The D Programming Language

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1 The D Programming Language Andrei Alexandrescu v:addison-wesley Upper Saddle River, NJ Boston Indianapolis San Francisco New York Toronto Montreal London Munich Paris Madrid Capetown Sydney Tokyo Singapore Mexico City

Indianapolis San Francisco New York Toronto Montreal

2 Contents Foreword by Walter Bright Foreword by Scott Meyers Preface Intended Audience Organization of the Book A Brief History Acknowledgments xxiii xxiv xxiv xxv xxvi 1 "D"iving In 1.1 Numbers and Expressions 1.2 Statements 1.3 Function Basics 1.4 Arrays and Associative Arrays Building a Vocabulary Array Slicing. Type-Generic Functions. Unit Tests Counting Frequencies. Lambda Functions 1.5 Basic Data Structures 1.6 Interfaces and Classes More Statistics. Inheritance 1.7 Values versus References 1.8 Summary 2 Basic Types. Expressions 2.1 Symbols Special Symbols 2.2 Literals Boolean Literals Integral Literals Floating-Point Literals Character Literals String Literals v

Lambda Functions 1.5 Basic Data Structures 1.6 Interfaces and Classes 1.6.1 More Statistics. Inheritance 1.7 Values versus References 1.8 Summary 2 Basic Types. Expressions 2.1 Symbols 2.1.1 Special Symbols 2.

3 vi Contents Array and Associative Array Literals Function Literals Operators Lvalues and Rvalues Implicit Numeric Conversions Typing of Numeric Operators Primary Expressions Postfix Expressions Unary Expressions The Power Expression Multiplicative Expressions Additive Expressions Shift Expressions in Expressions Comparison Operators Bitwise OR, XOR, AND Logical AND Logical OR The Conditional Operator Assignment Operators The Comma Operator Summary and Quick Reference 61 3 Statements The Expression Statement The Compound Statement The if Statement The static if Statement The swi t c h Statement The final swit ch Statement Looping Statements The wh 1 e Statement The do-while Statement The f o r Statement The f o rea ch Statement f o rea ch on Arrays The cont inue and break Statements The got o Statement The wit h Statement The ret u rn Statement The t h row and t ry Statements The mixin Statement

3.11 in Expressions 56 2.3.12 Comparison Operators 56 2.3.13 Bitwise OR, XOR, AND 58 2.3.14 Logical AND 59 2.3.15 Logical OR 59 2.3.16 The Conditional Operator 59 2.3.17 Assignment Operators 60 2.3.18 The Comma Operator 60 2.

4 Contents vii 3.13 The scope Statement 3.14 The synch ronized Statement 3.15 The a sm Statement 3.16 Summary and Quick Reference Arrays, Associative Arrays, and Strings Dynamic Arrays Length Bounds Checking Slicing Copying Comparing for Equality Concatenating Array-wise Expressions Shrinking Expanding Assigning to. lengt h Fixed-Size Arrays Length Bounds Checking Slicing Copying and Implicit Conversion Comparing for Equality Concatenating Array-wise Operations Multidimensional Arrays Associative Arrays Length Reading and Writing Slots Copying Comparing for Equality Removing Elements Iterating User-Defined Types as Keys Strings Code Points Encodings Character Types Arrays of Characters + Benefits = Strings Arrays' Maverick Cousin: The Pointer Summary and Quick Reference 126

1.9 Expanding 103 4.1.10 Assigning to. lengt h 106 4.2 Fixed-Size Arrays 107 4.2.1 Length 108 4.2.2 Bounds Checking 108 4.2.3 Slicing 109 4.2.4 Copying and Implicit Conversion 109 4.2.5 Comparing for Equality 110 4.

5 viii Contents 5 Data and Functions. Functional Style Writing and unittesting a Simple Function Passing Conventions and Storage Classes ref Parameters and Returns in Parameters out Parameters static Data Type Parameters Signature Constraints Overloading Partial Ordering of Functions Cross-Module Overloading Higher-Order Functions. Function Literals Function Literals versus Delegate Literals Nested Functions Closures OK, This Works. Wait, It Shouldn't. Oh, It Does! Beyond Arrays. Ranges. Pseudo Members Pseudo Members and rt y Attribute reduce Just Not ad Absurdum Variadic Functions Homogeneous Variadic Functions Heterogeneous Variadic Functions Function Attributes Pure Functions The not h row Function Attribute Compile-Time Evaluation Classes. Object-Oriented Style Classes Object Names Are References It's an Object's Life Constructors Forwarding Constructors Construction Sequence Destruction and Deallocation Tear-Down Sequence Static Constructors and Destructors Methods and Inheritance A Terminological Smörgäsbord Inheritance Is Subtyping. Static and Dynamic Type Overriding Is Only Voluntary 193

6 Higher-Order Functions. Function Literals 148 5.6.1 Function Literals versus Delegate Literals 150 5.7 Nested Functions 150 5.8 Closures 152 5.8.1 OK, This Works. Wait, It Shouldn't. Oh, It Does!

6 Contents ix Calling Overridden Methods Covariant Return Types Class-Level Encapsulation with static Members Curbing Extensibility with final Methods final Classes Encapsulation private package protected public export How Much Encapsulation? One Root to Rule Them All st ring tost ring ( ) size_t tohash() bool opequals (Object rhs) int opcmp(object rhs) static Object factory(string classname) Interfaces The Non-Virtual Interface (NVI) Idiom protected Primitives Selective Implementation Abstract Classes Nested Classes Classes Nested in Functions static Nested Classes Anonymous Classes Multiple Inheritance Multiple Subtyping Overriding Methods in Multiple Subtyping Scenarios Parameterized Classes and Interfaces Heterogeneous Translation, Again Summary Other User-Defined Types st ructs Copy Semantics Passing st ruct Objects to Functions Life Cycle of a st ruct Object Static Constructors and Destructors Methods static Members 260

8.2 size_t tohash() 205 6.8.3 bool opequals (Object rhs) 205 6.8.4 int opcmp(object rhs) 209 6.8.5 static Object factory(string classname) 210 6.9 Interfaces 212 6.9.1 The Non-Virtual Interface (NVI) Idiom 213 6.

7 x Contents Access Specifiers Nesting st ructs and classes Nesting st ructs inside Functions Subtyping with structs. Attribute Field Layout. Alignment unions Enumerated Values Enumerated Types enum Properties alias Parameterized Scopes with template Eponymous templates Injecting Code with mixin templates Symbol Lookup inside a mixin Summary and Reference Type Qualifiers The immutable Qualifier Transitivity Composing with immutable immutable Parameters and Methods immutable Constructors Conversions involving immutable The const Qualifier Interaction between con st and immutable Propagating a Qualifier from Parameter to Result Summary Error Handling t h rowing and cat ching Types finatty clauses not h row Functions and the Special Nature of Th rowable Collateral Exceptions Stack Unwinding and Exception-Safe Code Uncaught Exceptions Contract Programming Contracts Assertions Preconditions Postconditions 319

6 Injecting Code with mixin templates 282 7.6.1 Symbol Lookup inside a mixin 284 7.7 Summary and Reference 285 8 Type Qualifiers 287 8.1 The immutable Qualifier 288 8.1.1 Transitivity 289 8.

8 Contents xi 10.5 Invariants Skipping Contract Checks. Release Builds enf o rce Is Not (Quite) assert assert ( false) Contracts: Not for Scrubbing Input Contracts and Inheritance Inheritance and in Contracts Inheritance and out Contracts Inheritance and inva riant Contracts Contracts in Interfaces Scaling Up Packages and Modules impo rt Declarations Module Searching Roots Name Lookup public import Declarations static import Declarations Selective impo rt s Renaming in impo rt s The module Declaration Module Summaries Safety Defined and Undefined Behavior 354 rusted, Attributes Module Constructors and Destructors Execution Order within a Module Execution Order across Modules Documentation Comments Interfacing with C and C deprecated ve rs ion Declarations debug Declarations D's Standard Library Operator Overloading Overloading Operators Overloading Unary Operators Using mixin to Consolidate Operator Definitions Postincrement and Postdecrement Overloading the cast Operator Overloading Ternary Operator Tests and if Tests 370

9 Contracts in Interfaces 334 11 Scaling Up 337 11.1 Packages and Modules 337 11.1.1 impo rt Declarations 338 11.1.2 Module Searching Roots 340 11.1.3 Name Lookup 341 11.1.4 public import Declarations 344 11.

9 xii Contents 12.3 Overloading Binary Operators Operator Overloading Commutativity Overloading Comparison Operators Overloading Assignment Operators Overloading Indexing Operators Overloading Slicing Operators The $ Operator Overloading foreach foreach with Iteration Primitives f o reach with Internal Iteration Defining Overloaded Operators in Classes And Now for Something Completely Different: opdispatch Dynamic Dispatch with opdispatch Summary and Quick Reference Concurrency Concurrentgate A Brief History of Data Sharing Look, Ma, No (Default) Sharing Starting a Thread immutable Sharing Exchanging Messages between Threads Pattern Matching with receive First Match Matching Any Message File Copying with a Twist Thread Termination Out-of-Band Communication Mailbox Crowding The s ha red Type Qualifier The Plot Thickens: s ha red Is Transitive Operations with s ha red Data and Their Effects Sequential Consistency of s ha red Data Lock-Based Synchronization with syn c h ron z ed classes Field Typing in synchronized classes Temporary Protection == No Escape Local Protection == Tail Sharing Forcing Identical Mutexes The Unthinkable: casting Away s ha red Deadlocks and the synch ronized Statement Lock-Free Coding with s ha red classes 426

10 Defining Overloaded Operators in Classes 383 12.11 And Now for Something Completely Different: opdispatch 384 12.11.1 Dynamic Dispatch with opdispatch 386 12.

10 Contents xiii shared classes A Couple of Lock-Free Structures Summary 431 Bibliography 433 Index 439

PROBLEM SOLVING SEVENTH EDITION WALTER SAVITCH UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO CONTRIBUTOR KENRICK MOCK UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA, ANCHORAGE PEARSON

PROBLEM SOLVING SEVENTH EDITION WALTER SAVITCH UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO CONTRIBUTOR KENRICK MOCK UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA, ANCHORAGE PEARSON PROBLEM SOLVING WITH SEVENTH EDITION WALTER SAVITCH UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO CONTRIBUTOR KENRICK MOCK UNIVERSITY OF ALASKA, ANCHORAGE PEARSON Addison Wesley Boston San Francisco New York London