Evidence and Perspectives

Transcription

1 Evidence and Perspectives Edited by Jacqueine Faon

2 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACRONYMS SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION 1 SECTION 2: HISTORIC AND CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES Introduction Chidhood in retrospect Famiies changing in changing times Chidren s rights Care and education Curricuar context Deveopments in provision Diversity Language Pay Concusion Impications for the NQF/ECCE 14 SECTION 3: THEMATIC PERSPECTIVE ON THE LEARNING AND DEVELOPING CHILD Introduction Chid-centred earning and deveopment Hoistic earning and deveopment Environments for earning and deveopment Reationships in earning and deveopment Diversity in earning and deveopment Communication in earning and deveopment Pay for earning and deveopment Concusion 28 SECTION 4: CONCLUSION 29 REFERENCES 31 APPENDIX 1: SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 33

3 ACRONYMS BCCN: Border Counties Chidcare Network CCC: City and County Chidcare Committees CECDE: Centre for Eary Chidhood Deveopment and Education DES: Department of Education and Science DHC: Department of Heath and Chidren DIT: Dubin Institute of Technoogy DoE: Department of Education DSCFA: Department of Socia, Community and Famiy Affairs ECCE: Eary Chidhood Care and Education ECEA: Eary Chidhood Education Agency EEC: European Economic Community EOCP: Equa Opportunities Chidcare Programme HSCL: Home Schoo Community Liaison NAPS: Nationa Anti-Poverty Strategy NCCA: Nationa Counci for Curricuum and Assessment NCCC: Nationa Coordinating Chidcare Committee NCO: Nationa Chidren s Office NQF/ECCE: Nationa Quaity Framework for Eary Chidhood Care and Education NVCC: Nationa Vountary Chidcare Coaborative NVCO: Nationa Vountary Chidcare Organisation OECD: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Deveopment PCSP: Primary Curricuum Support Programme SDPS: Schoo Deveopment Panning Service UN: United Nations UNCRC: United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Chid UNESCO: United Nations Educationa, Scientific and Cutura Organisation

4 Section 1 Introduction The Centre for Eary Chidhood Deveopment and Education (CECDE) is peased to pubish this discussion paper, Eary Chidhood in Ireand - Evidence and Perspectives. This document is the ast of the four piars of research which the CECDE has put in pace to support the deveopment of the Nationa Quaity Framework for Eary Chidhood Care and Education (NQF/ECCE). It encapsuates the perspective from which the chid s interests are being incorporated into the NQF/ECCE. It is aso hoped that it wi provide a usefu resource for the ECCE sector and a basis for fruitfu debate and discussion. It articuates we with the Nationa Chidren s Strategy, Our Chidren, Their Lives (Department of Heath and Chidren [DHC], 2000) and Towards a Framework for Eary Learning (Nationa Counci for Curricuum and Assessment [NCCA], 2004). The deveopment of a strong consensus position among key agencies with responsibiity for young chidren wi benefit the future co-ordination and cohesiveness of ECCE in Ireand. 1.1 The Centre for Eary Chidhood Deveopment and Education (CECDE) The CECDE was estabished by the Minister for Education and Science in October 2002, with a brief to co-ordinate and deveop ECCE in Ireand in pursuance of the objectives of the White Paper on Eary Chidhood Education, Ready to Learn (DES, 1999a). It is managed jointy by St. Patrick s Coege and the Dubin Institute of Technoogy (DIT). The remit of the CECDE covers a settings for 1

5 Section 1 Introduction chidren between birth and six years, paying particuar attention to the needs of chidren experiencing disadvantage and chidren with specia needs. It bridges traditiona divides between care and education and chidcare settings and the forma schoo system. In this context, the CECDE has three main objectives: 1. The deveopment of the NQF/ECCE, which wi define quaity standards for eary chidhood settings, is the core project for the CECDE. In addition to defining quaity, the framework wi propose appropriate support mechanisms for those working in ECCE in Ireand. A system of assessment and evauation wi be devised to ensure that the quaity standards wi be reaised and maintained. These three eements, defining, assessing and supporting quaity, form the structure of the NQF/ECCE. 2. To deveop and impement targeted interventions in the areas of specia needs and disadvantage with chidren in the birth to six years age group. There are currenty three such targeted intervention projects in progress under the auspices of the CECDE. 3. Finay, the CECDE is charged with preparing the groundwork for the estabishment of the Eary Chidhood Education Agency (ECEA) as envisaged by the White Paper on Eary Chidhood Education, Ready to Learn (DES, 1999a). 1.2 Eary Chidhood in Ireand - Evidence and Perspectives Increasing knowedge about chidhood, and eary chidhood deveopment and earning, has much to contribute toward understanding the nature of quaity in ECCE. The primary purpose of this document is to contribute to the NQF/ECCE for Ireand. The CECDE Programme of Work (CECDE, 2001) and the CECDE Research Strategy (CECDE, 2003) prioritise the preparation of a conceptua framework discussing how chidren from birth to six years earn and deveop: It is envisaged that the first action reating to the deveopment of quaity standards wi invove setting out a conceptua framework describing how chidren (from 0 to 6 years) deveop and earn. (CECDE, 2001:2) Review Document Initiay, the CECDE commissioned a iterature review on the five deveopmenta domains (physica, socio-emotiona, cognitive, mora and spiritua) 1 in the birth to six years age group. This resuted in a substantia and extensive review which wi be of interest to students, researchers, practitioners and others with a focus on the deveopment of the young chid. This initia paper was augmented by two further sections which were researched and written by CECDE staff. The first of these sections reviews the historica and cutura context of ECCE in Ireand from the end of the nineteenth century to approximatey The second section discusses current perspectives on ECCE in Ireand from 1990 to the present. The resuting compete document, known as the Review Document has formed the basis for this discussion paper. The Review Document wi not be pubished, but wi be avaiabe on request from the CECDE. Once the Review Document was finaised, the CECDE used it in a number of ways. Primariy, it informed the deveopment of the NQF/ECCE and, secondy, it provided the evidence base for this CECDE discussion paper on eary chidhood in Ireand. The evidence has been condensed and distied for the purposes of this paper in order to iustrate the vaues which characterise the NQF/ECCE. In this context, references have not been incuded throughout this document. However, a seect bibiography of iterature pubished since 1990 is incuded in the Bibiography. This does not refect the entirety of the iterature consuted in the preparation of the Review Document Terminoogy Because of the rapidy deveoping andscape in ECCE in Ireand, many issues to do with terminoogy have not yet been resoved. There are occasions within the text when terms are used as a summary of a very wide range of terminoogy in current use. For exampe, 1 The CECDE woud ike to acknowedge the work of Suzanne Cendenning and the Psychoogy Department, Queen s University Befast, for their work in preparing the iterature review. 2

6 Evidence and Perspectives personne who work with young chidren use a wide range of descriptive terms and tites. In order to be incusive of the broad range of peope who work with young chidren and the equay broad range of peope such as parents, grandparents, famiy and friends who are aso invoved, a of these peope are referred to as aduts or significant aduts. The term has no significance other than to refer to the adut who is supporting the chid at any given time and on any given occasion. research in the Review Document. The sections in the Review Document on chid deveopment and earning were anaysed to identify the key points reating to the aforementioned five deveopmenta domains. According to our view that a earning and deveopment is inter-reated and interdependent, it was decided to present the information thematicay. The themes were identified by cose textua anaysis and are as foows: Likewise, there is ongoing debate on the reationship between the concepts of earning and deveopment. For the purposes of this document, both earning and deveopment and deveopment and earning are used interchangeaby. Because of the importance of ceary understood anguage, the NQF/ECCE itsef wi have a gossary of terms and their associated meanings. Chid-centred earning and deveopment; Hoistic earning and deveopment; Environments for earning and deveopment; Reationships in earning and deveopment; 1.3 Structure of the document Section 2 - Historica and Cutura Perspectives discusses specific issues which are, to a greater or esser degree, the subject of debate currenty within the ECCE sector and beyond. It draws on both Section 1: Historica and Cutura Context of Eary Chidhood Care and Education in Ireand and Section 2: Current Perspectives on Eary Chidhood Care and Education in Ireand from the Review Document. The discussion is not exhaustive and does not address every issue raised in the Review Document. Instead, it paints a broad picture of the context in which constructions of eary chidhood have evoved here in Ireand over the past century or so. Section 3 - Thematic Perspective on the Learning and Deveoping Chid presents the substantive discussion on chid deveopment and earning. Again, this discussion is firmy based on the evidence and Diversity in earning and deveopment; Communication in earning and deveopment; Pay in earning and deveopment. This order is not intended as a hierarchy and the themes are inter-connected. They are not intended as stand aone eements but must be understood as a whoe. Each theme concudes with a number of impications for the deveopment of the NQF/ECCE, in reation to defining, assessing and supporting quaity. Section 4 - Concusion recaps on the document and its purpose, and outines the next steps in the deveopment of the NQF/ECCE. The CECDE recognizes that research and debate on eary chidhood is constanty evoving, and presents this document in that spirit. 3

7 Section 2 Historic and Cutura Perspectives 2.1 Introduction Chidhood is constructed over time and in a particuar cutura context. An understanding of the ways in which eary chidhood has been understood in Ireand in the past provides a frame of reference for our current anaysis. The Review Document contains a weath of information on the context in which chidhood evoved over the past century or so. In ight of this, some issues which are currenty the subject of debate are discussed in this section. These incude, among others, the history of nationa curricua for young chidren in Ireand, the changes in famiy ife over time and the impact of the growing diversity of our society. The discussion is not exhaustive, but attempts to iustrate the changing nature of chidhood and the dynamics of interaction between chidhood and arger socio-cutura conditions over the past century in Ireand. It reminds us that chidren have to negotiate these dynamics without such hindsight. It aso reminds us of the responsibiity we coectivey bear to provide soid footing for chidren when amost the ony constant is change. 2.2 Chidhood in retrospect The Nationa Chidren s Strategy (Department of Heath and Chidren [DHC], 2000:18) has, as one of its nationa goas, that: Chidren s ives wi be better understood; their ives wi benefit from evauation, research and information on their needs, rights and the effectiveness of services. 4

8 Evidence and Perspectives Certainy very itte is known about the ives of chidren historicay in Ireand. In recent years, a body of iterature has emerged in which, sady, the dominant image is of chidren s ives bighted by abuse. This image appears to have been a constant theme throughout the past century. Undoubtedy, this was not the reaity for many chidren and there is some anecdota information from isoated anthropoogica studies and memoirs to this effect. In genera, given the voumes of Irish history which have been written, the paucity of iterature on the ives of chidren is regrettabe. One coud take the view that conditions existed in which abuse coud happen. One of those conditions, possiby, is that the chidren were rendered invisibe, whether within the famiy or institutions. The egisative and constitutiona framework appicabe to chidren contributed to this situation and wi be outined in the section on chidren s rights. Chidren, by and arge, cannot ensure their own visibiity within our society as can other citizen groups. Therefore it is incumbent on society to recognise and honour the chid s citizenship. The Nationa Chidren s Strategy (DHC, 2000) incudes severa strands of research into chidren s ives which wi hopefuy sharpen the focus on, and raise awareness of, chidren s ives. Of course, with the gift of hindsight, the absence of the chid s own point of view over the past century is now obvious. This reaisation has been growing here in recent years, and it is now generay accepted that incuding the chid s opinions on issues which affect him 2 wi have to be a part of deveopments in the future. 2.3 Famiies changing in changing times Famiy ife is unique, depending on a the variabes which any given famiy experiences. That said, there is very itte information avaiabe on reationships within famiies over the course of the ast century. There is a sma number of anthropoogica studies, mainy conducted by internationa observers at extended sporadic intervas, and a number of memoirs. Whie these provide vauabe 2 The mae and femae pronouns wi be used in aternate sections. insights, they do not give a comprehensive picture and are drawn on judiciousy Historica context The environments in which our youngest chidren ive, grow and pay have changed dramaticay over the past century. For the best part of the twentieth century, young chidren were cared for in the famiy home and went to schoo sometime after the age of three. For much of that time, Irish society was argey agrarian based and chidren worked on the farm; work which had economic vaue to the famiy. Famiies were arge, twice as arge on average as those in the rest of Europe for most of the century. Chidren ived in househods which frequenty comprised members of the extended famiy. Emigration was a way of ife and many chidren must have grown up in the knowedge that they woud eave and not return. The Cathoic Church and the State operated a symbiotic reationship in reation to many aspects of Irish ife, incuding education, foowing Independence. In particuar, the Church appears to have had considerabe infuence in terms of famiy ife, a position consoidated by the 1937 Constitution.Changes began to occur in the 1950s when increasing industriaisation and urbanisation began to have an impact. Around this time, too, famiy size began to reduce. It was not unti the 1970s, though, that substantia numbers of women began to enter and stay in the paid workforce. This was party due to the ifting of the marriage bar in the civi service and the beginnings of movement towards parity of pay and rights for women with their mae coeagues foowing Ireand s entry into the European Economic Community (EEC). Out-of-home care arrangements for chidren then became a necessity for some famiies Contemporary experience With changes in famiy patterns, more chidren are now iving in smaer famiies, one parent famiies or in disparate famiies. Young chidren in contemporary Irish famiies are experiencing substantiay different parenting trends, not east of which is that many now have the more active invovement of their fathers as we as their mothers. Traditionay, parents tended to concentrate 5

9 Section 2: Historic and Cutura Perspectives more on the physica we-being of their chidren, whereas now they are increasingy concerned with their chidren s hoistic deveopment, incuding their cognitive, emotiona and socia deveopment. Widespread dissemination of research on chid deveopment in popuar and accessibe media formats, such as teevision programmes and sef-hep books on chid deveopment and parenting, indicate interest among the popuation on such issues. Such a media profie for chid deveopment aso suggests an increased awareness among parents of the importance of this stage of ife, and of the importance of supporting chidren s optima deveopment. However, there is aso the possibiity that such media wi exert pressure on parents in suggesting that parenting is a compicated and fraught occupation, with the margins for error being frighteningy wide, and the possibiities for success intimidatingy narrow. In fact, parents get it right even in difficut circumstances Impact of socio-economic change Whie there is greater sensitivity to chidren s needs in the hoistic sense, there are depeted resources, notaby time, within famiies and communities to meet them. Many aspects of the socio-economic context, incuding the organization of work and work/ife baance, are not chid friendy. House prices have risen enormousy and consequenty, the difficuty in finding affordabe housing in centra parts of cities such as Dubin has meant that many peope, particuary young coupes, have had to move out into the surrounding counties. The road and rai infrastructure is unabe to meet the new demand and many peope have had to succumb to engthy hours of commuting. Stress and tiredness caused by parents commuting and work is ikey to put pressure on chidren s quaity of ife within their famiies. There is an eement of irony in the fact that whie chidren are experiencing more environments in their day-to-day ives in comparison to chidren even thirty years ago, we now find it necessary to pan for chidren s access to, in particuar, the outdoor environment. Parenta and adut concern for the chid s safety and security means that the range of paces in which chidren can pay has shrunk, particuary in urban areas. Traffic voumes, deveopment of green spaces and fear for chidren being out and about without adut supervision contributes to a contraction of freedom for chidren. Additionay, it woud appear that chidren are spending increasing time in front of computers and teevisions with consequent heath risks, incuding diminished outdoor pay, physica inactivity and obesity. It is to be hoped that the impementation of the Nationa Pay Poicy (Nationa Chidren s Office [NCO], 2004) wi expand pay opportunities in ways which are compatibe with parenta and caregiving aduts sense of security, and are aso attractive to chidren Empoyment and chidcare Whie unempoyment was endemic during most of the 1980s, Ireand has experienced increasingy high eves of empoyment over the past ten years or so. Empoyment growth and a greater demand for abour, couped with the need for dua income househods to meet the cost of housing, impacted on femae work force participation rates. Mothers empoyment participation rates in Ireand are comparativey high. Because of reativey short eave entitements after the birth of a chid, more mothers of young chidren are in empoyment in Ireand than in other Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Deveopment (OECD) countries. The obvious consequence of these circumstances is that more chidren are now being cared for outside the home than heretofore, despite continuing shortages of provision. Much of the increase in suppy has occurred in the private commercia sector where costs to parents are among the highest in Europe. Substantia percentages of mothers working fu-time and part-time use no paid chidcare at a, indicating a reiance on informa provision provided by famiy or friends. There is very imited information on the nature and quaity of the many and varied forms of chidcare and pre-schoo provision for chidren who attend out-of-home settings. 2.4 Chidren s rights A discourse which has gained momentum here in Ireand in recent years concerns chidren s rights. In reviewing the issue, the CECDE has found no discernibe debate on chidren s rights prior to the 1970s. 6

10 Evidence and Perspectives Legisative context However, the egisative context can be traced back to the 1908 Chidren s Act (Hayes, 2002:39), which remained the dominant piece of egisation concerning chidren in Ireand for amost the entire century. In the 1908 Act, the chid was deemed to have a right to care and protection, but not to iberty before the aw. This particuar view, in which chidren can ca on the State for care and protection but not for vindication of their rights as individua citizens, was further entrenched in Artices 41 and 42.5 of the Constitution of 1937 (Government of Ireand, 1937). This remains the defining position of State invovement in chidren s ives today, notwithstanding the ratification by the Government in 1992 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Chid (UNCRC) (UN, 1989). State invovement in provision for chidren outside of the primary schoo system focuses, by and arge, on chidren at risk from disadvantaged or other circumstances, and on chidren with specia needs arising from a disabiity. The growing momentum and discourse around the chid as an individua citizen, with rights associated with that citizenship, may we in time change the nature of the chid/state reationship Impications for ECCE provision There are severa impications emanating from this position, but just one wi be considered here; that of the young chid s right to educationa provision. To be meaningfu, ife-ong earning must be conceptuaised on a continuum which begins at birth. There are good reasons, based on the knowedge we now have on the efficacy of eary education and the magnitude of young chidren s potentia for earning, for making provision for chidren from birth. However, a more fundamenta argument reates to the young chid s right to education in the same way that oder chidren are entited to educationa provision. This position is underpinned by the UNCRC (UN, 1989). 2.5 Care and education Provision for young chidren in Ireand has been fragmented and many of the faut ines can be traced to the historica understanding of care and education as being separate forms of provision. It is not difficut to see how this fracture deveoped historicay here in Ireand Home and schoo The nationa schoo system was estabished in 1831 and there were enough infants (3-5 year ods) in the system by 1872 to warrant a specific infant programme. Figures from the mid-1940s indicate that by then, over 48,000 chidren between the ages of three and five were in the system. These figures represent substantia numbers of young chidren in schoo. It is possibe that this indicates that parents paced a high vaue on their chidren s education and may expain why the nationa or primary schoo system here in Ireand has, since its inception, been regarded as concerned excusivey with education. Throughout the period referred to above, chidren were cared for at home up unti the point at which they began to attend schoo. These two contexts of care and education were quite different, and that difference seems to have been transated to mean mutuay excusive. Whie there is very itte documented evidence about the care of young chidren at home, it appears that care was primariy the responsibiity of the mother. Famiies were arge and oder sibings were invoved in ooking after younger chidren. Whie there were differences in urban and rura contexts, the extended famiy, particuary grandmothers, who often ived in the famiy home, were invoved. Home and schoo were the two contexts in which chidren spent time so, even before the concepts were considered, it is possibe to see the genesis of our traditiona conceptuaisation of care as what happens up to the age of three or so, and education as what happens after that Poicy and impementation At programme eve, the view that chidcare and eary education are two separate but reated issues sti prevais. Key poicy documents from the three main government departments invoved in supporting provision of ECCE dispay consensus on the inseparabe nature of care and education (DES, 1999a; Department of Justice, Equaity and Law 7

11 Section 2: Historic and Cutura Perspectives Reform [DJELR], 1999; DHC, 2000), but programme impementation has so far not refected this position. State action is being driven by different agendas chidcare poicy by the need to expand provision to meet the chidcare needs of working parents and eary education poicy by recognition of the importance of positive eary years experiences, especiay for chidren experiencing disadvantage and those with specia needs. However, the beginnings of a significant shift in this pattern are evident and the emergence of a distinct ECCE sector is becoming apparent Co-ordination and integration The instigation of coherent co-ordinating structures, incuding the Nationa Coordinating Chidcare Committee (NCCC), the County Chidcare Committees (CCCs), the CECDE and the NCO, represent important miestones. To a greater or esser degree, each has a remit for both chidcare and eary education. For exampe, in the case of the CECDE, this remit incudes the deveopment of an overarching NQF/ECCE. Furthermore, poicy initiatives in specific areas are beginning to take effect; greater standardisation in staff training and quaifications is emerging, and curricuar deveopments are eading to greater integration of chidcare and eary education. Under the provisions of the Equa Opportunities Chidcare Programme (EOCP), funding was provided to the Nationa Vountary Chidcare Organisations (NVCOs) 3 to form an umbrea group to enhance communication and co-ordination between the groups invoved. Networks of providers have been estabished, such as the Border Counties Chidcare Network (BCCN) and more ocaised networks under the auspices of CCCs. A High Leve Working Group has been convened by the NCO, and the CECDE has a Consutative Committee which is representative of stakehoders in eary chidhood provision. Increasing the eve of integration and coordination of poicy, egisation and provision for young chidren is now widey accepted as necessary to progress. However, the 3 This group has been reconstituted as the Nationa Vountary Chidcare Coaborative (NVCC). consoidation of a discrete ECCE sector is unikey to be reaised unti there is better coordination at inter-departmenta eve, to the point where the DJELR, DHC and the DES impement a common programmatic approach to the care and education of young chidren. The White Paper on Eary Chidhood Education (DES, 1999a) has aready suggested the way forward in this regard in proposing the estabishment of the ECEA as a structura expression of such a common approach. 2.6 Curricuar context Eary years curricua are currenty the focus of much attention with the pubication of the consutation document, Towards a Framework for Eary Learning (Nationa Counci for Curricuum and Assessment [NCCA], 2004). Whie this is the first time that Ireand is to have a nationa curricuar framework for the birth to six age group, the history of State curricuar provision for young chidren specificay those in the infant casses (3-6) in primary schoos stretches back over a century Revised Programme, 1900 One of the most remarkabe stages in that history was the Revised Programme of 1900 (Commissioners of Nationa Education in Ireand, 1901), though this is a somewhat arbitrary starting point. Even before this time, the phiosophies of Rousseau, Froebe, Pestaozzi and Dewey had infuenced individuas who put such theories into practice here. In fact, one might ocate the provenance of the concept of chid-centred practice with these theorists. The Revised Programme is strikingy famiiar to the modern reader. It was infuenced by Frobeian principes and incorporated heuristic approaches to teaching and earning. It advocated deveopment from within rather than mouding from without, promoted the integration of subject areas and emphasised the environment as a context for the chid s earning. The Revised Programme advocated teaching content in an integrated manner, breaking with the tradition at that time of compartmentaising knowedge. Unfortunatey, however, the necessary finances for equipment, training and 8

12 Evidence and Perspectives impementation were never put in pace. Whie the Revised Programme ed to improvements in the dire state of infant education, the Dae Report (Dae, 1904) sti found that this was one of the weakest eements of the system. Then, as now, no matter how good the curricuum, it is dependent for effectiveness on resourcing, training and investment and 1948 curricuar change A very different approach was taken in the curricuum introduced in 1922 foowing the foundation of the Irish Free State (Nationa Programme Conference, 1922). This approach moved the focus off the young chid onto curricuum content, specificay the Irish anguage, which was to be re-estabished as part of the socio-poitica transformation of Ireand foowing independence. The curricuar changes introduced meant that the restoration of the Irish anguage became the primary aim of infant education. Foowing some years of impementation of this programme, teachers expressed deep reservations about its effect, stating that it inhibited the chid inteectuay, repressed the natura urge for sef-expression and ed to some chidren being mentay and physicay damaged. This programme was repaced by the Revised Programme for Infants (Department of Education [DoE], 1948) in 1948, which returned to the vaues and direction espoused by the 1900 Revised Programme. However, due to continuing requirements regarding the teaching of Irish, it proved difficut to impement the phiosophy of this programme New Curricuum, 1971 Major curricuar change occurred in 1971 with the introduction of the New Curricuum (DoE, 1971). Pay was an integra part of this curricuum which was designed to cater for the fu and harmonious deveopment of each chid, with an inherent fexibiity to adapt to the needs of chidren of varying abiities and cutura backgrounds. However, the economic recession of the 1970s meant that the comprehensive network of supports for teachers which was envisaged did not materiaise. Cass size remained very arge during the period foowing the introduction of the New Curricuum. Spending on education increased over the foowing decades, and whie cass size remained an issue at this time, the number of teaching posts in the system increased substantiay. This reates to the introduction of schemes such as Home/Schoo/Community Liaison (HSCL) and the expansion of Specia Needs provision Revised Curricuum, 1999 The most recent curricuar change occurred in 1999 with the introduction of a Revised Curricuum for Primary Schoos. The 1999 Revised Curricuum (DES, 1999b) is designed to nurture chidren in a dimensions of their ives. In-service training is ongoing for teachers and structures (e.g. the Primary Curricuum Support Programme [PCSP] and the Schoo Deveopment Panning Service [SDPS]) have been put in pace to support its ro-out into schoos. A cose study of these consecutive curricua iustrates the evoving understandings of concepts such as chidcentred and hoistic education in Ireand. 2.7 Deveopments in provision One of the consequences of the reative economic prosperity of the 1960s was to increase interest and focus on education. From around this period, education became a new catayst for socia mobiity, possiby on account of the introduction of free secondary education. Parents became increasingy anxious that their chidren s future opportunities woud be enhanced through education. Ireand s increased invovement with internationa organisations such as the United Nations Educationa, Scientific and Cutura Office (UNESCO), the OECD and the UN, aied with the aspiration to become a member of the EEC, contributed to a essening of the insuarity which had been a feature of the previous period. There was a shift in focus from socia expenditure in reation to education and chidren to one of investment in the individua, the economy and society Specia Education The first remedia teachers were introduced into schoos during this period, the 1960s, and the Commission of Inquiry on Menta Handicap (Commission of Inquiry on Menta 9

13 Section 2: Historic and Cutura Perspectives Handicap, 1965) raised awareness of the issue of specia education. This ed to the beginnings of integration of chidren with specia needs into mainstream schoos in the foowing decade. Most of the specia schoos in existence today were estabished in the 1960s and the 1970s. The roots of this deveopment ay in the setting up of community and parent advocacy groups in the preceding decade. The Vountary Agencies invoved in service deivery for chidren with specia needs grew out of those eary advocacy groups. In the nineteenth century, in the absence of any State provision, reigious orders had estabished schoos for chidren who were deaf and bind. These schoos were the very first to be designated as specia schoos and were the basis for the deveopment of the system Pre-schoo provision The eary enroment of chidren in primary schoos in the first haf of the twentieth century and the ow number of mothers in the workforce resuted in a ow priority for preschoo education. Whie there were some exampes of pre-schoo provision and services prior to the 1960s, socia change and individua effort brought about acceerated changes from that time. Additionay, from the ate 1960s, the socia risk mode of provision for young chidren which underpinned the practice of pacing chidren in institutiona care was repaced by a more deveopmenta view. This period coincided with the arriva of Barnardos in Ireand, the founding of the Irish Pre-schoo Paygroups Association (IPPA), the estabishment of the first Naíonraí and an expansion in Montessori training opportunities. As with provision for chidren with specia needs, the current andscape of eary chidhood pre-schoo provision began to take shape at that time, in the absence of State invovement. The Rutand St. Pre-schoo Project (Hoand, 1979) was estabished in 1969 as an eary intervention programme for chidren in a disadvantaged area of inner city Dubin. This remained the State s ony pre-schoo project unti the Eary Start pre-schoos were estabished in the mid 1990s in some designated disadvantaged schoos Chidcare poicy deveopment A number of chid advocacy groups were estabished in the 1970s and, foowing pressure from such groups, a number of Committees were convened over the first haf of the next decade to examine the roe and need for chidcare faciities outside the home 4. Unfortunatey, there was very itte tangibe response to this wave of reports. It may we be that attitudes among the popuation as a whoe did not support movement on this issue. As recenty as 1972, the Report on the Status of Women (Commission on the Status of Women, 1972) urged mothers to stay at home with their chid unti the age of three, and ony return to work if they had strong reasons to do so. That said, the report aso caed for a nationa infrastructure for chidcare to faciitate working women, but that recommendation had itte effect either. Nonetheess, these decades witnessed a change in attitude, indicated by the number of cas for State provided chidcare that woud have been unthinkabe in the earier haf of the century. The perception that mothers were no onger the ony carers of their chid, and that out-of-home chidcare was needed, now entered the zeitgeist Parenta invovement In schoos, the attitude to parenta invovement has changed enormousy, even since the introduction of the New Curricuum in One of the probems identified with the impementation of the curricuar changes then was that ack of information and communication with parents ed to confusion about the new principes and ideoogies underpinning the curricuum. However, the HSCL scheme, estabished in 1990 in designated disadvantaged schoos, refected a growing emphasis and recognition of the importance of parenta invovement to the success of chidren in schoo. Other exampes of the growth of awareness of the importance of incuding parents in their chidren s education was the incusion of parents on Boards of Management since 1975, and the estabishment of schoos to cater for various 4 The Task Force on Chid Care Services (Department of Heath, 1980) The Working Party on Chidcare Faciities for Working Parents (Department of Labour, 1983) The Committee on Minimum Lega Requirements and Standards for Day Care Services (Department of Heath, 1985) 10

14 Evidence and Perspectives interests, such as Gaescoieanna (Irishmedium schoos) and non-, inter-, and mutidenominationa schoos under the auspices of parent groups. Whie there is itte historica documentary evidence avaiabe on the deveopment of parenta invovement in services outside the schoo system, it appears that Community Paygroups, in certain instances, grew from the work of oca parent groups. The contemporary situation is much cearer. A recent nationa review of poicy, practice and research pertaining to quaity in ECCE found consensus across a groups on the issue of parenta invovement. Parenta invovement is considered a key and essentia indicator of a quaity service by a provider groups engaged in the promotion of quaity in ECCE (CECDE, 2004a). 2.8 Diversity The rate of change between the 1960s and the end of the 1980s acceerated dramaticay in the 1990s with the advent of the economic boom, a phenomenon quite new to Ireand. The environment in which chidren born since 1990 are growing up appears very different to anything we have experienced before. Much of the materia avaiabe on the ives of chidren within the famiy in Ireand in the past consists of poarised descriptions and, as such, are typica of the range of perspectives found on the famiy from this period. It is cear that there was no unified, consistent or uniform experience of chidhood in Ireand in the past century. Such evidence as is avaiabe indicates that, for exampe, the chidren of the Traveing community, chidren with disabiities, chidren from different socioeconomic backgrounds or chidren from differenty configured famiies had very different experiences of ife here. This is not a judgement on whether those chidhoods were happy or not, but rather to refect that chidhood was never without its compications. There was, and is, no singe Irish chidhood Responses to difference Whie the experience of chidhood during the past century in Ireand was not the same for a chidren, there was no discourse evident around the concept of diversity as we now engage in it. Looking back, indeed, the impression is of a society which thought of itsef as homogenous, or at east acquiesced in the Church/State consensus which projected a society based on the sanctity of the nucear famiy united in faith. Those who did not meet the criteria and who deviated from the acceptabe mode of the famiy as a married coupe with chidren were often treated harshy. Reference has aready been made to the many chidren who ended up in institutiona care, predominanty chidren from disadvantaged backgrounds or from famiies in disadvantaged circumstances. Recent years have exposed the scanda of young women confined in the Magdaene aundries because of giving birth outside marriage or for behaviour deemed to be at odds with the prevaiing orthodox moraity. Further to this was the trafficking and export of babies of unmarried mothers to the United States during the 1950s and 1960s. The Traveing community, for the most part, seem to have been shunned. It seems obvious from even a cursory examination that Irish society was not as homogenous as Church and State woud have wanted and sanctions were in pace to contro those who did not conform Socio-cutura change Ireand graduay moved away from the isoationism which characterised the period up to the 1950s, but it has ony been since the beginning of the 1990s that the growing diversity of the socio-cutura andscape in Ireand has impacted on our consciousness as a nation. We now have a mutipicity of famiy modes: two parents, both working; singeparent headed famiies; remarried coupes/parents; adoptive and other famiies. Indeed, the famiy, based on a division in parenta roes with the father as breadwinner and the mother as a fu time housewife caring for the chidren, is no onger the dominant mode in Irish society. Evoving expectations of fathers invovement with their chidren, aong with increasing numbers of mothers in the workforce and more singeparent famiies, have changed the profie of famiy ife in Ireand; there has been an increase in smaer famiies and in the diversity of famiy structures. 11

15 Section 2: Historic and Cutura Perspectives Disadvantage and specia needs Despite the growth in the economy, many Irish famiies experience poverty. The inequaity in circumstances that exists between Irish famiies is marked with an acceerating inequaity of incomes between the owest income groups and the highest. Those most affected incude chidren, eary schoo eavers, one parents, unempoyed peope, Traveers, ethnic minorities, refugees and asyum-seekers, oder peope iving aone in areas of urban and rura disadvantage, peope with disabiities and sma farmers. Despite improvements in recent years, Ireand sti has one of the highest rates of chid poverty in the European Union. In a society which is proud of its educationa system, it is sti an uncomfortabe fact that chidren from working cass backgrounds are at higher risk of educationa disadvantage. Consequenty, they are much more ikey to eave schoo without quaifications and much ess ikey to obtain third eve quaifications. Chidren from the Traveer community experience extreme poverty and educationa disadvantage. Infant mortaity is twice the nationa average and athough arge numbers of Traveer chidren attend primary schoo at any given time, very few transfer to secondary schoos, fewer sti compete the Leaving Certificate and a tiny number attend third-eve coege. The revised Nationa Anti Poverty Strategy (NAPS), Buiding an Incusive Society (Department of Socia, Community and Famiy Affairs [DSCFA], 2002) gives specific consideration to the aforementioned vunerabe groups and incudes a number of commitments to combating educationa disadvantage. There have been numerous initiatives by the DES in schoos to combat educationa disadvantage and a major review of these is in train. The EOCP, whie not focused primariy on the chidren, is a very substantia State investment in the infrastructure of ECCE provision in disadvantaged areas. Other initiatives originating from various government departments aso target socioeconomic disadvantage. However, in terms of provision for chidren with specia needs, there is a ack of a comprehensive, State funded system for chidren with specia needs and their famiies. The current system of provision is dependent on the contribution of the Vountary Agencies, but there is no nationay articuated framework for the reationship between the Vountary Agencies and State provision. Negotiating the system is currenty difficut and chaenging for parents seeking to access services for their young chidren Cutura diversity Ireand has experienced growing racia and ethnic heterogeneity over the ast decade. The number of appications for asyum in Ireand rose substantiay in the years from 1992 to 2001, but this appears to have faen dramaticay in recent years. It is estimated that in the year 2000, in excess of 5,000 asyum-seeking chidren arrived in Ireand, and we must be concerned as to how their needs are being met. In January 2003, the Supreme Court rued that the non-nationa parents of an Irish citizen chid coud be deported, but the judgment aso acknowedged that the rights of the Irish citizen chid under the Constitution must be given consideration, and the rights of the chid s parents and sibings must be respected. It is not yet cear what impact the decision wi have on the future of this group of Irish chidren. Another recent phenomenon has been the adoption into Irish famiies of chidren born in countries such as Romania, Russia and China. This increasing cutura diversity has severey tested the capacity of Irish society and its services to accept or integrate minority groups, as society s reationship with Traveers has demonstrated over previous decades. Nonetheess there have been many exampes of efforts to combat racism and promote anti-bias education for chidren. The best known exampe is probaby the Éist project (Murray and O Doherty, 2001). Antibias programmes address not ony racism, but a forms of discrimination. They shoud be in pace in a settings, and not just in settings which incude chidren from diverse backgrounds and circumstances. 2.9 Language Our history of biinguaism adds another dimension to the consideration of diversity here, given the specia position of the Irish anguage in Irish aw. Language is generay the primary means of communication within 12

16 Evidence and Perspectives any cuture, and in the ight of the growing cutura diversity of our society, merits attention Irish anguage The effort made in the eary days after the foundation of the State to use young chidren as the conduit through which Irish woud be re-estabished as the primary anguage of the peope has aready been described. Whie the approach was unsuccessfu, the originators of the scheme were correct in identifying the chid s eary years as an optima time for introducing second anguage earning. In the ate 1960s, a number of Naíonraí groups were estabished with the support of Comhdhái Náisiúnta na Gaeige and Conradh na Gaeige. Naíonra groups are simiar to other paygroups but, in addition, the aduts speak Irish excusivey. Chidren are free to converse in either Engish or Irish. In 1973, the organisers formed a vountary organisation Na Naíonraí Gaeacha under the auspices of Conradh na Gaeige. An Comhchoiste Réamhscoaíochta Teo (now renamed Forbairt Naíonraí Teo.) was then set up and is a joint committee of Na Naíonraí Gaeacha and Bord na Gaeige in support of preschooing through Irish. Over the past thirty years or so, the number of Gaescoieanna outside the Gaetacht has grown steadiy, with increasing numbers of chidren receiving their education through Irish Second anguage provision Increasingy, schoos and ECCE services incude chidren whose first anguage is neither Engish nor Irish. Indeed, the DES makes some provision for anguage support for foreign nationa chidren in schoos. There is evidence that chidren earning a second anguage need support for their first anguage. The chid s faciity with his first anguage impacts on his deveopment of the second anguage and on a aspects of his deveopment. This has impications for the provision of services for young chidren who are at a crucia stage in anguage deveopment. It is possibe that this wi require the presence of aduts in settings for young chidren who are competent in the chid s first anguage. This has not been addressed to any great degree in service provision here in Ireand. Equay, it must be recognised that Sign/Lámh is, in many cases, the first anguage of chidren who are deaf. We must be concerned, aso, that the chid with serious anguage impairment is enabed to deveop augmentative aternative forms of communication. Not ony is anguage an important part of our abiity to function in society, it is aso an expression of identity. The history of support for the Irish anguage here is evidence of our appreciation of the power of anguage in this regard. It behoves us, given the engths to which Ireand has gone to preserve and promote our own anguage, to offer support to those who wish to preserve their anguage even as they earn Engish Pay Pay is an activity very cosey associated with chidhood, and it is inconceivabe to review constructions of chidhood in Ireand without attending to chidren s pay. However, whie in recent years there has been substantia attention paid to the pace of pay in the chid s earning and deveopment, there is very itte information on how chidren have payed in the past, at east here in Ireand. A number of coections of street rhymes and games capture the vivacity and carefree nature of chidren in Dubin in the midde part of the century and they indicate the time afforded to chidren for pay and recreation. Other studies in rura areas indicated that young chidren were often given make-beieve tasks in preparation for future work either in the house or on the farm. Observers of famiy chidcare practices during the period when famiies became smaer and the presence of extended famiy became rarer, tend to indicate that chidren spent ong periods aone (Arensberg and Kimba, 1940; Scheper- Hughes, 1979). These are isoated observations and must be treated with caution, but as pay is an important socia activity for chidren, one wonders what impact such conditions woud have had? On the other hand, severa memoirs make mention of payfu exchanges between parents and chidren (Wash, 1995; Kerrigan, 1998). The argest body of information on pay from most of the past century reates to its pace in curricua. However, whie this tes us how pay was envisaged as supporting the chid s 13

17 Section 2: Historic and Cutura Perspectives deveopment and the types of contexts and equipment to be provided, it tes very itte of the chid s actua experience. So there is very itte that can be said of the changing experiences of the chid at pay in Ireand over the time period being considered here. Currenty, there is no argument here as to the pace of pay in chidren s ives. Many poicy documents throughout the 1990s and before have made the case for pay as one of the most important contexts in which the chid wi earn and deveop Concusion This has been a brief overview of some of the strands of change which have impacted on the way in which chidren ive their ives in Ireand. We have no reason to suppose that chidren s ives wi be any ess subject to changing circumstances in the future, any more than we can suppose that society at arge wi become static. We have choices to make on the basis of the certainty of change, choices about how we can vaue chidhood and support chidren. Whie we can certainy ook back and recognize that society faied chidren in many cases, it woud be a mistake to take no more than that from the essons of experience. Rather, it shoud strengthen the resove of everyone invoved in ECCE or in advocacy for chidren to secure their fu citizenship and rights Impications for the NQF/ECCE This discussion has suggested impications for the CECDE in our deveopment of the NQF/ECCE. The avaiabiity of resources, training and investment has aways been crucia to the successfu impementation of curricuar change in Ireand, and wi remain so. 2 Maintaining a high profie for the rights and needs of chidren and ensuring their visibiity in the wider society is necessary for their we-being and for the quaity of provision. 3 Supporting parents towards work/ife baance and in parenting practices enhances the chid s ife. 4 Deveoping and maintaining structures which enhance communication and coordination within the ECCE sector, both at service and poicy eve, wi benefit provision. 5 Enhancing reationships between service providers and parents benefits the chid. 6 Chidren and the wider society need support in order to promote the deveopment of positive attitudes to diversity and equaity. 7 The chid s first anguage must be supported whie additiona anguages are being earned. 8 There is a need for research to document how chidren pay in their everyday ives in order to record the presence of chidren in our society. 14

18 Section 3 Thematic Perspective on the Learning and Deveoping Chid 3.1 Introduction As outined in the Introduction, seven themes emerged from the anaysis of the chiddeveopment sections of the Review Document. The enormous amount of information contained in the extensive iterature review has been considered very cosey. Foowing intensive anaysis, the materia has been condensed into the seven thematic areas presented in this Section. These themes are not intended as stand aone eements, but must be considered together. Each theme interacts with and compements the others and the order in which they are presented is not intended as a hierarchy. Certain specific points of research from the Review Document are used to iustrate various points throughout the chapter. These are exampes ony and are not necessariy the most important points to emerge from the research; they are incuded because of their appropriateness for the particuar theme under discussion. The discussion revoves around chidren from birth to six years of age, but recognises that there are differences in approach for specific age groups in that range. Whie it was not possibe to go into detai about each age sub-group, some mention is made of the particuar approaches necessary for very young chidren. Because the themes centre on fundamenta principes for practice, they are intended as incusive of a settings and age groups. The discussion which foows considers the CECDE perspective on the context for quaity practice with young chidren. Foowing the discussion of each theme, the impications for the NQF/ECCE are incuded under the headings of Defining, Assessing and Supporting Quaity. 15

19 Section 3: Thematic Perspective on the Learning and Deveoping Chid 3.2 Chid-centred earning and deveopment Taking a chid-centred approach to a chid s deveopment and earning requires that the aduts supporting the chid focus on the chid s unique individuaity as the starting point for earning. This ensures that the chid is at the centre of the endeavour rather than a body of knowedge that she must absorb. The chid is an active agent in her own earning and deveopment. She has, among other things, her own interests, strengths, needs, earning dispositions and potentia. These co-exist with her cutura identity, gender, reationships, competencies and abiities. This compexity, of course, is much more than the sum of its parts. Chidhood is a distinct and vauabe time during which this unique individuaity must be acknowedged and appreciated, supported, treasured and nurtured towards fufiment and joy through reationships with the significant aduts in her ife. A recognition of the chid s rights provides a context for this dynamic process which coud be supported by rights-based egisation and poicy. The chid wi benefit from reciproca communication with significant aduts who gain knowedge and understanding of her ife through that communication. Recognising that the chid has a distinct voice in our society, aied with the recognition of the chid s active agency in ife, brings an acknowedgement of the chid s right to a sense of contro over outcomes in her ife at an age appropriate eve. For young chidren especiay, it is the significant aduts in the environment who wi ensure she becomes aware of her own sense of sef-reiance, independence and contro. This emphasises the importance of high quaity, dynamic and reciproca interactions between the chid and the adut. The activities and opportunities for pay and discovery made avaiabe to the chid through quaity services and supports must foster the chid s sense of purpose and give meaning to her engagement with the word. Cruciay, the chid must be aowed to exercise choice as a requisite part of active participation. A chid-centred approach based on knowedge and understanding of the chid s ife must recognise aso that the circumstances in which a chid ives her ife are not aways optimay conducive to her harmonious deveopment. A chid iving in circumstances of disadvantage, experiencing marginaisation on racia, ethnic or cutura grounds, or because of having specia needs arising from a disabiity, has the same rights to quaity experiences as her peers. It is the chid who must benefit directy from interventions, and a interventions invoving chidren must primariy focus on chid outcomes which foow from the chid s needs. Too often, it is the chid s ife which is used as a site of intervention in fufiing other obigations, such as reeasing parents from chidcare commitments to participate in the abour force. The chid s we-being must be the primary concern, and the chid s ife must be respected. Perhaps that is the essence of a chid-centred approach, that the chid and chidhood are afforded respect and dignity by parents, significant aduts, the State and society. Current research knowedge provides usefu insights in the impementation of a chidcentred approach. For exampe, from a physica point of view, the chid needs baanced and heathy nutrition, but chidren iving in poverty are most at risk of deficient diets. This finding is of particuar concern in Ireand, which has one of the highest rates of chid poverty in the EU. In terms of preventative heath care, the chid s heath and we-being is supported in the crucia deveopmenta years by consistent, seamess, muti-discipinary service provision in the context of knowedge of the chid s individua needs and circumstances. Physica activity is a key and necessary eement in a chid s deveopment and is strongy associated with parenta modeing, and faciities and attitudes in chidcare centres, pre-schoos, schoos and other out-of-home settings. Athough deveopmenta pathways have been mapped, and provide a usefu paradigm, it must be recognised that chidren have individua deveopmenta trajectories and abiities infuenced, but not determined, by, for exampe, gender and abiities. As the young chid grows and deveops sociay and emotionay, caregivers wi need to recognise the web of eements which make up her individua profie. Emotiona reguation, i.e. the abiity to exercise contro over one s emotions, internay and externay, in accompishing one s goas, and the abiity to recognise and abe emotions in onesef and in others, is a facet of the chid s deveopment. 16

20 Evidence and Perspectives Other aspects which require knowedge geaned from research incude the chid s coping skis, sense of autonomy, attachment reationships (particuary with parents), sefesteem, sef-confidence, sef-identity and prosocia behaviours. Currenty, three major modes of chidren s earning and cognitive deveopment provide a theoretica basis for practice Piagetian constructivist theory, Vygotskian sociocutura interactive theory and information processing theory. Within this theoretica framework, research provides insights on the buiding bocks of active earning incuding curiosity, exporation and novety seeking, mastery motivation and goa persistence, metacognition, probem soving and the inter-reationship between anguage and thinking. Theory on the mora deveopment of the chid is an emerging area and one in which there is noteworthy research interest here in Ireand. The existing body of knowedge can further our understanding of the chid s growth and deveopment through exporations of moraity as emotion, as conformity to rue and authority, as conforming to one s own beief system and sense of sef, and the ways in which the chid s deveoping mora sense functions in overa deveopment. In the same way that theories of mora deveopment are in an eary stage of deveopment, so too is the case with research on the chid s emerging spiritua ife. Nonetheess, there are insights avaiabe into spirituaity as a human capacity and an integra eement of overa deveopment Impications for the NQF/ECCE Defining quaity: Quaity service provision is based on the chid s individua profie of strengths and needs. The chid is an active agent in her earning and deveopment and is given the opportunity to exercise choice and autonomy. Caregivers and significant aduts have an understanding and knowedge of current research and theory of chid deveopment. Caregivers and significant aduts understand the circumstances of the chid s ife and have the expertise to understand and address the impact of these circumstances. The chid has the right to quaity service provision which prioritises her interests and we-being. Assessing quaity: The chid s opinion must be sought and incuded, in an age and context appropriate way in the course of evauation and assessment. Supporting quaity: The quaifications and training of practitioners to ensure high eves of understanding of chid deveopment and high eves of professiona expertise, is fundamenta to providing quaity chidcentred services. 3.3 Hoistic earning and deveopment The chid s deveopmenta domains are fundamentay inter-reated, and exert reciproca infuences, each upon the others, towards hoistic deveopment. This is the case within the chid s current deveopmenta stage, and as she is supported by nondirective, responsive aduts to progress to the next deveopmenta stage on the basis of her previous experience. In order to refect the inter-reatedness of a areas of the chid s earning, the chid must be respected as an active and equa participant in the earning process. This is a prerequisite for the chid to reaise her own potentia through the depoyment of her existing knowedge. Higher-order thinking skis are deveoped through reciproca interaction with the adut, who is chaenging the chid appropriatey. Deveopment of the higher-order thinking skis is highy dependent on the quaity of the interaction with the adut. These higherorder thinking skis, in which the chid integrates existing knowedge and begins to create new meanings and connections, are an expression of the hoistic nature of earning. Curricuum and earning contexts, in responding to the hoistic and compex personaity of the chid, must be chid-centred 17

21 Section 3: Thematic Perspective on the Learning and Deveoping Chid and refect the chid s interests. They must provide meaningfu activities and opportunities for the chid to engage activey with the earning process. Learning programmes, curricuum content and pedagogy must refect and support the chid s hoistic deveopment in which the chid hersef is an active participant and constructor of meaning. This has impications for service provision in terms of continuity of care and transition from home to out-of-home settings and from pre-schoo to schoo settings. Equay important is communication between parents and other caregivers and significant aduts in the chid s ife in order to ensure the maximum understanding and knowedge to underpin the chid s fu and harmonious deveopment. The environments (reationa, physica and cutura) in which the chid moves and acts must be in harmony in refecting that understanding and knowedge of the chid. The State has a key roe in promoting, supporting and ensuring the hoistic deveopment of the chid through co-ordinated provision and poicies. Responses to individua needs, particuary in situations in which a chid has additiona needs reated to disadvantage, disabiity and other circumstances, shoud be addressed in the context of muti-discipinary teams. Such teams shoud operate, not on the basis of individuas to whom the chid is brought in turn, but as a fexibe whoe which brings support to the chid in the context of the famiy. Care and education are not sustainabe as separate experiences in a chid s ife. Just as the chid s deveopmenta domains are interreated, inter-connected and inter-infuentia, and as the chid s higher-order thinking skis form connections within her knowedge base, so is the chid s experience of the word interconnected and hoistic. To artificiay divide that experience in the structures and contexts designed for nurturing the chid is not hepfu. A hoistic perspective on quaity provision requires a perspectives to be taken into account with an acknowedgement that these perspectives chidren s, parents, professionas, state bodies are inter-reated and must form an integrated whoe. There is ampe research evidence supporting the premise of intricate inter-connectedness of the chid s overa experience of earning and deveopment. Physica activity in a chid s eary years of deveopment enhances overa socio-emotiona, cognitive and physica deveopment, and forms the basis for future activity patterns. Attachment reationships, based on trust and security, promote positive deveopment in young chidren. Evidence suggests that secure attachments promote socia competence and cognitive deveopment, and ay down the foundations of trust for the young chid. Aso, the impact of mastery motivation and goa persistence on cognitive deveopment and competence is significant. The two major factors - genetic and sociaisation infuences - which impact on mastery motivation, refect the interreatedness of nature and nurture. Spiritua deveopment in chidhood has the potentia to significanty enrich and strengthen our understanding of core processes and dimensions of chid deveopment. Current research proposes that spiritua deveopment is just as important to persona and socia we-being as are physica, cognitive and emotiona eements of deveopment Impications for the NQF/ECCE Defining quaity: The chid s earning and deveopment occurs and progresses hoisticay and an array of supports is required to refect and support this phenomenon. Care and education are indivisibe eements of a chid s ife. Quaity provision requires continuity between the various contexts in which the chid spends time. Parents and a significant aduts invoved in supporting the chid s deveopment communicate and share their knowedge and experiences of the chid. Where chidren have additiona needs arising from disadvantaged circumstances or a disabiity, interventions must be on the basis of the chid s hoistic deveopment. Poicy deveopments must promote cohesiveness and co-ordination in provision for young chidren. 18

22 Evidence and Perspectives Assessing quaity: The chid s progress must be assessed continuousy by a variety of means, and the knowedge gained made avaiabe appropriatey to the reevant aduts working with the chid. Process quaity, that is the quaity of the interactions between the chid and the significant aduts, and the chid and other chidren, must be incuded in assessment and evauation procedures. The systems used to assess the chid s progress must be incuded in overa evauation and assessment. Supporting quaity: Ongoing professiona deveopment, training and mentoring wi be necessary to maintain the high eves of ski and expertise required to respond fuy to the chid. Funding wi be required to ensure that the outdoor and indoor environment is responsive to the interests of the chid. 3.4 Environments for earning and deveopment The chid experiences her environment in severa inter-reated and ecoogica ways predicated on her own individua circumstances the physica environment (e.g. indoor and outdoor, home and out-ofhome), the reationa environment (e.g. parents, famiy, friends, caregivers, community, neighbourhood, significant others) and the cutura environment (e.g. diversity, discrimination, sef-identity, disadvantage, socia cass, race, ethnicity). This section wi consider primariy the physica environment as the reationa and cutura environments wi be deat with in ater sections In discussing the physica environment, it shoud be noted that this is conceptuaised as a continuum to refect the totaity of the chid s ife experience. This continuum encompasses home and out-of-home environments, indoor and outdoor, the natura and buit environments, arge and sma spaces, pubic and private spaces, and a other spaces and paces in which the chid moves. The chid shoud have access to both structured (e.g. paygrounds) and nonstructured (e.g. parkand, woodand, back gardens) environments. Centra to the concept of chid-centredness is the recognition of the chid as an active agent in her own earning and deveopment, which she constructs hoisticay. The physica contexts in which this chid-initiated meaning-making happens shoud refect the principes of chid-centredness and hoistic deveopment. The chid s activity can be characterised in a dynamic way, and engagement, discovery, autonomy, opportunity, experimentation, exporation, enthusiasm and wonder are some of the hamarks of that activity. Utimatey, the interaction between the chid and her environment shoud provide her with fufiment and joy. Environments structured to meet the chid s needs shoud faciitate the chid s active approach to earning in safety and security, yet with provision for appropriate eve of risk. A eve of risk can be chaenging for the chid and offer scope for the exercise of sefreiance, independence and autonomy, for probem-soving using individua strengths to overcome difficuties and give a beneficia sense of contro over outcomes. The environment shoud aso foster co-operation between the chid and her peers within sma groups, and overa group size and adut/chid ratio must be ow enough to encourage this. The environment shoud stimuate curiosity, choice, interests, and be varied and dynamic without overwheming the chid. Care-givers and significant aduts can, for exampe, use the natura word as a stimuus to the chid s senses, as an inspiration to creativity, as a context for activities and pay, and as a source of continuity between home and out-of-home settings. Again, panning for such engagement with any environment requires that the starting point be the chid, her needs, interests, earning dispositions and so on. This is particuary the case in panning the indoor and outdoor environment in out-ofhome settings, and the chid shoud have access to outdoor pay and activity daiy. In panning a structured environment, care shoud be taken to refect the hoistic nature of earning and deveopment. Equipment and 19

23 Section 3: Thematic Perspective on the Learning and Deveoping Chid materias shoud not prescribe the activity, and the chid must have the opportunity to manipuate the objects in the environment as a vehice towards meaning-making. Each chid has individua needs, and the environment shoud be fexibe and adaptabe to wecome chidren with specia needs. The physica environment, whichever aspect of it is in question, must be we-resourced, and demonstrate fexibiity and incusivity. It must meet the requirements of reevant reguations and contain adaptive equipment so as to ensure consistent ease of access and frequent use by the chid with specia needs arising from a disabiity. For a chidren, proactive heath promotion in the environment, such as heathy eating poicy, promotion of heathy physica activity and persona care (e.g. persona hygiene, tooth care) is an important input into the chid s ife. The iterature on chid deveopment gives important direction on the environmenta supports which wi benefit young chidren s hoistic deveopment. One very focused exampe is the importance of breakfast (in the context of good overa nutrition) for a chid s overa we-being. Breakfast cubs, and the provision of breakfast to a chidren attending out-of-home settings are just two exampes of an environmenta support. Faciities and attitudes in chidcare centres, pre-schoos, schoos and other out-of-home settings are strongy associated with physica activity in young chidren, with particuar significance in the organisation of indoor and outdoor environments. There is considerabe evidence that the provision of pubic pay spaces in the community impacts on chidren s opportunities for physica activity among their peers, and that the absence of such faciities is a feature of the ives of chidren in Ireand. Such environmenta supports are very important, as indicated by current theories on emotiona deveopment. The functiona approach to emotiona deveopment views emotions as emerging from ongoing interactions between the individua and her environment. Supportive reationships and environments in the community, particuary for chidren with specia needs and those experiencing chaenging situations, promote effective coping abiities. Stimuating environments, the provision of meaningfu choices for young chidren and task repetition eading to independent action promote autonomy and mastery motivation in young chidren. Pre-schoo and schoo environments and aduts interactive styes are aso reated to perceptions of autonomy. The iterature on curiosity, exporation and novety seeking indicates that earning environments shoud be varied, dynamic and structured enough to stimuate curiosity and support exporation without overwheming the chid s attempts to process it. Mastery motivation in the deveoping chid has its roots in the intrinsic desire to master one s environment, particuary the physica environment. Theories of mora deveopment te us that in earning to vaue the environment, the chid can earn to respect the natura word as a source of wonder and awe Impications for the NQF/ECCE Defining quaity: The chid requires access to a range of environments across the continuum from indoor to outdoor, buit and natura and so on. The physica environment in out-of-home settings must be carefuy designed and thoughtfuy arranged for fexibiity, stimuation and dynamic engagement by the chid. The environment must aow the chid a degree of risk. Assessing quaity: Whie the physica environment in out-ofhome settings must meet reevant heath and safety standards, the roe of the environment in supporting the chid s earning must aso be part of the evauation and assessment processes. Supporting quaity: Resources to adapt the environment to be fexibe to the needs of a chidren wi be required. Resources to deveop the outdoor environment, and ensure that the chid 20

24 Evidence and Perspectives has easy access between indoor and outdoor spaces in out-of-home settings, wi be required. Advice and training on panning the earning environment wi be necessary on an ongoing basis as part of overa professiona deveopment. 3.5 Reationships in earning and deveopment The reationships in which a chid engages, from birth onwards, form a centra piar of the environment within which the chid deveops and earns. A chid s reationa environment comprises parents, sibings, famiy, friends, peers, caregivers and others in the community with whom the chid has socia interaction. A chid s hoistic deveopment and earning is best supported in the context of secure, supportive, stimuating and nurturing reationships. These are characterised by respect, kindness, generosity, sensitivity, emotiona responsiveness, empathy, sympathy and warmth. Reciproca reationships shoud indicate to the chid that she is vaued, her contribution is important and that she is istened to and heard in the diaogue. It is generay acknowedged that parents, both mother and father, are the most important peope in a chid s ife. Parents are aso the most infuentia peope in the chid s ife, and it is, in genera, a chid s parents who primariy support and nurture her fu and harmonious deveopment. Moreover, it is they who provide the ove and security which most enriches the chid s ife, and who hod most dear the chid s happiness and we-being. It must be acknowedged that there are situations in which parents who empoy positive parenting styes encounter difficuties because their chid is unabe to respond in kind. For exampe, this might occur in the case of a chid with specia needs arising from a disabiity or because of the chid s individua temperament. It must aso be acknowedged that there are instances when parents require support in being parents, perhaps because they are under stress in other aspects of their ives and are unabe to provide positive parenting. In these circumstances, and other simiar circumstances, parents need support within the context of the famiy and the community. These supports must be famiybased, and the interests of the chid must be centra to the outcomes. Reciproca reationships with sibings and peers can be an important source of friendship and support for young chidren. These reationships can promote mora reasoning, confict resoution skis and socia understanding in very young chidren. Pay activities with sibings and peers can foster the deveopment of pro-socia behaviours, such as sharing and co-operating. Sibing reationships in particuar can be a source of ifeong support and protection from adverse ife circumstances and events. Todders can begin to show interest in their peers even before the age of two, and young chidren have an important need for paymates and friends, as these reationships act to enhance the chid s sef-esteem and sef-worth. Aduts shoud not underestimate the importance to the young chid of her friends and friendships. Significant aduts need to faciitate the chid s friendships, and, in particuar in out-of-home settings, foster reationships between the chidren in their care. For the significant aduts who interact with the chid in out-of-home settings to support earning and deveopment, it is within the adut/chid reationship that much of the earning takes pace. Adut interactive styes, as an eement of the environment, are cruciay important. The adut is required to start from the point of the chid s interests in her activities and earning situations, to emphasise the chid s strengths and competencies, whie heping the chid to cope with mistakes and frustration through to the experience of success, resiiency and probem soving. In reating to the chid, the adut must be appropriatey non-directive, must discuss, question and consider (rather than dictate) outcomes, and partner the chid in constructing meaning. It is through the adut/chid reationship and interaction that the adut has the opportunity to demonstrate cutura awareness, to practice incusivity and to promote positive modes of diversity. As in the case of the physica environment, the reationa environment is conceptuaised as a continuum, not as a set of compartments which the chid visits in turn. This then has impications for the caregivers, service providers, teachers and other significant 21

25 Section 3: Thematic Perspective on the Learning and Deveoping Chid aduts who inhabit the chid s reationa environment. Communication and partnership between the aduts is essentia if the chid is to experience the continuity necessary to a hoistic experience of ife. It must be reiterated that care and education can not be fractured, but must be an integrated experience for the chid in her reationships. Communication and partnership between parents and significant aduts in out-ofhome settings is imperative. Provision of services and faciities for famiies and chidren shoud take into account the chid s need for opportunities and paces to be with other chidren. A chid s infancy and very eary years are a time of unique dependency, during which parents and caregivers have a particuar roe in earning and deveopment. It is their responsibiity to provide a stimuating environment in which caregiving routines are appreciated as opportunities to deveop the reationship with the chid. These daiy routines are aso opportunities to foster anguage and cognitive deveopment. During this period the chid s experience is, to a arge degree, mediated by the significant aduts in her ife, in particuar her parents. This has practica impications in that, for exampe, the chid s access to preventative heath care is argey determined by parenta awareness and attitude towards heath care services. It is through dynamic and reciproca reationships that the chid deveops emotiona reguation and understanding. Additionay, positive and secure attachment reationships promote the deveopment of positive coping skis. For mora deveopment, the young chid needs a warm and consistent framework within which to form reationships, and spiritua deveopment is infuenced by, among other things, dynamic interactions with significant others. There are many other exampes of the ways in which the chid s reationships with others impact on her hoistic deveopment, and the importance of positive, nurturing, reciproca reationships cannot be overstated Impications for the NQF/ECCE Defining quaity: Quaity provision requires acknowedgement of difficuties in reationships which may impact negativey on the chid. Assessing quaity: Systems, routines and protocos for supporting reationships between home and out-of-home settings shoud be incuded in evauation and assessment procedures. Evauation and assessment must incude the interactions which take pace between the chid and the adut, the chid and other chidren, and among aduts. Protocos for deaing with instances in which a chid is experiencing negative reationships, for exampe buying or abuse, shoud be incuded in evauation and assessment. The process of evauation and assessment shoud in itsef be a coaborative exercise, refective of the reationa environment in which it takes pace. Supporting quaity: The promotion of good working reationships among the team in out-ofhome settings shoud be part of pre-service and in-service training for managers and other professionas in the ECCE sector. The chid s earning and deveopment is best supported in the context of the famiy and community. The aduts in out-of-home settings reate to the chid in reciproca interactions based on partnership. Sharing of good practice, effective strategies and practica methods for invoving parents and promoting good communication and partnership between home and out-of-home settings shoud be faciitated through practitioner networks and/or professiona mentoring. 22

26 Evidence and Perspectives 3.6 Diversity in earning and deveopment The chid s individuaity is the basic buiding bock of diversity among chidren. Individuaity and diversity are companion concepts in the chid s ife experience. The concern of the significant aduts in the chid s ife must be to make both individuaity and diversity a ceebration of the unique compexity of each chid. An appreciation of this individuaity contributes to the appication of the principes of chidcentredness and hoism in reciproca reationships with the chid. As an individua, the chid has rights which must be uphed, and aduts have a roe in protecting those rights. Each chid is a unique individua with many dimensions to her ife; for exampe, interests, earning dispositions, temperament, famiy, race, ethnicity, capabiities, needs, socio-economic circumstances, gender, anguage. A of these eements, and others, interact and combine in forming the person who deveops in ways which refect her unique and compex profie. It is important that this individuaity have visibiity in a considerations of how best to make provision for the chid, either at home or in out-of-home settings. The environment reationa, physica and cutura must be fexibe and responsive enough to be incusive of the individua chid. The chid, in turn, is active in those environments and has persona agency. She must be abe to exercise choice and experience a sense of contro over outcomes in her own ife, and to that end must be istened to, and heard, by those who make decisions on behaf of chidren. Acknowedging that the chid has rights aso paces an onus on significant aduts to be advocates for the right of chidren to quaity experiences and quaity services. This wi require, possiby, egisative action and systemic change. Knowedge and understanding of the individua chid s ife experiences is a prerequisite for taking action on her behaf. The chid s right to quaity supports precudes using her ife as a site of intervention in pursuit of goas which are not reated to chid outcomes. Quaity service provision, be it a targeted intervention or other eement of provision in any setting, shoud start with the chid. It shoud focus on chid outcomes and the processes which occur through the different eements of the environment to support and nurture the chid towards overa we-being. Accompanying this principe of individua profie is the awareness of diversity among chidren. Diversity is not about pacing a chid in a category in which the chid is identified ony by, for exampe, specia needs arising from a disabiity, by ethnic origin or by the eve of disadvantage she experiences. Any of these conditions can exist together in a chid s ife, aong with as described above many other attributes and experiences. Accepting that diversity is a given and a constant can enabe significant aduts to work from a position of cutura awareness, to provide adaptive environments, to acknowedge abiities, to be positive roe modes for incusive practices, and to pro-activey mode anti-bias behaviours and curricua. Such behaviours shoud be the norm even in settings where there may be the appearance of homogeneity. This might mean, for exampe, in singe-sex schoos or settings in which the chidren come from simiar cutura backgrounds. The chid must be supported in reationships with other chidren towards empathy, understanding and co-operation. The chid must know hersef to be vaued, her first anguage respected and supported whie second-anguage earning is proceeding. She must find that her cuture is visibe, a necessary part of supporting sef-identity. Her needs must be identified and met in the context of hoistic deveopment. As outined in Section 2, the diversity of our society is an acknowedged feature of our ives, and the ife of the individua chid. Knowedge of the chid s ife wi ead to specific responses to individua chidren. For exampe, specia attention may be required to meet the needs of a chid whose heath suffers because of socio-economic and/or cutura disadvantage. In Ireand, a chid who is homeess or is a member of the Traveer community is at risk of poor heath, and Ireand has one of the highest rates of chid poverty in Europe. Autonomy is centra to the empowerment of a chidren, and perhaps more so to marginaised chidren, those experiencing cutura and socio-economic disadvantage and those with specia needs. In this ight, adaptive equipment and environments, which are suited to their age, eve of need and ethnic background are essentia to enabe a 23

27 Section 3: Thematic Perspective on the Learning and Deveoping Chid chidren to manipuate, expore and experiment in their word. There is a very arge body of research on issues of ethnic identity; here in Ireand, for exampe, a body of iterature on Traveer cutura identity has emerged. Training and support for practitioners and significant aduts wi need to equip them with knowedge and expertise, based on such materias, to address the diverse profies of the chidren and to identify strategies to respond appropriatey. But, of course, the chid can aso be resiient, and such resiiency must be fostered. The chid is not a passive recipient of intervention, but an active participant in any such programme. One of the aspects of diversity which is most visibe is that of anguage. Ireand has a history of biinguaism and a substantia body of experience of second-anguage earning. Increasingy, the anguage needs of chidren in Ireand expand the range of anguages in use as first and second anguages. It appears that supporting the chid s first anguage is very important to the deveopment of the second anguage. This has impications for the provision of supports in the form of chidcare workers and cassroom assistants who can speak the chid s first anguage in situations where the service is conducted in a second or additiona anguage for the chid. There are aso impications for services in communicating and buiding reationships with parents and famiies for whom the anguage of the service is not their first anguage. Through pay, sef-expression and guided exporation, chidren gain a sense of history, identity and cutura tradition as we as the deveopment of their ski in paying and deveoping creativey. In an hoistic approach to deveopment and earning in educationa settings, it is vita that young chidren are engaged in activities which aow them to recognise and appreciate the beauty and diversity of their natura environment through activities which are at the heart of cutura activities, e.g. story-teing, drama, music and dance Impications for the NQF/ECCE must be identified by the significant aduts who wi then deveop strategies to respond appropriatey. This appies at a eves, from poicy and egisative deveopment, to daiy service provision. Practitioners and significant aduts must foster incusive and anti-bias practice, and promote awareness of diversity, regardess of the presence or absence of cutura or other forms of diversity in their immediate environment. Cutura sensitivity must be part of reationships in ECCE settings, and this sensitivity wi incude making the chid s cuture visibe in the environment. Assessing quaity: Practitioner refective practice wi incude consideration of how interactions and reationships promote empathy, sympathy and understanding among the chidren. Systems, routines and protocos to respond to the impact of diverse cutura backgrounds among parents on communication and partnership shoud be incuded in evauation and assessment. Assessment and evauation of the environment shoud incude the images, equipment and materias provided and the eve to which they refect and respond to diverse needs and identities. Assessment shoud incude an evauation of the steps taken by practitioners to become famiiar with cutura ideas and practices that might be different or contrary to the prevaiing ideas and practices of the setting. Supporting quaity: Resources shoud be made avaiabe which refect a range of cutura identities, gender, abiity eves and so on for use with a chidren. Defining quaity: Each chid has an individua configuration of strengths, capabiities and needs which Practitioners and significant aduts may require support in deveoping their own positive attitudes towards diversity in the community and in their setting. 24

28 Evidence and Perspectives Peer support and sharing of good practice, strategies and methods, as we as the sharing of information, of accessing suitabe materias, resources and supports, wi be faciitated through oca professiona networks. 3.7 Communication in earning and deveopment Communication is understood here as being a reciproca and mutua exchange between peope across the range of human experience. Each chid needs to share in this phenomenon. Communication is about more than anguage a parent can communicate ove, comfort and reassurance through a hug as, or more effectivey, than with words. A chid who does not acquire anguage, for exampe, because of a disabiity, needs to be supported in deveoping a recognisabe aternative or augmentative means of communicating. Communication is conceptuaised, as are the other themes outined here, as woven through a the deveopmenta domains and interconnected with the other themes. Whie communication is most often associated with spoken anguage, there are many other forms of communication avaiabe; technoogy provides aternatives to speech, as does sign anguage, reciproca communication through the senses touch, sight, sme, hearing and taste sef-expression through the arts and so on. Each chid must be supported in communicating with her environments through the most appropriate means. In most cases, this wi mean supporting the chid s anguage earning, be it first anguage, second anguage, or biinguaism, and this requires different eves of support in different contexts. For exampe, the effects of disadvantaged circumstances can impact on a chid s anguage deveopment and specific interventions may be required to offset those effects. Hearing probems can aso impact on the chid s abiity to communicate. Hearing difficuty is a reativey common chidhood occurrence making screening essentia during a chid s eary years. Chidren who are acquiring Engish as a second anguage aso require specific interventions. The core principe remains that each chid must be abe to engage in reciproca communication within her environments. Communication is, as with the other identified themes, inextricaby interconnected with the chid s environment (physica, reationa and cutura). It refects the chid s individuaity and the diversity of her experiences, and aows the chid to express her word view, provided the chid is istened to in the communicative context. Communication is embedded in the chid s socia deveopment and is the basis for her reationships with parents, sibings, peers, significant aduts, extended famiy and a the other socia reationships she wi experience. It is the means through which, in turn, the significant aduts can come to understand and know the chid s ife and personaity. By communicating with each other, the chid s secure trusting reationships with parents, significant aduts and other chidren, which are so essentia to heathy deveopment and we-being, are deveoped and maintained. The interactive styes of the aduts who are supporting the chid s earning are most important in affirming the chid as an active co-constructor of meaning. It is fundamenta to the effectiveness of the adut interactive stye that the reationship with the chid be conceptuaised as a diaogue and a discussion. Aduts need to communicate with the chid in ways which show empathy, sympathy, kindness, sensitivity and responsiveness. Communication characterised in this way contributes to the chid s mora deveopment, and, in particuar, impacts on how diversity is approached. But the communicative process shoud aso chaenge the chid, in an age and deveopmentay appropriate way, to move towards new earning, understanding and meaning-making. The iterature on spiritua deveopment taks of the chid as a natura phiosopher. Phiosophy is characterised by mutuaity and openness, encouraging the chid to question, anayse, investigate, think criticay and probem sove in coaboration with others. Ongoing communication between parents and other significant aduts is a further necessary eement in promoting the chid s we-being. Such communication is essentia to a fu understanding of, for exampe, the chid s circumstances, personaity, cuture, interests and dispositions; in other words, to the overa integration and continuity of the chid s ife. It is aso fundamenta to deveoping a partnership between home and out-of-home settings, and an important 25

29 Section 3: Thematic Perspective on the Learning and Deveoping Chid prerequisite of parenta invovement. Equay, in settings and circumstances which invove more than one person working with the chid for exampe in centre-based day care and therapeutic teams communication between the members of the team is crucia. Sharing knowedge of the chid, maintaining consistency in meeting the chid s needs and ensuring that a reevant information is avaiabe to the team and to those keeping records is important. To this end, systems, routines and protocos to faciitate communication and information sharing wi need to be estabished in most out-of-home settings. In addition, management skis in communication wi be significant contributors to quaity provision Impications for the NQF/ECCE Defining quaity: Each chid s communicative abiity is fostered in the context of reciproca interactions within nurturing, secure reationships. Environmenta supports, materias, adaptive equipment and other necessary resources are avaiabe to the chid to support her communicative abiities. The chid s first anguage must be supported and deveoped, incuding in settings where the daiy anguage is an additiona anguage for the chid. Out-of-home settings have systems, routines and protocos to faciitate communication among the team within the setting, with other professionas invoved with the chid and with the parents. Assessing quaity: Where externa evauation and assessment of a service takes pace, there must be cear communication of the parameters of the process, and the process itsef must be characterised by cose communication between and among a invoved. Supporting quaity: Management training shoud incude communication skis. Communication among the practitioner community must have a range of supports, for exampe, networks, custer groups and professiona pubications. 3.8 Pay for earning and deveopment Pay is the process and state of being in which the chid wi predominanty engage with her own hoistic deveopment. There is no singe definition of what pay is, but the chid is not in need of a definition pay is what she does. Perhaps the difficuty which aduts have in defining pay is a refection of the ownership which chidren have over the process. It may we aso be a refection of the immediacy and spontaneity of pay, and the open ended, fexibe nature of what happens when chidren are paying. What is not contested is that pay is a source of fufiment and joy for the chid, a source of wonder to aduts and a major contributor to the we-being of chidren. Each chid has the right to pay and this requires supportive aduts, environments and communities, in what coud be characterised as an ecoogica mode of support. Support for pay is an essentia part of vauing chidhood, one which requires action if such vaues are not to become mere rhetoric. This appies in particuar to the provision of pubic pay spaces and faciities in the community. Pay is a very important context in which the inter-reated domains of deveopment physica, socio-emotiona, cognitive, mora and spiritua are activated through discovery, exporation, experimentation, enthusiasm, creativity and curiosity. During pay, the chid can be soitary or socia. She can depoy previous experience and knowedge and exercise meta-cognitive skis. She can expore her own deveopmenta stage and incorporate new earning. She can engage with concrete objects and/or ideas. She can expore emotion and cuture, and experience autonomy and purpose, and much, much more. Activities characterised in this way require an eement of risk if they are to be truy experimenta and exporatory difficuty and chaenge are needed too. Coping with mistakes and frustration is part of earning and deveopment. Provision for pay in whatever context or for whatever age must provide opportunities for risk taking in what is utimatey a safe and secure environment. 26

30 Evidence and Perspectives The chid experiences her own active agency in the pay process, eading to experiences of success, independence and sef-reiance. It is the responsibiity of significant aduts in the earning environment to ensure the chid s sense of contro, especiay in situations of structured pay towards specific earning objectives. Those aduts wi need expertise in recognising the appropriate adut input into pay, as we as in panning for earning through pay. Skifu observation of the chid at pay is another essentia eement of the training and expertise of the practitioner as a guide to future panning. One important area of observation is the chid s mastery motivation and goa persistence in pursuing a pay activity. There is a arge body of evidence which suggests that persistence (a primary measure of motivation) on a particuar task is ikey to ead to competence on that task. Furthermore, young chidren who are more engrossed in their free pay (thereby demonstrating higher eves of motivation) have been found to demonstrate more cognitivey sophisticated pay than young chidren who are ess engrossed. Exchanges characterised by positive responses and warmth have been associated with higher eves of task-directedness, to better organised and more sustained pay activity and to more pride in persona achievement in young chidren. Pay is a particuary motivating medium through which young chidren can deveop and earn, and it has been shown to improve panning and probem soving. Furthermore, it can enabe chidren to integrate new ideas and practice new skis. It can aso be used to promote anguage use, creativity and fexibiity of thought. In particuar, the iterature emphasises that structured pay shoud provide inteectua chaenge and security, two factors which are argey determined by the deveopmenta appropriateness of the activities. Pay is an expression of each chid s compex individuaity and of the coective diversity of any given group of chidren. From a very eary age, the chid s perceptua skis give her the potentia to observe, show awareness and activey engage in her word. In this respect, the young chid needs to be encouraged to enter pay together with peers and significant aduts and, by doing so, share a wonder and enthusiasm in their mutua exporations and expressions of their word. This wi require opportunities to touch, to fee, to taste, to sme and see the beauty and detai in the immediate environment. She must aso be faciitated to deveop age appropriate awareness of the wider community and word. The pay environment (physica, reationa, cutura) must be fexibe and adaptabe to individuaity and diversity, particuary in the case of chidren with specia needs arising from disabiity, disadvantage or cutura marginaisation. Resiiency in chidren growing up in disadvantaged circumstances was found to be associated with a range of parenta actions. Parents were found to protect their chidren from the adverse effects of poverty by, for exampe, providing a variety of stimuating earning materias and access to safe pay areas, and being responsive and sensitive to their chid s needs Impications for the NQF/ECCE Defining quaity: A provision for chidren, whether at home or in out-of-home settings must, as a priority, provide pay faciities, materias, opportunities, supports, resources and any other requirements identified as hepfu in promoting pay The chid must be encouraged to engage in pay aone, with other chidren and with aduts. The chid shoud have access to pay opportunities across a environments described in Section 3.4. Assessing quaity: Heath and safety aspects of evauation and assessment shoud, within reason, not miitate against the chid s abiity to engage with the environment. Supporting quaity: Theories and approaches to pay and payfu interactions must be centra to preand in-service training for ECCE practitioners. 27

31 Section 3: Thematic Perspective on the Learning and Deveoping Chid Dedicated support for the deveopment of pay activities shoud be avaiabe to practitioners, possiby from a pay advisor working with a group of services. 3.9 Concusion Each chid is a unique, compex and wonderfu human being. Considerabe work has gone into researching and documenting the myriad eements of chid deveopment and a the processes which occur in the course of that deveopment. Yet it is doubtfu if any writer, commentator or researcher has captured the quintessence of a singe chid. Perhaps this is part of the continuing fascination of chidhood for aduts. It is very important that, in deconstructing the eements of chid deveopment theory in order to further our own understandings, we do not ose sight of the chid. 28

32 Section 4 Concusion This document has aid out the CECDE perspective on the changing constructions of eary chidhood in Ireand over the ast century. It has addressed some issues of current interest and debate in ECCE in Ireand. Through the thematic interpretation of chid deveopment and earning, it has iustrated the CECDE s perspective on the inter-reated nature of that earning and deveopment. Primariy, though, it has demonstrated the perspective on the chid and chidhood which has been incorporated into the deveopment of the NQF/ECCE. The deveopment of the NQF/ECCE wi be a major resut of the CECDE s work. It wi be the first time that the ECCE sector in Ireand wi have an agreed set of nationa quaity standards. It is vita that such an important initiative is firmy rooted in the best avaiabe evidence and progressed through co-operation and consutation with stakehoders. The CECDE identified four eements of research which woud be required to underpin the NQF/ECCE. Three of these eements of research have been competed and pubished, as foows: (a) Insights on Quaity - A Nationa Review of Poicy, Practice and Research Reating to Quaity in Eary Chidhood Care and Education in Ireand (CECDE, 2004a) (b) Taking About Quaity - Report of a Consutation Process on Quaity in Eary Chidhood Care and Education: Executive Summary (CECDE, 2004b) (c) Making Connections - A Review of Internationa Poicies, Practices and 29

33 Section 4: Concusion Research Reating to Quaity in Eary Chidhood Care and Education (CECDE, 2004c) The pubication of Eary Chidhood in Ireand - Evidence and Perspectives competes the four piars. These four documents provide considerabe evidence on the constituent eements of quaity provision from a broad range of compementary perspectives. The CECDE has consistenty taken the view that a concordant and co-ordinated nationa poicy context is fundamenta to the objective of a co-ordinated and cohesive ECCE sector. Over the past decade or so, against the background of a rapidy changing socioeconomic and demographic andscape, there have been significant modernising deveopments in reation to poicy towards young chidren. These deveopments are refected in such semina documents as the Nationa Chidcare Strategy (DJELR, 1999), the White Paper on Eary Chidhood Education, Ready to Learn (DES, 1999a) and the Nationa Chidren s Strategy, Our Chidren, Their Lives (DHC, 2000). In addition, as referred to earier, the consutation document on eary earning, Towards a Framework for Eary Learning (NCCA, 2004) has added to the matrix of poicy on young chidren. The CECDE perspective, as expicated in this document, articuates we within this poicy framework. This perspective on chid deveopment and earning, as articuated by the CECDE, is now open to scrutiny and debate, a debate open to everybody with interest in ECCE in Ireand. Ongoing debate on chid earning and deveopment invigorates a invoved, and hopefuy enriches chidren s experiences. Enriching young chidren s experiences is aso at the heart of our utimate goa, a weestabished and agreed NQF/ECCE. 30

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36 Evidence and Perspectives Appendix 1: Seect Bibiography N.B. This is a seect bibiography of iterature pubished since This does not refect the entirety of the iterature consuted in the preparation of the Review Document. Aarnio, M., Winter, T., Kujaa, U., and Kaprio, J. (1997). Famiia Aggregation of Leisure-time Physica Activity A Threegeneration Study. Internationa Journa of Sports Medicine, 18, pp Abbott, L. and Moyett, H. (1997). Working with the under 3s Training and Professiona Deveopment. Buckingham: Open University Press. Administration on Chidren, Youth and Famiies (2000). Eary Head Start Benefits Chidren and Famiies. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Poicy Research, Inc. Administration on Chidren, Youth and Famiies (2002). Making a Difference in the Lives of Infants and Todders and their Famiies: The impact of Eary Head Start. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Poicy Research, Inc. Ahnert, L. and Lamb, M. (2003). Shared Care: Estabishing a Baance Between Home and Chid Care Settings. Chid Deveopment, 74, 4, pp Ainsworth, M. and Bowby, J. (1991). An Ethoogica Approach to Personaity Deveopment. American Psychoogist, 46, pp Aessandri, S. and Lewis, M. (1996). Differences in Pride and Shame in Matreated and Nonmatreated Preschooers. Chid Deveopment, 67, pp Aison, K. (1996). Predictors of Inactivity: An Anaysis of the Ontario Heath Survey. Canadian Journa of Pubic Heath, 87, pp Anwick, D. (1999). Candidate Non-infectious Disease Conditions. Atanta, G.A: Centers for Disease Contro and Prevention. American Academy of Pediatrics (1995). Drug Exposed Infants. Pediatrics, 96, pp American Academy of Pediatrics. (1999). Foic Acid for the Prevention of Neura Tube Defects. Pediatrics, 104, pp American Academy of Pediatrics, Task Force on Infant Seep Position and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (2000). Changing Concepts of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: Impications for Infant Seeping Environment and Seep Position. Pediatrics, 105, pp Anders, T., Goodin-Jones, B., and Zeenko, M. (1998). Infant Reguation and Seep-wake State Deveopment. Zero to Three, 19, pp Aronson, L. (1995). Big Spirits, Litte Bodies. Virgina Beach, VA: A.R.E. Press. Assor, A., Kapan, H. and Roth, G. (2002). Choice is Good, but Reevance is Exceent: Autonomy-enhancing and Suppressing Teacher Behaviours Predicting Students Engagement in Schoowork. British Journa of Educationa Psychoogy, 72, 2, pp Ayuso-Mateos, J. and Vazquez-Barquero, J. (2001). Depressive Disorders in Europe: Prevaence Figures from the ODIN study. British Journa of Psychiatry, 179, pp Baiey, D. and McCuoch, R. (1992). Osteoporosis: Are there Chidhood Antecedents for an Adut Heath Probem? Canadian Journa of Pediatrics, 10, pp Baiargeon, R. (1993). The Object Concept Revisited: New Directions in the Investigation of Infants Physica Knowedge (in) Reese, H. (Ed.). Advances in Chid Deveopment and Behaviour, 23. New York: Academic Press. Baker, C. (1997). Foundations of Biingua Education and Biinguaism (2 nd Edition). Avon: Mutiingua Matters Ltd. Bakermans-Kranenburg, M., Van Ijzendoorn, M. and Juffer, F. (2003). Less is More: Metaanayses of Sensitivity and Attachment Interventions in Eary Chidhood. Psychoogica Buetin, 129, 2, pp

37 Appendix 1 Ba, C. (1994). Starting Right: The Importance of Eary Learning. London: Roya Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce. Banerjee, M. (1997). Hidden Emotions: Preschooers Knowedge of Appearancereaity and Emotion Dispay Rues. Socia Cognition, 15, pp Baranowski, T., Thompson, W., Durant, R., Baranowski, J. and Puh, J. (1993). Observations on Physica Activity in Physica Locations: Age, Gender, Ethnicity and Month Effects. Research Quartery for Exercise and Sport, 64, pp Barthoomew, L. and Bruce, T. (1993). Getting to Know you. A Guide to Record Keeping Eary Chidhood Education and Care. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Battistich, V., Soomon, D., Watson, M. and Schaps, E. (1997). Caring Schoo Communities. Educationa Psychoogist, 32, pp Battistich, V. (2001). Effects of an Eementary Schoo Intervention on Students Connectedness to Schoo and Socia Adjustment during Midde Schoo (in) Brown, J. (Ed.) Resiience Education: Theoretica Interactive and Empirica Appications. Symposium conducted at annua meeting of the American Educationa Research Association, New Oreans, L.A. Beck, J. (1998). Moraity and Citizenship in Education. London: Casse. Besky, J., Spritz, B. and Crnic, K. (1996). Infant Attachment Security and Affectivecognitive Information Processing at age 3. Psychoogica Science, 7, pp Besky, J. and Fearon, R. (2002). Eary Attachment Security, Subsequent Materna Sensitivity, and ater Chid Deveopment: Does Continuity in Deveopment depend upon Continuity of Caregiving? Attachment and Human Deveopment, 4, 3, pp Benson, P., Roehkepartains, E. and Rude, S. (2003). Spiritua Deveopment in Chidhood and Adoescence: Towards a Fied of Inquiry. Appied Deveopmenta Science, 7, 3, pp Bernard, B. (1991). Fostering Resiiency in Kids: Protective Factors in the Famiy, Schoo, and Community. Portand, OR: Western Regiona Centre for Drug-free Schoos and Communities, Northwest Regiona Educationa Laboratory. Bernard, L., Lavaee, C., Gray-Donad, K. and Deise, H. (1995). Overweight in Cree Schoochidren and Adoescents associated with Diet, Low Physica Activity, and High Teevision Viewing. Journa of the American Dietetic Association, 95, pp Berndt, T. and Burgy, L. (1996). The Socia Sef-concept (in) Bracken, B. (Ed.). Handbook of Sef-concept. New York: Wiey, pp Bock, J. and Kremen, A. (1996). IQ and Egoresiiency: Conceptua and Empirica Connections and Separateness. Journa of Personaity and Socia Psychoogy, 70, pp Boom, L. (1995). The Transition from Infancy to Language: Acquiring the Power of Expression. New York: Cambridge University Press. Bornstein, M. (Ed.) (1995). Handbook of Parenting. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erbaum Associates. Bornstein, M. and Haynes, O. (1998). Vocabuary Competence in Eary Chidhood: Measurement, Latent Construct, and Predictive Vaidity. Chid Deveopment, 69, pp Bornstein, M., Davidson, L., Keyes, C. and Moore, K. (Eds.) (2003). We-Being - Positive Deveopment Across the Life Course. London: Lawrence Erbaum Associates. Bost, K., Vaughn, B., Washington, W., Cieinski, K. and Bradbard, M. (1998). Socia Competence, Socia Support, and Attachment: Demarcation of Construct Domains, Measurement, and Paths of Infuence for Preschoo Chidren attending Head Start. Chid Deveopment, 69, 1, pp Boyd-Cadwe, L. (1997). Bringing Reggio Emiia Home. New York: Teachers Coege. Bradey, R., Whiteside, L., Mundfrom, D., Casey, P., Keeher, K. and Pope, S. (1994). Contribution of Eary Intervention and Eary Caregiving Experiences to Resiience in Low 34

38 Evidence and Perspectives Birth-weight, Premature Chidren Living in Poverty. Journa of Cinica Chid Psychoogy, 23, pp Brambe, D. (1997). Rapid-acting Treatment for a Common Seep Probem. Deveopmenta Medicine and Chid Neuroogy, 39, pp Braungart, J., Pomin, R., Defries, J. and Fuker, D. (1992). Genetic Infuence on Testrated Infant Temperament as assessed by Bayey s Infant Behaviour Record: Nonadoptive and Adoptive Sibings and Twins. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 28, pp Briefe, R., Murphy, J., Kung, S., and Devaney, B. (1999). Universa-free Schoo Breakfast Program Evauation Design Project: Review of Literature on Breakfast and Learning. Princeton (NJ): Mathematica Poicy Research. Brody, N. (1992). Inteigence. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Brody, G. (1998). Sibing Reationship Quaity: Its Causes and Consequences. Annua Review of Psychoogy, 49, pp Brody, G., Stoneman, Z. and McCoy, J. (1994). Contributions of Famiy Reationships and Chid Temperaments to Longitudina Variations in Sibing Reationship Quaity and Sibing Reationship Styes. Journa of Famiy Psychoogy, 8, pp Bronfenbrenner, U. and Ceci, S. (1994). Nature-nurture Reconceptuaized in Deveopmenta Perspective: A Bioecoogica Mode. Psychoogica Review, 101, 4, pp Brown, J., and Poitt, E. (1996). Manutrition, Poverty, and Inteectua Deveopment. Scientific American, 274, pp Brown, J. and Dunn, J. (1996). Continuities in Emotiona Understanding from 3 to 6 years. Chid Deveopment, 67, pp Bruce, T. (1996). Heping Young Chidren to Pay. Oxon: Bookpoint Ltd. Bukowski, W., Pizzamigio, M., Teresa, M., Newcomb, A. and Hoza, B. (1996). Popuarity as an Affordance for Friendship: The ink between Group and Dyadic Experience. Socia Deveopment, 5, 2, pp Burgess, K., Marsha, P., Rubin, K. and Fox, N. (2003). Infant Attachment and Temperament as Predictors of Subsequent Externaizing Probems and Cardiac Physioogy. Journa of Chid Psychoogy and Psychiatry and Appied Discipines, 44, 6, pp Byrne, D. (1999). Socia Excusion. Buckingham: University Press. Cafas, K., Sais, J. and Nader, P. (1991). The Deveopment of Scaes to Measure Knowedge and Preference for Diet and Physica Activity Behaviour in 4 to 8 year od Chidren. Journa of Deveopmenta and Behaviora Pediatrics, 12, pp Campbe, F. and Ramey, C. (1995). Cognitive and Schoo Outcomes for High Risk African- American Students at Midde Adoescence: Positive Effects of Eary Intervention. American Educationa Research Journa, 32, pp Campos, J., Bertentha, B. and Kermoian, R. (1992). Eary Experience and Emotiona Deveopment: The Emergence of Wariness of Heights. Psychoogica Science, 3, pp Campos, E. (1995). Ambyopia. Survey of Ophthamoogy, 40, pp Camras, L. (1992). Expressive Deveopment and Basic Emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 6, pp Caro, G., Knight, G., Eisenberg, N. and Rotenberg, K. (1991). Cognitive Processes and Prosocia Behaviours among Chidren: The Roe of Affective Attributions and Reconciiations. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 27, pp Carter, S., Osofsky, J. and Hann, D. (1991). Speaking for the Baby: A Therapeutic Intervention with Adoescent Mothers and Infants. Infant Menta Heath Journa, 12, 4, pp Case, R., Griffin, S. and Key, W. (1999). Socioeconomic Gradients in Mathematica Abiity and their Responsiveness to Intervention during Eary Chidhood (in) Keating, D. and Hertzman, C. (Eds.). Deveopmenta Heath and the Weath of 35

39 Appendix 1 Nations: Socia, Bioogica, and Education Dynamics. New York: Guiford Press, pp Ceci, S. (1993). Contextua Trends in Inteectua Deveopment. Deveopmenta Review, 13, pp Centers of Disease Contro and Prevention (CDC) (2000). CDC s Guideines for Schoo and Community Heath Programs: Promoting Lifeong Heathy Eating. Atanta, G.A: Centers of Disease Contro and Prevention. Center on Hunger, Poverty and Nutrition Poicy (1998). The Link between Nutrition and Cognitive Deveopment in Chidren. Boston: Tufts University. Chak, A. (2002). Understanding Chidren s Curiosity and Exporation through the Lenses of Lewin s Fied Theory on Deveoping an Appraisa Framework. Eary Chid Deveopment and Care, 172, 1, pp Charman, T., Drew, A., Baird, C. and Baird, G. (2003). Measuring Eary Language Deveopment in Preschoo Chidren with Autism Spectrum Disorder using the MacArthur Communicative Deveopment Inventory (Infant form). Journa of Chid Language, 30, 1, pp Charney, R. (1992). Teaching Chidren to Care. Greenfied, MA: Northeast Foundation for Chidren. Chen, Z. and Dornsbusch, S. (1998). Reating Aspects of Adoescent Emotiona Autonomy to Academic Achievement and Deviant Behaviour. Journa of Adoescent Research, 13, pp Cheung, M. and Law, C. (2003). A Cuturay Reevant mode for Evauating Famiy Services in Hong Kong (in) Katz, L. and Pinkerton, J. (Eds). Evauating Famiy Support: Thinking Internationay, Thinking Criticay. London: Wiey, pp Ciadini, R., Brown, S., Lewis, B., Luce, C. and Neuberg, S. (1997). Reinterpreting the Empathy-atruism Reationship: When One into One Equas Oneness. Personaity and Socia Psychoogy, 73, pp Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. and Toth, S. (1998). Materna Depressive Disorder and Contextua Risk: Contributions to the Deveopment of Attachment Insecurity and Behaviour Probems in Todderhood. Deveopmenta Psychopathoogy, 10, pp Carkson, P. (1992). Language and Mathematics: A Comparison of Biingua and Monoingua Students of Mathematics. Educationa Studies in Mathematics, 23, pp Cohen, G. (Ed.). (1999). Guide to your Chid s Seep. Ek Grove Viage, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics. Cohen, L., Bount, R., Cohen, R., Schaen, E. and Zaff, J. (1999). Comparative Study of Distraction versus Topica Anesthesia for Pediatric Pain Management during Immunizations. Heath Psychoogy, 18, pp Coes, R. (1990). The Spiritua Life of Chidren. London: Harper Coins. Cotrane, S. (1996). Famiy Man. New York: Oxford University Press. Conne, J. and Weborn, J. (1991). Competence, Autonomy and Reatedness: A Motivationa Anaysis of Sef-system Processes (in) Gunnar M. and Stroufe L. (Eds.). Sef Processes in Deveopment: Minnesota Symposium on Chid Psychoogy, 23. Chicago: University of Chicago-Press, pp Conne, J., Spencer, M. and Aber, J. (1994). Educationa Risk and Resiience in African- American Youth: Context, Sef, Action and Outcomes in Schoo. Chid Deveopment, 65, pp Conne, J., Hapern-Fesher, B., Cifford, E., Crichow, W. and Usinger, P. (1995). Hanging in There: Behavioura, Psychoogica, and Contextua Factors affecting whether African- American Adoescents stay in High Schoo. Journa of Adoescent Research, 10, pp Connoy, P., Smith, A. and Key, B. (2002). Too Young to Notice? The Cutura and Poitica Awareness of 3-6 year ods in Northern Ireand. Befast: Community Reations Counci. Coover, G. and Murphy, S. (2000). The Communicated Sef: Exporing the Interaction between Sef and Socia Context. Human Communication Research, 26, 1, pp

40 Evidence and Perspectives Corson, D. (1998). Changing Education for Diversity. UK: Open University Press. Cox, M., Paey, B., Payne, C. and Burchina, P. (1999). The Transition to Parenthood: Marita Confict and Withdrawa and Parentinfant Interaction (in) Cox, M. and Brooks- Gunn, J. (Eds.). Confict and Cohesion in Famiies: Causes and Consequences. Mahwah, NJ: Erbaum, pp Cramer, B., Robert-Tissot, C., Stern, D. and Serpa-Rusooni, S. (1990). Outcome Evauations in Brief Mother-infant Psychotherapy. A Preiminary Report. Infant Menta Heath Journa, 11, 3, pp Cutting, E. (1997). Supporting Parents, Supporting Parenting: First Year Report - Identifying the Support Needs of Parents and Famiies in Four Communities in Scotand. Edinburgh: Save the Chidren Scotand. Czeize, A. and Dudas, I. (1992) Prevention of the First Occurrence of Neura-tube Defects by Peroconceptiona Vitamin Suppementation. New Engand Journa of Medicine, 327, pp Daes, L., Hammer, S. and Smith, N. (2001). Time Trends in Autism and in MMR. Immunization Coverage in Caifornia. Journa of American Medica Association, 285, pp Day, L. and Doye, S. (2002). Peri-conceptua Foic Acid. Irish Medica Journa, 95, 9, pp.280. Damon, W. (Ed.) (2000). Handbook of Chid Psychoogy (4 Voumes). New York: Wiey. Das Eiden, R., Teti, D. and Corns, K. (1995). Materna Working Modes of Attachment, Martia Adjustment and the Parent-chid Reationship. Chid Deveopment, 66, pp Davidson, J. and Sternberg, R. (2003). The Psychoogy of Probem Soving. NY: Cambridge University Press. Davies, P. and Cummings, E. (1998). Exporing Chidren s Emotiona Security as a Mediator of the ink between Marita Reations and Chid Adjustment. Chid Deveopment, 69, pp Davies, R. and Gaoway, D. (1996). Listening to Chidren in Education. London: David Futon. Dawson, G., Ashman, S., Panagiotides, H., Hess, D., Sef, J., Yamada, E. and Embry, L. (2003). Preschoo Outcomes of Chidren of Depressed Mothers: Roe of Materna Behavior, Contextua Risk, and Chidren s Brain Activity. Chid Deveopment, 74, 4, pp DeHaan, L. and MacDermid, S. (1999). Identity Deveopment as a Mediating Factor between Urban Poverty and Behavioura Outcomes for Junior High Schoo Students. Journa of Famiy and Economic Issues, 20, pp Dekovic, M. and Janssens, J. (1992). Parents Chid-rearing Stye and Chidren s Sociometric Status. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 28, pp Denham, S., Zoer, D. and Couchoud, E. (1994). Sociaization of Preschooers Emotion Understanding. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 30, pp Denham, S. and Auerbach, S. (1995). Motherchid Diaogue about Emotions and Preschooers Emotiona Competence. Genetic, Socia, and Genera Psychoogy Monographs, 121, 3, pp Department of Heath (2003). A controed Tria to Compare Aternative Strategies for Preventing Infant Crying and Seeping Probems in the first 3 Months of Life. UK: Department of Heath. DeVries, R., Reese-Learned, H. and Morgan, P. (1991). Sociomora Deveopment in Directinstruction, Ecectic, and Constructivist Kindergardens: A study of Chidren s Enacted Interpersona Understanding. Eary Chidhood Research Quartery, 6, pp DiLorenzo, T., Stucky-Ropp, R., Vander Wam J., and Gotham, H. (1998). Determinants of Exercise among Chidren II. A Longitudina Anaysis. Preventive Medicine, 27, pp Doe, M. and Wach, W. (1998). 10 Principes for Spiritua Parenting. New York: Harper Coins Pubisher Inc. 37

41 Appendix 1 Doherty, W., Kouneski, E. and Erickson, M. (1998). Responsibe Fathering: An Overview and Conceptua Framework. Journa of Marriage and the Famiy, 60, pp D Onofrio, B., Eaves, L., Murree, L., Maes., H., Hermine and Spika, B. (1999). Understanding Bioogica and Socia Infuences on Reigious Affiiation, Attitudes and Behaviours: A Behaviour Genetic Perspective. Journa of Personaity, 67, 6, pp Dougherty, T. and Haith, M. (1997). Infant Expectations and Reaction Time as Predictors of Chidhood Speed of Processing and IQ. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 33, pp Dowing, M. (2000). Young Chidren s Persona, Socia and Emotiona Deveopment. London: Pau Chapman Pubishing. Duncan, G., Brooks-Gunn, J. and Kebanov, P. (1994). Economic Deprivation and Eary Chidhood Deveopment. Chid Deveopment, 65, pp Dunn, J. (1998). Sibing Reationships throughout the Life Span (in) Lamb, M. and Sutton-Smith, B. (Eds.). Sibing Reationships: Their Nature and Significance across the Life Span. Hisdae, NJ: Lawrence Erbaum Associates, pp Dunn, J., and Brown, J. (1994). Affect Expression in the Famiy, Chidren s Understanding of Emotions, and their Interactions with Others. Merri-Pamer Quartery, 40, pp Durkin, K. (1995). Deveopmenta Socia Psychoogy: From Infancy to Od Age. Oxford: Backwe Pubishers. Dweck, C. and Leggett, E. (1998). A Sociacogitive Approach to Personaity and Motivation. Psychoogica Review 95, pp Dyer, W. (1998). What do you Reay want for your Chidren? London: Arrow Books. East, P. and Rook, K. (1992). Compensatory Patterns of Support among Chidren s Peer Reationships: A Test using Schoo Friends, Nonschoo Friends, and Sibings. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 28, pp Ebata, A. and Moos, R. (1991). Coping and Adjustment in Distressed and Heathy Adoescents. Journa of Appied Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 12, pp Eisenberg, N., Wochik, S., Godberg, L. and Enge, I. (1992). Parenta Vaues, Reinforcement, and Young Chidren s Prosocia Behaviour: A Longitudina Study. Journa of Genetic Psychoogy, 153, pp Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R., Guthrie, I. and Reiser, M. (2000). Dispositiona Emotionaity and Reguation: Their Roe in Predicting. Journa of Personaity and Socia Psychoogy. 78, 1, pp Emde, R. (1998). Eary Emotiona Deveopment: New Modes of Thinking for Research and Intervention (in) Warho, J. (Ed.). New Perspectives in Eary Emotiona Deveopment. New Brunswick, NJ: Johnson and Johnson Pediatric Institute, pp Ennemoser, M., Schiffer, K., Reinsh, C. and Schneider, W. (2003). Teevision and the Deveopment of Language and Reading Skis in Eementary Schoo: An Empirica Examination of the SES-mainstreaming Hypothesis. Zeitschrift fur Entwickungspsychoogie und Padagogische Psychoogie, 35, 1, pp Epstein, L., Vaoski, A., Kaarchian, M. and McCurey, J. (1995). Do Chidren Lose and Maintain Weight Easier than Aduts: A Comparison of Chid and Parent Weight Changes from Six Months to Ten Years. Obesity Research, 3, 5, pp Epstein, L., Pauch, R., Gordy, C. and Dorn, J. (2000). Decreasing Sedentary Behaviours in Treating Pediatric Obesity. Archive of Paediatric and Adoescent Medicine, 154, pp Ere, O., Margoin, G. and John, R. (1998). Observed Sibing Interaction: Links with the Marita Reationship and the Mother-chid Reationship. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 34, pp Fabes, R., Hanish, L. and Martin, C. (2003). Chidren at Pay: The Roe of Peers in Understanding the Effects of Chid Care. Chid Deveopment, 74, 4, pp

42 Evidence and Perspectives Fagan, J. (1992). Inteigence: A Theoretica Viewpoint. Current Directions in Psychoogica Science, 1, pp Fakner, N., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Story, M., Jeffery, R., Beuhring, T. and Resnick, M. (2001). Socia, Educationa and Psychoogica Correates of Weight Status in Adoescents. Obesity Research, 9, pp Fantuzzo, J. and McWayne, C. (2002). The Reationship between Peer-pay Interactions in the Famiy Context and Dimensions of Schoo Readiness for Low-income Pre-schoo Chidren. Journa of Educationa Psychoogy, 94, 1, pp Fagot, B. (1997). Attachment, Parenting and Peer Interactions of Todder Chidren. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 33, pp Fenson, L., Dae, P., Reznick, J., Bates, E., Tha, D. and Hartung, J. (1994). Variabiity in Eary Communication Deveopment. Monographs of the Society for Research in Chid Deveopment, 59, 5. Fied, T. (1995). Infants of Depressed Mothers. Infant Behaviour and Deveopment, 18, pp Fied, T., Lang. C., Martinez., A., Yando, R., Pickens, J. and Bende, D. (1996). Preschoo Foow-up of Infants of Dysphoric Mothers. Journa of Cinica Chid Psychoogy, 25, pp Fincham, F. (1994). Understanding the Association between Marita Confict and Chid Adjustment: Overview. Journa of Famiy Psychoogy, 2, pp Fivush, R. and Reese, E. (1992). The Socia Construction of Autobiographica Memory (in) Conway, M., Rubin, C., Spinner, H. and Wagenaar, W. (Eds.). Theoretica Perspectives on Autobiographica Memory. London: Kuwer Academic Pubishers. Fave, J. (1992). Perspectives on Perspectivetaking (in) Beiin, H. and Pufa, P. (Eds.). Piaget s Theory: Prospects and Possibiities. Hisdae, NJ: Erbaum. Fogehom, M., Nuutinen, O., Pasanen, M., Myohanen, E. and Saatea, T. (1999). Parentchid reationship of physica activity patterns and obesity. Internationa Journa of Obesity and Reated Metaboic Disorders, 23, pp Friman, P., Hoff, K., Schnoes, C., Freeman, K., Woods, D. and Bum, N. (1999). The Bedtime Pass: An Approach to Bedtime Crying and Leaving the Room. Archive of Pediatric and Adoescent Medicine, 153, pp Fry, A. and Hae, S. (1996). Processing Speed, Working Memory and Fuid Inteigence: Evidence for a Deveopmenta Cascade. Psychoogica Buetin, 89, pp Gardner, H. (1999). Are there Additiona Inteigences? The case for Naturaist, Spiritua, and Existentia Inteigences. (in) Kane, J. (Ed.). Education, Information, and Transformation. Engewood Ciffs, NJ: Prentice-Ha. Garner, P., Jones, D. and Miner, J. (1994). Socia Competence among Low-income Preschooers: Emotion Sociaization Practices and Socia Cognitive Correates. Chid Deveopment, 65, pp Gent, B. (1998). Moraity: Its Nature and Justification. UK: Oxford University Press. Geradine, S., Johnson, Z., McDonne, R. and Scaan, E. (1997). Knowedge and Use of Peri-conceptiona Foic Acid among Antenata Patients. Irish Medica Journa, 90, 6. Gibson, E., Dembofsky, C., Rubin, S. and Greenspan, J. (2000). Infant Seep Position Practices 2 Years into the Back to Seep Campaign. Cinica Pediatrics, 39, pp Godberg, M. (1990). A Quasi-experiment Assessing the Effectiveness of TV Advertising Directed to Chidren. Journa of Marketing Research, 27, 4, pp Gomby, D. (1995). Long-Term Outcomes of Eary Chidhood Programs: Anaysis and Recommendations. The Future of Chidren, 5, 3, pp Gribbe, P., Emory, E., Cowen, P., Wyman, P., Work, W., Wannon, M. and Raoof, A. (1993). Parent and Chid Views of Parent-Chid Reationship Quaities and Resiient Outcomes Among Urban Chidren. Journa of Chid Psychoogy and Psychiatry, 34, 4, pp

43 Appendix 1 Gronick, W., Bridges, L. and Conne, J. (1996). Emotion Reguation in Two-year Ods: Strategies and Emotiona Expression in Four Contexts. Chid Deveopment, 67, 3, pp Gronick, W., Cosgrove, T. and Bridges, L. (1996). Age-graded Change in the Initiation of Positive Affect. Infant Behaviour and Deveopment, 19, pp Grych, J. and Fincham, F. (1990). Marita Confict and Chidren s Adjustment: A Cognitive-contextua Framework. Psychoogica Buetin, 108, pp Grych, J. (1998). Chidren s Appraisas of Interparenta Confict: Situationa and Contextua Infuences. Journa of Famiy Psychoogy, 12, pp Gupta, R., Saini, D., Acharya, U. and Migani, N. (1994). Impact of Teevision on Chidren. Indian Journa of Pediatrics, 61, pp Guyer, B., Hughart, N., Strobino, D., Jones, A. and Scharfstein, D. (2000). Assessing the Impact of Pediatric-based Deveopmenta Services on Infants, Famiies, and Cinicans: Chaenges to Evauating the Heathy Steps program. Pediatrics,105, 33. Haford, G. (1993). Chidren s Understanding: The Deveopment of Menta Modes. Hisdae, NJ: Erbaum. Harding, J. and Medon-Smith, L. (1996). How to Make Observations and Assessments. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Hardy, D., Power, T. and Jaedicke, S. (1993). Examining the Reation of Parenting to Chidren s Coping with Everyday Stresses. Chid Deveopment, 64, pp Harris, P. (1993). Understanding Emotion (in) Lewis, M. and Haviand-Jones, J. (Eds.). Handbook of Emotions. New York: Guiford, pp Harris, P. (1994). The Chid s Understanding of Emotion: Deveopmenta Change and the Famiy Environment. Journa of Chid Psychoogy and Psychiatry, 35, pp Harrison, M., and Roush, J. (1996). Age of Suspicion, Identification and Intervention for Infants and Young Chidren with Hearing Loss: A Nationa Study. Ear and Hearing, 17, pp Hart, D. and Fegey, S. (1995). Atruism and Caring in Adoescence: Reations to Sefunderstanding and Socia Judgement. Chid Deveopment, 66, pp Hart, B. and Risey, T. (1995). Meaningfu Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Chidren. Batimore: Pau H. Brookes. Harter, S. (1999). The Construction of the Sef: A Deveopmenta Perspective. New York: Wiey. Hartman, H. (1998). Metacognition in Teaching and Learning: An Introduction. Instructiona Science, 26, 1, pp Hay, D. and Nye, R. (1998). The Spirit of the Chid. UK: Harper Coins. Henderong, J. and Lepper, H. (2002). The Effects of Praise on Chidren s Intrinsic Motivation: A Review and Synthesis. Psychoogica Buetin, 128, 5, pp Hendrick, H. (1997). Construction and Reconstruction of British Chidhood: An Interpretative Study, 1800 to the Present (in) James, A. and Prout, A. (Eds.) (1997). Constructing and Reconstructing Chidhood: Contemporary Issues in the Socioogica Study of Chidhood (Second Edition). London: Famer Press, pp Hernandez, B., Gortmaker, S., Coditz, G., Peterson, K., Laird, N. and Parra-Cabrera, S. (1999). Association of Obesity with Physica Activity, Teevision Programs and other Forms of Video Viewing among Chidren in Mexico City. Internationa Journa of Obesity and Reated Metaboic Disorders, 23, pp Hickey, T. (1997). Eary Immersion Education in Ireand: Na Náionraí. Dubin: Institiúid Teangeoaíochta Éireann. Hoohan, T. and Hoohan, W. (2000). Heath and Homeessness in Dubin. Irish Medica Journa, 93, 2. Hood, J. (1993). Men, Work and Famiy. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. 40

44 Evidence and Perspectives Howe, D. and Fearney, S. (2003). Disorders of Attachment in Adopted and Fostered Chidren: Recognition and Treatment. Cinica Chid Psychoogy and Psychiatry 8, 3, pp Howes, C., Hamiton, C. and Phiipsen, L. (1998). Stabiity and Continuity of Chidcaregiver and Chid-peer Reationships. Chid Deveopment, 69, pp Hsiao, D. (2003). Chidren s Autonomy and Perceived Contro in Learning: A Mode of Motivation and Achievement in Taiwan. Journa of Educationa Psychoogy, 95, pp Hudson, J. (1990). The Emergence of Autobiographica Memory in Mother-chid Conversation (in) Fivush, R. and Hudson, J. (Eds.). Knowing and Remembering in Young Chidren. New York: Cambridge University Press. Humphreys, T. (1996). Sef Esteem: The Key to your Chid s Education. Dubin: Gi and Macmian. Hutchinson, J. and Smith, A. (1996). Ethnicity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Huttenocher, J., Haight, W., Bryk, A., Setzer, M. and Lyons, T. (1991). Eary Vocabuary Growth: Reation to Language Input and Gender. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 27, pp Iig, D. (1998). Birth to Kindergarden: The Importance of the Eary Years. Sacramento, CA: Caifornia Research Bureau. Jacobson, S. and Frye, K. (1991). Effect of Materna Socia Support on Attachment. Experimenta Evidence. Chid Deveopment, 62, 3, pp Jason, L. and Brackshaw, E. (1999). Access to TV Contingent on Physica Activity: Effects on Reducing TV-viewing and Body Weight. Journa of Behaviour Therapy and Experimenta Psychiatry, 30, pp Jenkins, J. and Smith, M. (1990). Factors Protecting Chidren in Disharmonious Homes. Journa of the American Academy of Chid and Adoescent Psychiatry, 28, pp Jennings, K. (1993). Mastery Motivation and the Formation of Sef-concept from Infancy through Eary Chidhood. (in) Messer, D. (Ed.). Mastery Motivation in Eary Chidhood: Deveopment, Measurement, and Socia Processes. London: Routedge, pp Johnson, Z. and Mooy, B. (1995). The Community Mothers Programme Empowerment of Parents by Parents. Chidren and Society, 9, 2, pp Kagan, J. (1992). Temperament and the Reactions to Unfamiiarity. Chid Deveopment. 68, pp Kagan, J., Snidman, N. and Arcus, D. (1993). On the Temperamenta Categories of Inhibited and Uninhibited Chidren (in) Rubin, H. and Asendorf, J. (Eds.). Socia Withdrawa, Inhibition, and Shyness. Hisdae, NJ: Erbaum. Kahneman, D., Diener, E., and Schwarz, N. (1999). We-being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychoogy. New York: Russe Sage. Kai, R. (1998). Speed of Information Processing in Patients with Mutipe Scerosis. Journa of Cinica and Experimenta Neuropsychoogy, 20, pp Karrass, J. and Braungart-Rieker, J. (2003). Parenting and Temperament as Interacting Agents in Eary Language Deveopment. Parenting: Science and Practice, 3, 3, pp Katzmarzyk, P., Maina, R., Song, T., and Bouchard, C. (1998). Teevision Viewing, Physica Activity, and Heath reated Fitness of Youth in the Quebec Famiy Study. Journa of Adoescent Heath, 23, pp Kaye, J., Meero-Montes, M. and Jick, H. (2001). Mumps, Meases, and Rubea Vaccine and the Incidence of Autism recorded by Genera Practitioners: A Time Trend Anaysis. British Medica Journa, 322, pp Keer, J. and McDade, K. (2000). Attitude of Low-Income Parents Toward Seeking Hep with Parenting: Impications for Practice. Chid Wefare, 3, pp Kien, M. and Wainryb, C. (2000). Independence and Interdependence in Diverse Cutura Contexts. New Directions for Chid and Adoescent Deveopment, 87, pp

45 Appendix 1 King, B. (2003). Language Deveopment: Circe Time Sessions to Improve Communication Skis. Chid Language Teaching and Therapy, 19, 2, pp Kirsh, S. and Cassidy, J. (1997). Preschooers Attention to and Memory for Attachmentreevant Information. Chid Deveopment, 68, pp Kitwood, T. (1990). Concern for Others: A New Psychoogy of Conscience and Moraity. London: Routedge. Kiewer, W. (1991). Coping in Midde Chidhood: Reations to Competence, Type A Behaviour, Monitoring, Bunting and Locus of Contro. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 27, pp Koh, H. and Hobb, K. (1998). Deveopment of Physica Activity Behaviours among Chidren and Adoescents. Pediatrics, 101, pp Konner, M. (1991). Universas of Behavioura Deveopment in reation to Brain Function (in) Gibson, K. and Peterson, A. (Eds.). Brain Maturation and Cognitive Deveopment: Comparative and Cross-cutura Perspectives. New York: Adine de Gruyter. Kowa, A. and Kramer, L. (1997). Chidren s Understanding of Parenta Differentia Treatment. Chid Deveopment, 68, pp Krevans, J. and Gibbs, J. (1996). Parents use of Inductive Discipine: Reations to Chidren s Empathy and Prosocia Behaviour. Chid Deveopment, 67, pp Kringen, E., Torgersen, S. and Cramer, V. (2001). A Norweigian Psychiatric Epidemioogica Study. American Journa of Psychiatry, 158, pp Kuh, D. and Cooper, C. (1992). Physica Activity at 36 Years: Patterns and Chidhood Predictors in a Longitudina Study. Journa of Epidemioogy and Community Heath, 46, pp Ladd, G. and Hart, G. (1992). Creating Informa Pay Opportunities: Are Parents and Preschooers Initiations Reated to Chidren s Competence with Peers? Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 28, 6, pp Ladd, G. and Profiet, S. (1996). The Chid Behaviour Scae: A Teacher-report Measure of Young Chidren s Aggressive, Withdrawn, and Prosocia Behaviours. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 32, pp Laevers, F. (1997). A Process-oriented Chid Monitoring System for Young Chidren. Leuven: Centre for Experimenta Education. Laibe, D. and Thompson, R. (2002). Mother- Chid Confict in the Todder Years: Lessons in Emotion, Moraity and Reationships. Chid Deveopment, 73, 4, pp Larson, R. (1990). Emotions and the Creative Process: Anxiety, Boredom, and Enjoyment as Predictors of Creative Writing. Imagination, Cognition and Personaity, 9, pp Lauer, R., Giordani, B., Boivin, M. and Hae, N. (1994). Effects of Depression on Memory Performance and Metamemory in Chidren. Journa of the American Academy of Chid and Adoescent Psychiatry, 33, pp Lawrence, D. (1996). Enhancing Sef-esteem in the Cassroom. London: Pau Chapman. Leaman, B. (1996). The Whoe Vision of the Chid. (in) Best, R. (Ed.). Education, Spirituaity and the Whoe Chid. London: Casse. Lieberman, A. (2003). The Treatment of Attachment Disorder in Infancy and Eary Chidhood: Refections from Cinica Intervention with Later-adopted Foster-care Chidren. Attachment and Human Deveopment 5, 3, pp Litte, D. and Lazenby-Simpson, B. (1996). Meeting the Language Needs of Refugees. Dubin: Centre for Language and Communication Studies, Trinity Coege. Lovejoy, M., Graczyk, P., O Hare, E. and Neuman, G. (2000). Materna Depression and Parenting Behaviour: A Meta-anaytic Review. Cinica Psychoogy Review, 20, pp Lowentha, B. (2002). The Effects of Eary Chidhood Abuse and the Deveopment of Resiiency. Eary Chid Deveopment and Care, 142, pp Lyons-Ruth, K., Conne, D., Grunebaum, H. and Botein, S. (1990). Infants at Socia Risk: 42

46 Evidence and Perspectives Materna Depression and Famiy Support Services as Mediators of Infant Deveopment and Security of Attachment. Chid Deveopment, 61, 1, pp Lyons-Ruth, K., Easterbrooks, M. and Cibei, C. (1997). Infant Attachment Strategies, Infant Menta Lag, and Materna Depressive Symptoms: Predictors of Internaizing and Externaizing Probems at age 7. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 33, pp MacBeth, T. (1996). Indirect Effects of Teevision: Creativity, Persistence, Schoo Achievement, and Participation in other Activities (in) MacBeth, T. (Ed.). Tuning in to Young Viewers: Socia Science Perspectives on Teevision, Thousand Oaks, C.A: Sage Pubications, pp Maccoby, E. and Lewis, C. (2003). Less Daycare or Different Daycare? Chid Deveopment, 74, pp MacTurk, R. and Morgan, G. (Eds.) (1995). Mastery motivation: Origins, conceptuaizations, and appications. Norwood, N.J: Abex. Manassis, K. and Bradey, S. (1994). The Deveopment of Chidhood Anxiety Disorders: Toward an Integrated Mode. Journa of Appied Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 15, pp Manimaa, M., Bount, R. and Cohen, L. (2000). The Effects of Parenta Reassurance versus Distraction on Chid Distress and Coping During Immunizations. Chidren s Heath Care, 29, pp Manios, Y., Kafatos, A., and Codrington, C. (1999). Gender Differences in Physica Activity and Physica Fitness in Young Chidren in Crete. Journa of Sports Medicine and Physica Fitness, 39, pp Marsh, H. and Hattie, J. (1996). Theoretica Perspectives on the Structure of Sef-concept (in) Bracken B., (Ed.). Handbook of Sefconcept. New York: Wiey, pp Martin, C. and Fabes, R. (2001). The Stabiity and Consequences of Young Chidren s Samesex Peer Interactions. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 37, pp Martinez, R. and Dukes, R. (1997).The effects of ethnic identity, ethnicity, and gender on adoescent we-being. Journa of Youth and Adoescence, 26, pp McHae, S., Crouter, A., McGuire, S. and Updegraff, K. (1995). Congruence between Mothers and Fathers Differentia Treatment of Sibings: Links with Famiy Reations and Chidren s We-being. Chid Deveopment, 66, McKinnon, M. and Ahoa-Sidaway, J. (1997). Gender Issues and Young Chidren s Menta Heath: Fina Report. Ottawa: Heath Canada. McLoyd, V. (1990). The Impact of Economic Hardship on Back Famiies and Chidren: Psychoogica Distress, Parenting, and Socioemotiona Deveopment. Chid Deveopment, 61, pp Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Russe, J. and Cark-Carter, D. (1998). Security of Attachment as a Predictor of Symboic and Mentaising Abiities: A Longitudina Study. Socia Deveopment, 7, pp Meins, E. (2003). Emotiona Deveopment and Eary Attachment Reationships (in) Sater, A. and Brumner, G. (Eds.). An Introduction to Deveopmenta Psychoogy. US: Backwe Pubishers. Metzoff, A. and Moore, M. (1995). A Theory of the Roe of Imitation in the Emergence of Sef (in) Rochat, P. (Ed.). The Sef in Infancy: Theory and Research. Amsterdam: Esevier. Menta Heath Foundation (2002). From Pregnancy to Eary Chidhood: Eary Interventions to Enhance the Menta Heath of Chidren and Famiies. London: Menta Heath Foundation. Micei, P., Whitman, T., Borkowski, J., Braungart-Rieker, J. and Mitche, D. (1998). Individua differences in Infant Information Processing: The Roe of Temperamenta and Materna Factors. Infant Behavior and Deveopment, 21, pp Mier, C., Kai, R., Leonard, L. and Tombin, J. (2001). Speed of Processing in Chidren with Specific Language Impairment. Journa of Speech and Language and Hearing Research, 44, 2, pp Mier, P., Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. and She, R. (1996). Reations of Mora Reasoning and Vicarious Emotion to Young Chidren s Prosocia Behaviour Toward Peers and 43

47 Appendix 1 Aduts. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 32, pp Miserandino, M. (1996). Chidren who do We in Schoo: Individua Differences in Perceived Competence and Autonomy in Above-average Chidren. Journa of Educationa Psychoogy, 88, pp Mitche, R. (2002). Pretending and Imagination in Animas and Chidren. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Morgan, G., Harmon, R. and Masin-Coe, C. (1990). Mastery Motivation: Definition and Measurement. Eary Education and Deveopment, 1, pp Moss, P. (2000). Workforce Issues in Eary Chidhood Education and Care. London: Thomas Coram Research Institute. Moyes, J (Ed.) (1994). The Exceence of Pay. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Muigan, L., Specker, B., Buckey, D., O Connor, L. and Ho. M. (1998). Physica and Environmenta Factors Affecting Motor Deveopment, Activity Leve, and Body Composition of Infants in Chid Care Centers. Pediatric Physica Therapy. Phiadephia (PA): Lippincott, Wiiams and Wikins. Nationa Institute of Chid Heath and Human Deveopment Eary Chidcare Research Network (1997). The Effects of Infant Chid Care on Infant-mother Attachment Security. Chid Deveopment, 68, pp Nationa Institute of Chid Heath and Human Deveopment Eary Chidcare Research Network (2000). Factors Associated with Fathers Caregiving Activities and Sensitivity with Young Chidren, 14, 2, pp Nationa Institute of Chid Heath and Human Deveopment Eary Chidcare Research Network (2003). Does Amount of Time spent in Chid Care Predict Socioemotiona Adjustment during the Transition to Kindergarten? Chid Deveopment, 74, pp Nationa Institute of Neuroogica Disorders and Stroke (2000). Brain Basics: Understanding Seep. Washington, DC: Nationa Institutes of Heath, Nationa Institute of Neuroogica Disorders and Stroke. Nationa Research Counci (2000). How Peope Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and Schoo. Washington DC: Nationa Academy Press. Nationa Research Counci and Institute of Medicine. (2000). From Neurons to Neighbourhoods: The Science of Eary Chidhood Deveopment. Committee on Integrating the Science of Eary Chidhood Deveopment. Shonkoff, J.P and Phiips, D.A. (Eds.). Board on Chidren, Youth, and Famiies, Commission on Behavioura and Socia Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: Nationa Academy Press. Naude, H., Pretorius, E. and Vijoen, J. (2003). The Impact of Impoverished Language Deveopment on Preschooers Readiness to Learn during the Foundation Phase. Eary Chid Deveopment and Care, 173, 2-3, pp Neson, K. (1990). Remembering, Forgetting, and Chidhood Amnesia. (in) Fivush, R. and Hudson, J. (Eds.). Knowing and Remembering in Young Chidren. New York: Cambridge University Press. Neson, K. (1993). The Psychoogica and Socia Origins of Autobiographica Memory. Psychoogica Science, 4, pp Newcombe, N. and Huttenocher, J. (1992). Chidren s Eary Abiity to Sove Perceptivetaking Probems. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 28, pp Niccos, A., Atkinson, L. and Peper, D. (2003). Mastery Motivation in Young Chidren with Down s Syndrome: Reations with Cognitive and Adaptive Competence. Journa of Inteectua Disabiity Research, 47, 2, pp Nummo, J. (1998). The Chid in Community: Constraints from the Eary Chidhood Lore (in) Edwards, C., Gandini, L. and Forman G. (Eds.). The Hundred Languages of Chidren: The Reggio Emiia Approach Advanced Refection. Greenwich: Abex, pp

48 Evidence and Perspectives O Leary, M., McDonne, R. and Johnson, H. (2001). Foic Acid and Prevention of Neura Tube Defects in Improved Awareness Low Peri-Conceptiona Uptake. Irish Medica Journa, 94, 6. Oson, S., Bates, J. and Kaskie, B. (1992). Caregiver-infant Interaction Antecedents of Chidren s Schooage Cognitive Abiity. Merri-Pamer Quartery, 38, pp Oppenheim, D. (1997). The Attachment Dopay Interview for Preschooers. Internationa Journa of Behaviora Deveopment, 20, pp Oppenheim, D. and Koren-Karie, N. (2002). Mothers Insightfuness regarding their Chidren s Interna Words: The Capacity Underying Secure Chid-mother Reationships. Infant Menta Heath Journa, 23, 6, pp Oregon Head Start Coaboration Project (2002). Essentia Eements of Programs for Chidren, Quaity Standards. Oregon: Chidhood Care and Education Community. O Reiy, C. (1999). Chidren s Perception of Race. M.Ed. Thesis. Dubin: University Coege Dubin. Ortony, A., Core, G. and Coins, A. (1998). The Cognitive Structure of Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oshima-Takane, Y. and Robbins, M. (2003). Linguistic Environment of Second Born Chidren. First Language, 23, 67, pp Owen, M. and Cox, M. (1997). Marita Confict and the Deveopment of Infantparent Attachment Reationships. Journa of Famiy Psychoogy, 11, pp Parke, R. (1996). Fatherhood. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Parker, J. and Asher, S. (1993). Friendship and Friendship Quaity in Midde Chidhood: Links with Peer Group Acceptance and Feeings of Loneiness and Socia Dissatisfaction. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 29, 4, pp Peegrini, A. and Smith, P. (1998). The Deveopment of Pay during Chidhood: Forms and Possibe Functions. Chid Psychoogy and Psychiatry Review, 3, 2, pp Perry, G., Zykowski, C., Cark, L, and Yu, S. (1994). Pregnancy-reated Nutrition (in) Wicox, L. and Marks, J. (Eds.). From Data to Action: CDC s Pubic Heath Surveiance for Women, Infants, and Chidren. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Heath and Human Services, pp Peterson, R. and Gerson, K. (1992). Determinants of Responsibiity of Chidcare Arrangements among Dua Earner Coupes. Journa of Marriage and Famiy, 54, pp Pitt, T., Davis, A. and Fortnum, H. (1999). The Case for Change in Eary Infant Hearing Screening in Ireand. Irish Medica Journa, 92, 3., pp Peck, J. (1997). Parenta Invovement: Leves, Sources and Consequences. (in) Lamb, M. (Ed.) The Roe of the Father in Chid Deveopment (3 rd Ed.) New York: Wiey, pp Pomin, R., Emde, R. Braungart, J., Campos, J., Kagan, J., Reznick, J., Robinson, J., Zahn- Waxer, C. and DeFries, J. (1993). Genetic Change and Continuity from Fourteen to Twenty Months. The MacArthur Longitudina Twin Study. Chid Deveopment, 64, pp Prout, A. (2001). The Future of Chidhood. Annua Lecture Dubin: Chidren s Research Centre. Pruett, K. (2003). Fatherneed: Why Father Care is as Essentia as Mother Care for your Chid. Famiy Therapy, 28, 2, pp Pugh, G. (1994). Effective Parenting Programme for Schoos: A Piot Study. London: Nationa Chidren s Bureau. Pukkinnen, L. and Caspi, A. (2002). Paths to Successfu Deveopment: Personaity in the Life Course. New York: Cambridge University Press. Quiery, N., McEhinney, S., Rafferty, H., Sheehy, N. and Trew, K. (2003). Empowering Parents: A Two-Generation Intervention in a Community Context in Northern Ireand (in) Katz, L. and Pinkerton, J. (2003). Evauating Famiy Support: Thinking Internationay, Thinking Criticay. London: Wiey, pp

49 Appendix 1 Qvortrup, J. (1991). Chidhood as a Socia Phenomenon An Introduction to a Series of Nationa Reports. European Centre for Socia Wefare Poicy and Research. Eurosocia Report 36. Budapest: Pubicitas. Ramey, C. and Ramey, S. (1998). Eary Intervention and Eary Experience. American Psychoogist, 53, 2, pp Ratner, N. (1997). Atypica anguage deveopment (in) Geason, J. (Ed.). The Deveopment of Language. Ayn and Bacon. Reder, P. and Duncan, S. (2002). Abusive Reationships, Care and Contro Conficts and Insecure Attachments. Chid Abuse Review, 10, 6, pp Reese, E. (2002). Socia Factors in the Deveopment of Autobiographica Memory: The State of the Art. Socia Deveopment, 11, pp Reimer, K. and Furrow, J. (2001). A Quaitative Exporation of Reationa Consciousness in Christian Chidren. Internationa Journa of Chidren s Spirituaity, 6,1, pp Reker, G. and Chamberain, K. (2000). Exporing Existentia Meaning: Optimizing Human Deveopment Across the Life Span. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Pubications. Riordan, S. (2001). Supporting Parenting: A Study of Parents Support Needs. Dubin: The Centre for Socia and Educationa Research, Dubin Institute of Technoogy. Roberts, W. and Strayer, J. (1996). Empathy, Emotiona Expressiveness, and Prosocia Behaviour. Chid Deveopment, 67, pp Roberts, R., Phinney, J. Masse, L., Chen, Y., Roberts, C. and Romero, A. (1999). The Structure of Ethnic Identity of Young Adoescents from Diverse Ethnocutura Groups. Journa of Eary Adoescence, 19, pp Robinson, T. (1999). Reducing Chidren s Teevision Viewing to Prevent Obesity: A Randomized Controed Trai. Journa of the American Medica Association, 282, pp Roche, E. (2003). Chidhood Obesity Why Shoud we be Worried? Irish Medica Journa, 96, 4. Roffey, S. (2001). Specia Needs in the Eary Years Coaboration, Communication and Co-ordination. London: David Futon Pubishers. Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in Thinking: Cognitive Deveopment in Socia Context. New York: Oxford University Press. Roins, P. (2003). Caregivers Contingent Comments to 9 Month-od Infants: Reationship with Later Language. Appied Psychoinguistics, 24, 2, pp Rose, S., Futterweit, L. and Jankowski, J. (1999). The Reation of Affect to Attention and Learning in Infancy. Chid Deveopment, 70, pp Rubin, K. and Asendorpf, J. (1993). Socia Withdrawa, Inhibition, and Shyness in Chidhood. Hisdae, NJ: Erbaum. Rudoph, K. and Asher, S. (2000). Adaptation and Maadaptation in the Peer System. Deveopmenta Processes and Outcomes (in) Sameroff, A. and Mier, S., (Eds.). Handbook of Deveopmenta Psychopathoogy. New York: Kuwer, pp Saarni, C. (1999). The Deveopment of Emotiona Competence. New York: Guidford Press. Saovey, P., Hsee, C. and Mayer, J. (1993). Emotiona Inteigence and the Sef-reguation of Affect (in) Wegner, D. and Pennebaker, J. (Eds.). Handbook of Menta Contro, Engewood, : Prentice-Ha, pp Saovey, P., Rothman, A., Detweier, J. and Steward, W. (2000). Emotiona States and Physica Heath. American Psychoogist, 55, pp Sander, I., Tein, J. and West, S. (1994). Coping, Stress and the Psychoogica Symptoms of Chidren of Divorce: A Crosssectiona and Longitudina Study. Chid Deveopment. 65, pp Sander, I., Wochik, S., MacKinnon, D., Ayers, T. and Roosa, M. (1997). Deveoping Linkages between Theory and Intervention in Stress and Coping Processes (in) Wochik, S. 46

50 Evidence and Perspectives and Sander, I. (Eds.). Handbook of Chidren s Coping. Linking Theory and Intervention. New York: Penum. Sander, I., Tein, J., Mehta, P., Wochik, S., and Ayers, T. (2000). Coping Efficacy and Psychoogica Probems of Chidren of Divorce. Chid Deveopment, 71, pp Sanson, A., Prior, M. and Kyrios, M. (1990). Contamination of Measures of Temperament Research. Merri-Pamer Quartery, 36, pp Scarr, S. (1998). American Chid Care Today. American Psychoogist, 53, pp Schaffer, H. (1992). Joint Invovement Episodes as Context for Deveopment (in) McGurk, H. (Ed.). Chidhood Socia Deveopment: Contemporary Perspectives. Hove: Erbaum. Scottish Executive Education Department (2003). Meeting the Needs of Chidren from Birth to Three: Research Evidence and Impications for Out-of-Home Provision. Scotand: Research, Economic and Corporate Strategy Unit. Seifer, R., Schier, M., Sameroff, A., Resnick, S. and Riordan, K. (1996). Attachment, Materna Sensitivity, and Infant Temperament during the First Year of Life. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 32, pp Schorr, L. (1997). Common Purpose: Strengthening Famiies and Neighbourhoods to Rebuid America. New York: Doubeday. Schuer, M., Nair, P., Back, M. and Kettinger, L. (2000). Mother-Infant Interaction: Effects of a Home Intervention and Ongoing Materna Drug Use. Journa of Cinica Chid Psychoogy, 29, 3, pp Seigman, M. and Csikszentmihayi, M. (2000). Positive Psychoogy: An Introduction. American Psychoogist, 55, 1, pp Serdua, M., Ivery, D., Coates, R., Freedman, D., Wiiamson, D. and Byers, T. (1993). Do Obese Chidren become Obese Aduts? A review of the Literature. Preventative Medicine, 22, pp Shepard, R. and Shek, P. (1996). Impact of Physica Activity and Sport on the Immune System. Reviews on Environmenta Heath, 11, pp Sheridan, C., Roberts, J., Coye, A. and O Rourke, P. (1997). Nationa Parent Support Program in Ireand (in) Hanrahan, M. and Prinsen, B. (Eds.). Community Heath, Community Support. Netherands Institutes of Care and Wefare in Co-operation with the MIM Co-operative. Shonkoff, J. and Meises, S. (Eds.) (2000). Handbook of Eary Chidhood Intervention. Cambridge: University Press. Shore, R. (1997). Rethinking the Brain: New Insights into Eary Deveopment. New York: Famiies and Work Institute. Skinner, E. and Weborn, J. (1997). Chidren s Coping in the Academic Domain (in) Wochik, S. and Sander, I. (Eds.). Handbook of Chidren s Coping. Linking Theory and Intervention. New York: Penum. Semenda, C., Muer, J., Reiter, T. and Johnstone, C. (1991). The Roe of Physica Activity in the Deveopment of Skeeta Mass in Chidren. Journa of Bone Minera Research, 6, 11, pp Smith, C. and Pugh, G. (1996). Learning to be a Parent: A Survey of Group-based Parenting Programmes. London: Famiy Poicy Studies Centre.,51,2, pp Smith, T. (1999). Neighbourhood and Preventive Strategies with Chidren and Famiies: What Works? Chidren and Society, 13, pp Speke, E. and Hermer, L. (1996). Eary Cognitive Deveopment: Objects and Space (in) Geman, R. and Au, T. (Eds.). Perceptua and Cognitive Deveopment. San Diego: Academic Press. Spieker, S., Neson, D., Petras, A., Joey, S. and Barnard, K. (2003). Joint Infuence of Chid Care and Infant Attachment Security for Cognitive and Language Outcomes of Lowincome Todders. Infant Behavior and Deveopment 26, 3, pp Sproue, K., Trew, K., Rafferty, H., Wash, G., Sheehy, N., McGuiness, C. and O Nei, B. (2003). The Eary Years Enriched Curricuum. Evauation Project: Third Year Report. Befast: Schoo of Psychoogy, Queens University Befast. 47

51 Appendix 1 Stams, G., Juffer, F. and Van IJzendoorn, M. (2002). Materna Sensitivity, Infant Attachment, and Temperament in Eary Chidhood Predict Adjustment in Midde Chidhood: The Case of Adopted Chidren and their Bioogicay Reated Parents. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 38, 5, pp Steinhauer, P. (1998). Deveoping Resiiency in Chidren from Disadvantaged Popuations (in) Canada Heath Action: Buiding on the Legacy Voume 1, Determinants of Heath: Chidren and Youth. Ottawa: Nationa Forum on Heath, pp Sternberg, R. (1999). The Theory of Successfu Inteigence. Review of Genera Psychoogy, 3, 4, pp Stocker, C., Ahmed, K. and Sta, M. (1997). Marita Satisfaction and Materna Emotiona Expressiveness: Links with Chidren s Sibing Reationships. Socia Deveopment, 3, pp Stipek, D., Feier, R., Danies, D. and Miburn, S. (1995). Effects of Different Instructiona Approaches on Young Chidren s Achievement and Motivation. Chid Deveopment, 66, pp Stipek, D., Feier, R., Byer, P., Ryan, R., Mibum, S. and Samon, J. (1998). Good Beginnings: What Difference does the Program make in Preparing Chidren for Schoo? Journa of Appied Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 19, pp Story, M., Hot, K. and Sofka, D. (2000). Bright Futures in Practice: Nutrition. Washington, DC: Nationa Center for Education in Materna and Chid Heath. Suderman, M. and Jaffe, P. (1997). Chidren and Youth who Witness Vioence: New Directions in Intervention and Prevention, (in) Wofe D.A., McMahon R.J. and Peters R.deV. (Eds.). Chid Abuse: New directions in prevention and treatment across the ifespan, Banff Internationa Behaviora Science series, Sage, Thousand Oaks. Tamis-LeMonda, C., Bornstein, M., Baumwe, L. and Damast, A. (1996). Responsive Parenting in the Second Year: Specific Infuences on Chidren s Language and Pay. Eary Deveopment and Parenting, 5, pp Tamis-LeMonda, C. and Bornstein, M. (2002). Materna Responsiveness and Eary Language Acquisition (in) Kai, R. and Reese, H. (2002). Advances in Chid Deveopment and Behaviour. Caifornia: Academic Press, 29, pp Teti, D. and Gefand, D. (1997). The Preschoo Assessment of Attachment: Construct Vaidity in a Sampe of Depressed and Nondepressed Famiies. Deveopment and Psychopathoogy 9, pp Teti, D. and McGourty, S. (1996). Using Mothers versus Trained Observers in Assessing Chidren s Secure Base Behaviour: Theoretica and Methodoogica Considerations. Chid Deveopment, 67, pp Thiedke, C. (2001). Seep Disorders and Seep Probems in Chidhood. American Famiy Physician, 63, pp Thompson, R. (2000). The Legacy of Eary Attachments. Chid Deveopment, 71, pp Thompson, R. (2003). Fatherhood Research: The Next Generation. Parenting: Science and Practice, 3, 3, pp Twomey, A., Matthews, T., Kiberd, B. and O Regan, M. (2000). Feeding Infants An Investment in the Future. Irish Medica Journa, 93, 8. Unicef (1999). Breastfeeding: Foundation for a Heathy Future. New York: Unicef. Unicef (1999). WHO Prevention and Contro of Iron Deficiency Anaemia in Women and Chidren. Geneva, Switzerand: Unicef. United Nations (1998). Human Deveopment Report. London: Oxford University. Vande, D. and Wofe, B. (2000). Chidcare Quaity: Does it Matter and Does it Need to be Improved? Madison: Institute for Research on Poverty, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Van IJzendoorn, M., Diijkstra, J. and Bus, A. (1995). Attachment, Inteigence, and Language: A Meta-anaysis. Socia Deveopment, 4, pp

52 Evidence and Perspectives Vaughn, B. and Bost, K. (1999). Attachment and Temperament: Redundant, Independent, or Interacting Infuences on Interpersona Adaptation and Personaity Deveopment? (in) Cassidy, J. and Shaver, P. (Eds.). Handbook of Attachment. New York: Guiford Press. Venvie, G. (2002). Enhancing the Quaity of Thinking in Year 1 Casses (in) Shayer, M. and Adey, P. (Eds.). Learning Inteigence. Cognitive Acceeration Across the Curricuum from 5 to 15 Years. Buckingham: Open University Press. Vershueren, K. and Marcoen, A. (1999). Representation of Sef and Socioemotiona Competence in Kindergartners: Differentia and Combined Effects of Attachment to Mother and Father. Chid Deveopment, 70, 1, pp Voing, B. (1997). The Famiy Correates of Materna and Paterna Perceptions of Differentia Treatment in Eary Chidhood. Famiy Reations, 46, pp Voing, B. and Besky, J. (1991). Mutipe Determinants of Father Invovement during Infancy in Dua Earner and Singe Earner Famiies. Journa of Marriage and the Famiy, 53, pp Von Hofsten, C. and Siddiqui, A. (1993). Using the Mother s Actions as a Reference for Object Exporation in 6 and 12 Month Od Infants. British Journa of Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 11, pp Waker, L., Hennig, K. and Krettenauer, T. (2000). Parent and Peer Contexts for Chidren s Mora Reasoning Deveopment. Chid Deveopment, 71, 4, pp Waker, L. and Tayor, J. (1991). Famiy Interactions and the Deveopment of Mora Reasoning. Chid Deveopment, 62, pp Wash, G. (2000). The Pay versus Forma Debate: A Study of Eary Years Provision in Northern Ireand and Denmark. Ph.D. Thesis. Befast: Stranmiis University Coege. Wartner, U., Grossmann, K., Fremmer- Bombik, E. and Suess, G. (1994). Attachment Patterns at Age Six in South Germany: Predictabiity from Infancy and Impications for Preschoo Behaviour. Chid Deveopment, 65, pp Watamura, S., Donzea, B., Awin, J. and Gunnary, M. (2003). Morning-to-afternoon Increases in Cortiso Concentrations for Infants and Todders at Chidcare: Age Differences and Behavioura Correates. Chid Deveopment, 74, pp Wek, G. (1999). The Youth Physica Activity Promotion Mode: A Conceptua Bridge between Theory and Practice. Quest, 51, 1, pp Wentze, K. and McNamara, C. (1999). Interpersona Reationships, Emotiona Distress, and Prosocia Behaviour in Midde Schoo. Journa of Eary Adoescence, 19, pp Werner, E. (1993). Risk, Resiience, and Recovery: Perspectives from the Kauai Longitudina Study. Deveopment and Psychopathoogy, 5, pp Wertsch, J. (1991). Voices of the Mind: A Sociocutura Approach to Mediated Action. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Whitebread, D. (1996). Teaching and Learning in the Eary Years. London: Routedge. Wiiams, R. (1995). Breastfeeding Best Bet for Babies. Food and Drug Administration Consumer Magazine, 29, pp Wiiams, K., Guerra, N. and Eiott, D. (1997). Human Deveopment and Vioence Prevention: A Focus on Youth. Bouder, CO: University of Coorado, Center for the Study and Prevention of Vioence, Institute of Behavioura Science. Wiinger, M., Ko, C., Hoffman, H., Kesser, R., and Corwin, M. (2000). Factors associated with Caregivers Choice of Infant Seep Position, : The Nationa Infant Seep Position Study. Journa of the American Medica Association, 283, pp Woin, S. and Woin, S. (1994). The Resiient Sef: How Survivors of Troubed Famiies Rise above Adversity. New York: Viard Books. Wood, D. (1998). How Chidren Think and Learn. Oxford: Backwe Pubishers Ltd. 49

53 Appendix 1 Woodhead, M., Faukner, D. and Litteton, K. (Eds.) (1998). Cutura Words of Eary Chidhood. London: Routedge. Word Heath Organisation. (2001). Expert Meeting on Life Course and Heath. Annecy: Word Heath Organisation. Wright, J. and Huston, A. (1995). Effects of Educationa TV Viewing of ower Income Preschooers on Academic Skis, Schoo Readiness and Schoo Adjustment One to Three Years Later. Report to Chidren s Teevision Workshop, Centre for Research on the Infuence of Teevision on Chidren: [University of Kansas.] Xie, C. and Lin, D. (2003). Taking to Aduts: The Contribution of Mutiparty Discourse to Language Acquisition. Journa of Language and Socia Psychoogy. 22, 3, pp Yasutake, D. and Gottman, J. (1995). The Infuence of Affect on the Achievement and Behaviour of Students with Learning Disabiities. Journa of Learning Disabiities, 28, 6, pp Yoshinaga-Itano, C., Sedey, A., Couter, D. and Meh, A. (1998). Language of Eary and Later Identified Chidren with Hearing Loss, Pediatrics, 102, pp Zahn-Waxer, C. and Radke-Yarrow, M. (1990). The Origins of Empathic Concern. Motivation and Emotion, 14, pp Zahn-Waxer, C., Robinson, J. and Emde, R. (1992). The Deveopment of Empathy in Twins. Deveopmenta Psychoogy, 28, pp Ziman, D., Bryant, J. and Huston, A. (1994). Media Chidren and the Famiy. N.J: Lawrence Erbaum Ass Inc. Zinnbauer, B., Paragament, K. and Scott, A. (1999). The Emerging Meanings of Reigiousness and Spirituaity: Probems and Prospects. Journa of Personaity, 67, 6, pp Zohar, D. and Marsha, I. (2000). Spiritua Inteigence. The Utimate Inteigence. London: Boomsbury. 50