build thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer - from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on a single chip. In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors. As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of Graphical User Interface (GUI), the mouse and handheld devices. (v) Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are already being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and selforganization CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE What are the different types of computers? Different types of computer systems are nowadays available for different purposes according to the user needs. When you ll have to order yours or even to build it, you should first define the expected use of your computer. This step will help you to describe the basic capabilities and know the costs of your system. Summary of classifications of computers.

7 (i) Personal computers or Microcomputers Microcomputers are built to be used by one person. In fact when you talk about personal computers or its common acronym PC, you always mean microcomputers. For surfing the web, playing games or music, editing and many other tasks you ordinarily use personal computers either at school, at home or at business. Personal computers are in two (2) major categories: desktop and laptop. If you opt for a desktop computer you have to set it up in a permanent location. Fortunately you are able to choose your preferred sizes such as a mini, mid or full tower. You should then add many other devices to complete it such as keyboard, mouse and monitor which can be a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) or Liquid Crystal Display (LCD). (ii) Workstations and Servers If you need a high-end micro computer you should go for a workstation. This type of computer is recommended if you are carrying out game development, scientific calculations, engineering or 3D graphics. It is faster than the common personal computer and can be used as a server if you need to set up a network client. The server is generally used for the purpose of allowing many users to work together over a network. Servers require powerful processors, large amount of hard disk drives and random access memory (RAM). (iii) Mobile Computers If you prefer the laptop you ll go for the mobile or portable system. Your notebook, a common name of laptop, has the advantage to have all the parts built together. The notebook has the same computing power as the desktop machine but it is lightweight enough as to be portable. The mobile computer is relatively more expensive because it costs more to design the small components. For greater portability. A handheld micro computer is now a common option. To manage your phone book, diary or to taking notes.etc a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) is useful for the same purpose. You can also use the Palmtop, a tinier laptop, for the same purposes and even more. The Palmtop is designed with a small keyboard and a flip-up screen and is useful for surfing the web while you are on the move. (iv) Mini Computers These are medium-sized computers that usually have several terminals for input and output, several disk drives and sometimes tape drives for data storage. Minicomputers have greater storage capacity and are faster in speed than microcomputers. Most often, minicomputers can process several programs at a time and can be used by

8 (v) several people simultaneously. Small and medium-sized business also uses minicomputer for their data processing need. Mainframe Computers: Mainframe computers have many terminals and several disk and tape drives. The components of mainframe computers have greater storage capacity and are faster than those of minicomputers. Mainframe computers can process numerous programs concurrently and can be used by medium and large sized business for their data processing needs. For example the network support for Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs). (vi) Super Computers: These are the most powerful and most expensive computers. They are designed for very fast processing speeds. Although they have some fewer terminals and their processors can operate much faster, supercomputers are mainly used for complex mathematical calculations such as those needed in scientific research, or space exploration of their complexity and cert CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE i. Special Purpose computers These are computers designed to carry out specific tasks. They have in-built programs which are stored in a part of the main memory called Read-Only Memory (ROM). The content of this part of the memory can be accessed and executed by the computer, but cannot be modified by the programmer or the user. Thus, the operations that can be carried out by this type of computer are predetermined at the time of manufacture. The computer cannot be used for any other purpose. Microcomputers (small computers) are so inexpensive however; that we can afford to use them to perform specific functions such as telling the time, monitoring human temperature or blood pressure. ii. General Purpose Computer These are computers that are not specifically designed or built for specific jobs. They solve various kinds of problems depending on the program or software loaded into them. Their main memory is typically Random Access Memory (RAM) - a temporary storage that looses its contents when the computer is switched off. It is easy to change the contents of RAM, substituting one program for another and this is what makes them general-purpose computers. Most microcomputers or PCs are general purpose computers. 6.4 COMPONENTS OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS Most computers in use today are digital in nature. Digital computers consist of hardware and the software. A digital computer system consists of an interconnected system of processor memory and input/output devices. The processor is also called central processing unit. It is the heart of any computer system, as it does the whole job of program execution. The central processing unit used in micro computers is also called

9 microprocessor. Main memory and central processing unit are mounted on a single board called the mother board but hey are separate entities. The program executing the source program that is the program written by the user and the data required for it must be stored in the computer memory. Only then central processing unit runs the program. The digital computer system is represented schematically as shown in figure 1 below CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT MAIN MEMORY INPUT CONTROL UNIT OUTPUT ARITHMETIC AND LOGICAL UNIT BACK-UP STORAGE Figure1: Diagrammatical representation of a Digital Computer Another component of the digital computer system is main memory which is referred to as primary memory, primary storage or common storage. It holds the source code or program. A program is defined as an ordered set of instructions which can be used to solve a problem. It holds data which may be input data. The memory unit consists of many thousand storage locations or cells. Each cell is a tiny device which may assume the state of binary digits as zero or one. This state of the cell represents a single bit. The word bit is derived from binary digits HARDWARE The hardware is the physical and visible components of the computer system. Some of these hardware components are:

10 Input devices e.g. Keyboard, Mouse, Touch Screen, Light-pen, Joystick, Digitizer Tablet, and Voice Input Device. Output devices such as Monitor, Plotters, Voice Output Device, Computer Output Microfilm (COM) and Printers. Memory e.g. ROM (Read Only Memory) and RAM (Random Access Memory) and Storage Devices such as Magnetic Disk, Magnetic Tape, Optical Disk, Flash Drives and Floppy Disks SOFTWARE A computer system without software is like the human body without life in it, or like a car without fuel. Without software, what is left of a computer system is hardware that is lifeless. The hardware cannot be used without software. Software directs the hardware by telling it what to do, how to do it, and when to do it. Both are necessary for the computer system to be useful. Basically, software is programs which enable the hardware components to operate effectively as well as making it provide many useful services. The term, software are usually applied to programs that are written by computer manufacturers and software specialists. Programs are sequences of instructions given to computers to solve a given problem or accomplish a given task. Examples of software are: System Software e.g. Operating System such as windows, Linux etc Utility and Service Programs, Translators e.g. BASIC and Database Management System. And Application Software such as Microsoft Word, Microsoft Access, MS- Publisher, CorelDraw and Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) etc. 6.5 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN THE SOCIETY Computers have kept an upward trend in terms of usage. Back in the 1960s, people wondered who would want a computer for their homes! Around 1946, government was the main uses of computers was done by government. They used them for army purposes, like decrypting enemy messages, or calculating trajectories of ballistic missiles. Using computers was very complicated then. Only those things which were impossible to be done within a time frame were given to computers. Then computers evolved. Herman Hollerith invented punch cards, and then computers were used for census purposes. Computers were still too big to be used for other things. It was only after the invention of microprocessor triggered by transistors that computers could get any smaller. Still they were complicated to use and program operating system DOS and UNIX made them easier to use, and laid the foundation for windows. Now computers are used everywhere. Businesses today rely on computer technology to assist them in almost every area of corporate life. Computers have invaded grocery stores, fast food restaurants, big businesses and small offices. They process data, store information, work out complex mathematical problems, track inventory, and even control temperature and lighting in office buildings. Reliance on the high-speed digital computer is so complete that the world of commerce would come to a sudden stop if computers were removed. The way computers have invaded our society is remarkable. When we buy something at the store, most likely our purchase will be scanned at the checkout counter by a reader of

11 UPC bar codes. When we bring a package to our local post office to mail, the clerk will put it on a scale that is attached to a computer terminal. After the clerk inputs some information by pressing a few bottoms, the rest of the package to mail will show on the computer screen. CAT scans help doctors view kidneys, hearts, and other body organs to see if they are healthy. Farmers rely on computers to plan planting and harvesting of crops. Every time you reserve space on an airplane, check your bank statement, or telephone a friend, you are depending on computers. It is hard to imagine the world without computers. As a result of new technologies, our modern society has been introduced to different ways of communication through the use of computers. Some of these ways include the Internet and . Computers can communicate using modems and telephone lines as easily as if they were sitting side by side connected to each other directly. Of course, this modern way of communicating with others would not be possible if computers did not exist. Through the we now have the ability to communicate with anybody throughout the world in matter of minutes. has been a benefit to society. Some of the benefits are determining the delivery of mail at an affordable cost. First, the time is a great factor of . We have the grace of going to our computer at any time of the day to anybody in any other city. Any part of the world. We do not have to wait hours or even days to have our information deliver to the other person. Before , people had to go to the post office and mail documents or information to other people in the world. There is overnight mail which is expensive and it still is not as fast an . Work with computers particularly using the Internet brings students valuable connections with teachers, other schools and students, and a wide network of professionals around the globe. Second, we can depend on to have information delivered. We know that the other person will receive the message. If we had to send a letter in the mail, it would be hard to be 100 percent sure that the letter will make it to its destination. On the other hand, if the does not get delivered, we get a message in the computer letting us know that the message could not be delivered. Third, having access to is not as expensive as mailing letters to other states and/or countries. We now have the opportunity to get accounts at no cost to us through our organization. In most cases people like to subscribe to companies like America Online or Netscape Navigator. Generally the cost to subscribe is about $15 to $25 per month for unlimited use including and access to the internet. The personal computer has put greater power on more people s desks. In the past, those people frequently worked in isolation from other personal computer users. Now, however, as a result of computer networking, a whole new array of products has begun to change organizational communication patterns. Electronic mail ( ) is one kind of new technological capability that emerged from this development. users, send messages and file attachments between each other and is a relatively private communication channel (Stoner, Freeman and Gilbert, 2000). What about the internet? Just like , the internet is another way of communicating with other people any where in the world. But the internet is also more that just communication. Having access to the internet is having access to an indefinitely pools of

12 options. The internet gives us the opportunity to do things we would have never imagined. But, is the internet a benefit? And to what extent? Having access to the internet has both pros as well as cons. Some of the benefits of the internet are that it facilitates information gathering on virtually anything. We no longer have to go to the library to do research. A lot of the information that we obtain from the library, we can also get from the internet. Not only can we get information but we can also shop online. Nowadays, we do not need to go out of our own homes to shop for clothing, furniture and other needs. All we have to do is turn on the computer and sign on to the internet. It is as simple as one, two, three. The influence of the Internet has been phenomenal. In just 4 years the Internet had attracted 50 billion surfers, compared to technologies such as the radio, which took 38 years to attract 50 million listeners, and the television, which took 13 years to attract 50 million viewers. We have to understand that because of technology we have the advantages of and internet. If the computers did not exist, it would cost us more money to do things we rely on the computer for today. For example, shopping, communicating with people out of town. What I ask myself today is: If computer has brought us to this point today, what will the future be like? Today, we have cars, computers, televisions, airplanes, telephones. All of these is part of our every day lives and because of technology we have them. What should we expect in the future? Most of what we have today is to our benefit and technology should not blame if things go wrong because it is people who misuse technology. It is the human races that go into the computer or internet and writes about racism, prejudice, hate-group, or writing the destructive computer virus programs. It is not the technology that drives the cars under the influence of alcohol and gets into an accident. Technology has only given us the opportunity for more jobs and for success. The impact of the e-revolution has resulted in terms like online, e-commerce, cybermarketing cybercafé, e-business, etc, being a standard part of the current lexicon. Organization now finds themselves facing new challenges and opportunity for which old procedures seem outmoded or irrelevant. A whole spectrum of basic task such as communicating with business partners, ordering supplies and marketing products are being transformed through the potential technology. Ledger books, paper invoices, printed promotional materials and business trips are giving way to online billing and payment, elaborate website with product information, and real time teleconferencing across continent and time zone. The much anticipated third generation of mobile phones technology has ushered in the era of the wireless internet, which allows text information from websites to be filtered and displayed in words on a phone screen. Users are able to access the internet through their mobile phones to handle task from banking to ordering tickets to checking headlines and stock prices (Olujide and Mejabi, 2005). E-commerce and online finance provide good examples of how organizations can be located everywhere simultaneously. Although many online companies have a physical base from which they are managed or where their products are stored, a growing number of Internet ventures, such as online banking and business-to-business Internet brokers conduct their operations exclusively in cyberspace. While they are officially registered somewhere, for tax and regulatory purposes, almost all their interaction with customers and suppliers occur online.(mejabi and Olujide, 2005)

13 The e-organizations do not have the luxury of trying to fine tune decisions in search of perfection. They often make decisions with very limited information with the attendant possibilities of making mistakes. During the 1990s, technological change lent authority to the move for less paper or the idealized paperless office, with proponents arguing that paper versions had no memory and could not be networked. As digital devices began to talk to each other and computers of different sizes and shapes with different purpose proliferated, one way of demonstrating that the organization was truly wired was to advocate the paperless vision (The Economist, 2002). Employees in e-organisations are no longer constrained by time or place in doing their work and this is impacting on their interpersonal relationships. There is substantive evidence that people generally are spending more time online today than just a few years ago. For instance, in 1997, the mean time people spent online was 4.4 hours per week, in 1999, it was 7.6 hours, and in 2000, it was 8.2 hours (Internet Usage Statistics, 2002). Predicting what lies in the future is virtually impossible, but we do know that whatever it brings, computer technology will be right in the center of it. As computer technology continues to advance and develop for both home and industry, there will be an ever growing need for computer professionals to fill the resulting job openings. Career opportunities in the computer field remain strong, and knowledge of computer technology will continue to become more and more important to workers in every field. "Many jobs obviously will demand basic computer skills if not sophisticated knowledge." The more we learn about the importance of computers and the more computer literate we become, the more chances we will have success in virtually any field. 6.6 EXERCISES 1. What is the difference between the computer and human intelligence. 2. Enumerate the impact of computer in our society giving specific examples. 3. Computer is often said to be the wizard of our generation. Justify how far this statement is true. 4. Explain the general features of the five generations of computer pointing out the specific technological innovations achieved in each generation. 5. Discuss the contributions of the following scientists to the development of computer (i) Charles Babbage (ii) Von Newman (iii) John Napier 6. Under what conditions do we prefer manual method to computer despite its outstanding benefits to man. 7. As a student in the university, advise your lecturer on how best he can use the computer to teach the class more effectively. Bibliography 1. Ayo C.K (1994) Computer Literacy: Operation and Appreciation. 2. Gbadeyan J.A., Sadiku J.S., and Babatunde A.O. (2007) Computer Practical Manual. 3. Kempf, Karl (1961). "Historical Monograph: Electronic Computers within the Ordnance Corps". Aberdeen Proving Ground (United States Army).

14 4. Olujide J.O and Mejabi O.V. (2005) Workplace Redesign: Consequence of the E-organisation 5. Phillips, Tony (2000). "The Antikythera Mechanism I". American Mathematical Society