Coral Triangle Initiative

Transcription

1 Coral Triangle Initiative Draft Issue Papers Version 2 Townsville Workshop November 2008

2 5 November 2008 To: CTI Townsville Workshop participants CTI Coordinating Committee CTI marine resource managers and scientists Dear Colleagues The Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies at James Cook University and the Australian Institute of Marine Science, both based in Townsville, Australia, have been asked to provide scientific expertise to the Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI). As part of our contribution, in early September, we circulated 16 background papers on issues related to achieving the goals of the CTI. The updated versions of these papers are provided here. These papers will remain living documents and available on the web at We welcome further contributions and discussion to enhance their relevance and quality. We will continue to update these papers to ensure they assist in the development and implementation of the CTI, encourage strong research collaborations and forge productive relationships for the future. The draft background papers have been written by a range of international experts including from the Coral Triangle countries. Our thanks to these authors. Many thanks also to WWF and the Queensland Department of Tourism, Regional Development and Industry for their financial support in the development of these papers. Sincerely, Terry Hughes Director ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies James Cook University Ian Poiner Chief Executive Officer Australian Institute of Marine Science PO Box 643 Townsville Qld Australia [email protected] Telephone: +61 (0) Facsimile: +61 (0)

3 DRAFTVersion2 Draftbackgroundpapersversion2 5November2008 TableofContents 1.Sustainingecosystemsandlivelihoods:ecosystembasedmanagementandtheCoralTriangle ExistingandpotentialnonspatialmanagementoptionsintheCoralTriangle Ecologicalresilienceand shiftingbaselines Datasufficiencyanddealingwithuncertainty HowhumanusesandvaluescanmatterfortheCTI Participatorymarineresourcemanagementplanning ClimateChangeThreatstoCoralReefsintheCoralTriangle Threatofclimatechangetofishandfisheries CapacitybuildingformarineresourcemanagementincludingMPAs ObjectivesandmultipleusezoningforanetworkofMPAsfortheCoralTriangle ConnectivityandthedesignofmarineprotectedareanetworksintheCoralTriangle Incorporatinginformationaboutmarinespeciesofconservationconcernandtheirhabitatsintoa networkofmpasforthecoraltriangleregion DesigninganetworkofMPAsfortheCoralTriangle LongtermbiophysicalmonitoringofanetworkofMarineProtectedAreasintheCoralTriangle Humanadaptationtoclimatechange Atleastdonoharm :CoralTriangleInitiativecontributingtoLivelihoodsandPovertyReduction OutbreaksofCrownofThornsseastarsaddtocoraldepletioninthecoraltriangle...98 POBox643 TownsvilleQld.4810 Australia Telephone:+61(0) Facsimile:+61(0)

4 DRAFTVersion2 1.Sustainingecosystemsandlivelihoods:ecosystembased managementandthecoraltriangle Alino,P.M. 1,Fernandes,L. 2,Hughes,T. 3,M.E.Lazuardi 4,J.M.L.Tan 5,Tanzer,J. 6 5/11/08 Outlineoftheissue SocioeconomicandecologicalcommonalityoftheCoralTriangle The CoralTriangle (CT)regionislocatedaroundtheequatorattheconfluenceoftheWestern PacificandIndianOceans(seeMap1).Coralandreeffishdiversitywerethetwomajorcriteriaused byscientiststodefinetheboundariesofthisregionwhichcoverallorpartoftheexclusiveeconomic Zonesof:Indonesia,Malaysia,PapuaNewGuinea,thePhilippines,theSolomonIslandsandTimor Leste(theCT6).ThesecountrieshavelaunchedaCoralTriangleInitiativethataimstotransform marineresourcemanagementwithintheentiretyoftheirwaters,evenbeyondthisbiologicalspace. Althoughtheareacoversonly1.6%oftheworld soceans,thectrepresentstheglobalepicenterof marinelifeabundanceanddiversitycontaining: morethan75%ofallknowncoralspecies, morethan3,000fishspecies, thegreatestextentofmangroveforestsintheworld, 33%oftheworld scoralreefs,and spawningandjuvenilegrowthareasfortheworld slargesttunafishery. Thereisoceanographicconnectivity,asharedpalaeontologichistory,commonalityinspeciesranges andecologicalsimilaritiesacrosshabitatswithinthecoraltriangle. TheCTcountriesalsoshareeconomicconnections,tradeflows,commonthreatsandsocioeconomic challenges.theyshareconcernstodowith,forexample,thetradeofendangeredspeciesandthe depletionofhigherlevelcarnivoresforthelivefoodfishtradewhicharecausingthedepletionofthe sharksandgroupersandresultinginfishingdownthefoodchain.thesesocioeconomic commonalitiesaretruedespiterealandsignificantculturalandsocialdifferencesbetween,andeven within,countries. 1 TheMarineScienceInstitute,UniversityofthePhilippines,Diliman,QuezonCity,Philippines. [email protected] 2 MarineResourceManagementCoordinator,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellenceinCoralReef Studies,JamesCookUniversityandtheAustralianInstituteofMarineScience,Townsville,Q.Australia.Ph.+61 (0) ;[email protected] 3 Director,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellenceinCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity 4 ScienceandMonitoringCoordinator,RajaAmpatProgram,ConservationInternationalIndonesia, 5 ViceChairman,WWFPhilippines,[email protected] 6 CoralTriangleFacilitator,AustralianGovernmentDepartmentoftheEnvironment,Water,Heritageandthe Arts,TheNatureConservancy,[email protected] 2

5 DRAFTVersion2 Attheintersectionofbiologyandpeopleisthechallenge.Thebiogeographicalconditionswithinthe CTaresuchthat,withadequatemanagement,theregioncouldmaintainitsexceptionalproductivity inthefaceoffuturepressuresanddisturbancesincludingclimatechange.thismakesitpotentially oneoftheplanet smostimportantmarine foodbowls aswellasagloballyimportant refuge for marinelife. Also,forthesereasons: NopartoftheCoralTriangleregionisasuniqueorproductiveasthewhole. DegradationofanypartoftheCoralTrianglehaspotentialimpactsacrossthewhole. NopartoftheCoralTrianglecanbemanagedaseffectively,inthelongterm, withouteffectiveresourcemanagementacrossthewhole. Theseexceptionalmarineandcoastallivingresourcesprovideextremelyimportantbenefitstothe ~200millionpeoplewhoresidewithintheCoralTriangle,aswellasmanymillionsmoreoutsidethe region: Thevalueofthecoralreefs,mangroves,andassociatednaturalhabitatsintheCTis estimatedtototalus$2.3billionannually. OnethirdoftheinhabitantswithintheCTliveincoastalcommunitiesanddependdirectlyon localmarineandcoastalresourcesfortheirincomeandfoodsecurity. Healthyreefsystemsandmangroveforestsprotectcoastalcommunitiesfromstormsand tsunamis,reducingcasualties,reconstructioncosts,andtheneedforinternationalaid. Tunaspawningandnurserygroundssupportamultibilliondollartunaindustry,providingan importantfoodsourcefortensofmillionsofconsumersworldwide,andprovidingthousands ofjobsforinhabitantswithintheregion. 3

6 DRAFTVersion2 Otherwildcaughtmarineproducts(e.g.,snapper,grouper,bechedemer,shrimp)aresold tolocalmarketsandexportedworldwide,generatinghundredsofmillionsofdollarsin annualrevenue,aswellasprovidingimportantfoodsources. ProductivecoralreefsystemsprovideformostoftheUS$800+millionannualtradeinlive reeffoodfish(primarilysupplyingmarketsinchina). Productivecoralreefsystemsalsoprovideforamajorshareofthemultimilliondollar annualtradeinlivereefaquariumfish(supplyingmarketsworldwide). Healthymarineresourcescontributetoagrowingnaturebasedtourismindustryinthe region(e.g.divetourism),generatingtensofmillionsofdollarsannuallyandthousandsof jobs. LeadersoftheCT6haveacknowledgedthesevaluesacrosstheCTandareaimingtomaintainthem viathecoraltriangleinitiative. EcosystembasedmanagementoftheCoralTriangle Adoptingaregionwideecosystembasedmanagementapproachtodealingwiththeescalating pressuresandthreatsoffersamoreeffectiverangeoftoolsandoptionstodecisionmakersand privatesectorresourceusersthanonebasedonfragmentedinstitutionalarrangements,individual resourcesorstocksorsitespecificactionsthatdonottakeintoaccountissuesofinterrelatedness andconnectivity. Ecosystembasedmanagementrecognizesthathumansareanintegralcomponentofecosystems, andthevalueofsustainingthegoodsandservices(suchasfisheriesandtourism)providedby ecosystemsforhumanwellbeing.ecosystembasedmanagement(ebm)isbasedonmanagement andgovernanceapproachesthat: Integrateecological,social,andeconomicgoals,recognizingtheirstronginterdependencies Considersmultiscaleecologicalprocesses,thatoftentranscendpoliticalboundaries Acknowledgesinterconnectednessbetweenair,landandsea Addressesthecomplexityofnaturalprocessesandsocialsystems Usesanadaptivemanagementapproachadapttouncertaintiesandrisks,and Engagestherangeofstakeholders,includingtheprivatesector,inacollaborativeprocessto defineproblemsandseekequitablesolutions. WithinonepartoftheCoralTriangle,anecosystemapproachisalreadybeingimplemented. ConservationInternationalincollaborationwithTheNatureConservancyandWWFhasbeen developinganecosystembasedmanagementprograminbirdheadsseascape.theactivitiesin thiseffortinclude,forexample,amarinerapidassessmentsurveyincendrawasihbayandfakfak Kaimana(2006),aseasurfacetemperaturestud,aconnectivitystudyandastudyonspawning aggregationsites(spags). WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? TheCoralTriangleisfacingrapidlyexpandingpopulations,economicgrowthandthepressuresof internationaltrade.fishandothermarineresourcesareaprincipalsourceoffood,livelihoodsand exportrevenuesinallofthectcountries.tuna,livereeffishandshrimp,forexample,supplyafast growingdemandinjapan,theus,europe,chinaandelsewhere. 4

7 DRAFTVersion2 Thesefactorsaregeneratingincreasedpressuresonmarineandcoastalresources,including:over fishing,unsustainablefishingpractices,landbasedsourcesofmarinepollutionandcoastalhabitat destruction.overlayingthesepressuresareexternalthreatssuchasclimatechange.thecurrent statusofmarineandcoastalresourcesacrosstheregion,andfutureprojections,arealarming.for example: Morethan80%ofthecoralreefsacrosstheSoutheastAsiaportionoftheCTareatrisk (undermediumandhighpotentialthreat),andoverhalfareathighriskprimarilyfrom fishingrelatedpressuresandcoastaldevelopment. Manyofthecommercialpelagicfishstocks particularlyspeciesoftunaandsharkarealso depleted,withsomeheadingtowardcollapse. Manycoastalfisheriesacrosstheregionaredepleted,withsomefisheriesalreadycollapsed orheadingtowardcollapse. Hazardsassociatedwithclimatechange(suchasmasscoralbleaching,oceanacidification, sealevelrise,increasedintensityofstormandcycloneeventsandflooding)willpose increasingthreatsinthecomingdecadestomarineandcoastalresources. MarineandcoastalresourcesareacornerstonefortheCTeconomiesandfortheCTsocieties.The growingthreatstotheseresourcesmustbetakenseriously,andmustbeactedupon.transformation changesarerequiredratherthanmerelyincrementalchanges.theyinclude,forexample: thehighestpoliticallevelsofsupportandleadershipforthemultilateralctiwhichis translatedthroughoutcountries governmentsatalllevelsandthroughtolocalcommunities; raisingsustainablemarineandcoastalresourcemanagementtothehighestandmost immediatepoliticalpriority; applyingnewandongoingnationalbudgetarysupporttoenableimplementationof sustainablemarineandcoastresourcemanagementaswellassourcingexternalsustainable financing; anewandpowerfulregionalcollaborationtoaddressthetransboundaryproblems(e.g. sharedtunastocks;livereeffoodfishtrade;illegal,unregulatedandunreportedfishing; broadscaleecoregionplanning;declinesinthreatenedspeciespopulationsandin biodiversity);and recognisingthatjointeffortscanbemutuallybeneficialandeconomicallyefficientbecause lessonslearnedandsuccessfulmanagementprogramscanbesharedacrossnations(and scaledup)ratherthanduplicated. Insum,adoptingalargescaleecosystemapproachseekstoensurethatlocalandregionalactionsare partofabroad,integratedplanofaction,suchasthectidraftplanofaction. 5

8 DRAFTVersion2 WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? Acomprehensive,ecologicallyrepresentative,fullyfunctioning,andregionwideCoralTriangleMPA NetworkcanhelpbuildresiliencetothepressuresandthreatsfacingtheCoralTriangle.Itcanhelp protectedtheresourcesandhencethevaluesofthoseresourcestothecountriesofthecoral Triangle.Itcanbeacornerstoneuponwhichtheentiresuiteofmanagementinterventions,as identifiedinthedraftplanofaction,canandmustbuild. ButanMPAnetworkisnotapanacea.Othermanagementactionswillberequiredsuchas ecosystembasedfisheriesmanagementandhumanadaptationtothreatssuchasclimatechange (seealsodraftbackgroundpapersonnonspatialmanagement,mpaobjectives,connectivity,mpa networkdesignandhumanadaptationtoclimatechange). Nonetheless,therearemultipleobjectivesforanMPAnetworkcitedintheJakartadraftPlanof ActionthatmeananynetworkacrosstheCTwilllikelybemultipleuseandmultiscale.Multiple scalenetworksofmpasbasedontheprinciplesofebmcannotonlyhelpprovideprotectionforkey habitatsandspeciesbuthelpputinplacea ecologicalinsurancepolicy tohelptheregioncopewith majorthreatstoecosystemfunctionandproductivitysuchasthoseassociatedwithclimatechange. Properlydesignedandflexibleintimeandspacefullyfunctioningnetworkcanprovideanevolving frameworkforlongtermsustainability. BackgroundReading Arkema,KK,SCAbramson,andBMDewsbury.2006.Marineecosystembasedmanagement:From characterizationtoimplementation.frontiersinecologyandtheenvironment4: ConventiononBiodiversity:EcosystemApproachSourcebook. Guerry,AD.2005.IcarusandDaedalus:conceptualandtacticallessonsformarineecosystembased management.frontiersinecologyandtheenvironment3: Halpern,BS,KLMcLeod,AARosenberg,andLBCrowder.2008.Understandingcumulativeand interactiveimpactsasabasisforecosystembasedmanagementandoceanzoning.oceanand CoastalManagement51: Leslie,HLandKLMcLeod.2007.Confrontingthechallengesofimplementingmarineecosystem basedmanagement.frontiersinecologyandevolution.5: Murawski,SA.2007.Tenmythsconcerningecosystemapproachestolivingmarineresource management.marinepolicy31: Rosenberg,AAandKLMcLeod.2005.Implementingecosystembasedapproachestomanagement fortheconservationofecosystemservices.in:browmanhiandkistergiou(eds)politicsandsocio 6

9 DRAFTVersion2 economicsofecosystembasedmanagementofmarineresources.marineecologyprogressseries 300: ScientificConsensusStatementonMarineEcosystemBasedManagement.Preparedbyscientists andpolicyexpertstoprovideinformationaboutcoastsandoceanstou.s.policymakersreleased onmarch21,2005 Sherman,K.etal.(eds.)(1993).LargeMarineEcosystems:Stress,Mitigation,andSustainability Washington,D.C.:AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience. Someexistingprojects UNEPRegionalSeasProgramhttp:// BismarkSolomonsLME ndex.cfm SuluSulaweisieLME lu_sulawesi_marine_ecoregion/index.cfm 7

10 DRAFTVersion2 2.ExistingandpotentialnonspatialmanagementoptionsintheCoral Triangle Foale,S. 1,Friedman,K. 2 Gomez,E. 3,Nash,W. 4,Tanzer,J. 5 4/11/08 Outlineoftheissue Nonspatialfisherymanagementtoolsincludesizelimits,gearrestrictions,speciesbans,andquotas; theseareinusethroughoutthecttovaryingdegreesalready.allofthesetoolscan,ofcourse,be usedinconjunctionwithspatialapproachessuchasseasonalclosures,permanentnotakeareas, areabasedgearrestrictionsorrotationalclosures(seealsoissuepaperonexistingspatial management).asoutlinedinthejakartadraftofthectiplanofactionandthebriefingpaperon ObjectivesandMultipleUseZoningforaNetworkofMPAs,notakeareasshouldbeenvisagedas partofasuiteofmanagementapproaches,allofwhichcancontributetofisheriesmanagement(and toothergoals)ratherthanastheprimaryfisherymanagementtool.mostexamplesofstableand productivefisheriesinaustralia,thepacific,andaroundtheworldsuccessfullyusenonspatial approaches,orcombinationsofspatialandothermanagementsystems(includingseveraltrochus fisheriesinpolynesiaandmicronesia,thewesternaustralianrocklobsterfisheryandnorthern PrawnTrawlFishery). Therearealreadyinplaceavarietyofnonspatialmanagementsystemsforcommodityfisheries withinthect6countries,butmanyhavelimitedornoefficacyduetocorruption,population pressureand/orpoverty.thisisoneofthereasonsmpasaresowidelyadvocated. However,theimplementationorimprovementofnonspatialmanagementmeasuresforseveral highvaluecommodityfisheries(e.g.bechedemer,trochus,pearlshells,andsharkfin)candeliver, and,insomecases(seespcpolicybrief2/2008),alreadyhasdeliveredimprovementsinthe performance,andcashflow,oftheseimportantfisheries.suchapproachesincludea)the enforcementofsizelimitsfortrochus(foaleandday1997)andbechedemer,andb)setting constituencyorwardormunicipalitybasedspecieslevelquotas,basedonroutinelygenerated stockassessmentdata(nashetal1995,skewesetal2002).enforcementofsizelimits,closed seasonsandquotasatpointsofsale,inmanycases,canbemorecosteffectivethanotherfishery managementmeasuressuchasnotakeareas.forsomespecies(e.g.trochus)however,notake areas,canbemoreeffectiveandeasiertousethanforotherspecies(e.g.sharks).insomecases, suchastheannualsixmonthclosedseasonforbechedemerinsomeprovincesofpapuanew Guinea,anyresultantimprovementstofisheryperformancehavenotbeenmeasured. Giventhevulnerabilityofthesharkfisheryitmaybewisertoconsidersomekindsofmoratoriauntil morereliablefisherymonitoringandmanagementregimescanbedevelopedandimplemented. 1 ARCCoEforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity;[email protected] 2 SPC_SecretariatofthePacificCommunity,BPD598848Noumea,[email protected] 3 GEFCRTRSEACoE,Univ.ofthePhilippinesMarineScienceInst.;[email protected] 4 WorldfishCentre,[email protected] 5 CoralTriangleFacilitator,[email protected] 8

11 DRAFTVersion2 MoratoriahavealreadybeenappliedtocommodityfisheriesinSolomonIslands,Vanuatu,and Tongainresponsetosevereoverfishing.Belletal(2008)showthattheseverityofoverfishing makesalargedifferencetotherateofrecoveryoffisheriesfollowingimplementationofmoratoria (seefigure2fromtheirpaper,below).forfisheriesthatarehighlyvulnerableand/oralreadyover fished,precautionaryapproaches,suchasearlyimplementationofmoratoria,areclearlypreferable tocontinuedfishingintheabsenceofgooddata. Nonspatialmeasures,ifsupportedwithappropriatelevelsofpoliticalandfinancialsupportto nationalfisheriesdepartments,couldeffectivelysloworevenreversetheprocessesof fishingdown thepricelist (sequentialdepletionofcommodityfisheriesindecreasingorderofmarketvalue). Spatialmeasurescancontributetofisheriesmanagement,inthelongerterm,withlarvalspillover effectsandadultmovementfromwithinnotakeareastooutside.howeverthecontributionof spillovertofisheryproductionislikelytovaryagreatdealamongspecies,dependingonlarval dispersalpatternsandadultmobility,andthesize,numberandspacingofnotakeclosures.while thereisasubstantialbodyofresearchonspillover(mainlyofadults)forreeffishinphilippines,(e.g., RussandAlcala1966;Russetal.2003)thereisrelativelylittleworklookingatspilloverforthe importantcommodityfisheriesinthecoraltriangle(cflincolnsmithetal2006,ramohia2006).this isanimportantconsiderationifwerememberthatinmelanesia,fishingpressureonreeffishoutside 9

12 DRAFTVersion2 ofurbanareastendstobelimitedbycomparativelylowhumanpopulationdensities,asmostreef fishareharvestedforsubsistenceandlocalmarkets,andnotforexport. Iflucrativecommodityfisheriescanbesustained,alongwiththewidelydistributedincomestreams theygenerate,theeconomicpressuresthatdrivefisherstomoveontomoreecologicallydestructive typesoffishingcanpotentiallybeaverted. WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? Nonspatialfisherymanagementsystemsshouldideallybeimprovedorimplemented(wherethe needandthebenefitsaresupportedbyexistingresearch)inadditiontoanmpanetwork.if,over themediumtolongterm,commodityfisheryproductivitycanbesustainedorevenincreased throughnonspatialmeasures,thentheresultantincomeflowstopoorruralpeoplewillbe maintained.thiscanalsohelpreducethelikelihoodofnoncompliancewithanynotakeareasthat isdrivenbydesperation. WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? Toachieveeffectivefisherymanagementgoalsbothspatialandnonspatialmanagementtoolsare needed;anmpanetworkwouldnotbeadequatetothisgoal.improvementstocommodityfishery performanceasaresultofimmediateenhancementstononspatialmanagementapproacheswill, forexample,reducetheeffectsofanydisplacedfishingeffort(duetonotakeclosures)andmakeit easiertominimisetheimmediate,negativesocialandeconomicimpactofnotakeclosuresifthey areimplemented. Backgroundreading indicated. Abesamis,R.A.,A.C.AlcalaandG.R.Russ(2006)."HowmuchdoesthefisheryatApoIslandbenefit fromspilloverofadultfishfromtheadjacentmarinereserve?"fisherybulletin104(3): Bell,J.D.,S.W.PurcellandW.J.Nash(2008)."Restoringsmallscalefisheriesfortropicalsea cucumbers."ocean&coastalmanagement51: Foale,S.J.andR.W.Day(1997)."Stockassessmentoftrochus(Trochusniloticus)fisheriesatWest Nggela,SolomonIslands,withnotesonmanagement."FisheriesResearch33:116. Kinch,J.(2004).AReviewoftheBechedemerFisheryandit'sManagementinPapuaNewGuinea. PortMoresby,MotuporeIslandResearchCentreUniversityofPapuaNewGuinea:133.(contact: 10

13 DRAFTVersion2 LincolnSmith,M.P.,K.A.Pitt,J.D.BellandB.D.Mapstone(2006)."Usingimpactassessment methodstodeterminetheeffectsofamarinereserveonabundancesandsizesofvaluabletropical invertebrates."canadianjournaloffisheriesandaquaticsciences63(6): Nash,W.,T.Adams,P.Tuara,O.Terekia,D.Munro,M.Amos,J.Leqata,N.Mataiti,M.Teopengaand J.Whitford(1995).TheAitutakiTrochusFishery:ACaseStudy.Noumea,SouthPacificCommission. Russ,G.R.,A.C.Alcala,A.P.Maypa,H.P.CalumpongandA.T.White(2004)."Marinereserve benefitslocalfisheries."ecologicalapplications14(2): SecretariatofthePacificCommunity(2008).SPCPolicyBrief2/2008.ARegionalApproachto InvertebrateExportFisheries.Noumea,SPC:4. Someexistingdatasets PapuaNewGuineaCoastalFisheriesManagementandDevelopmentProject(PNGCFMDP): resultsofdetailedsurveysofcommodityfisheriesforthreeprovincesofpng.theresearchincludes bothfisheryandsocioeconomicdata. Ramohia,P.(2006).FisheriesResources:CommerciallyImportantMacroinvertebrates.Solomon IslandsMarineAssessment:TechnicalReportoftheSurveyConductedMay13June17,2004.A. Skewes,T.,J.Kinch,P.Polon,D.Dennis,P.Seeto,T.Taranto,P.Lokani,T.Wassenberg,A. KoutsoukosandJ.Sarke(2002).ResearchforSustainableUseofBechedemerResourcesinMilne BayProvince,PapuaNewGuinea.Cleveland,CSIRODivisionofMarineResearch:40. ( Skewes,T.,J.Kinch,P.Polon,D.Dennis,P.Seeto,T.Taranto,P.Lokani,T.Wassenberg,A. KoutsoukosandJ.Sarke(2003).DistributionandAbundanceofReefResourcesinMilneBay Province,PapuaNewGuinea:GiantClamsandOtherSpecies.CSIRODivisionofMarineResearch Allen,G.R.,J.P.Kinch,S.A.McKennaandP.Seeto,Eds.(2003).ARapidMarineBiodiversitySurvey ofmilnebayprovince:surveyii(2000).rapbulletinofbiologicalassessment29.washingtond.c., ConservationInternational.( Pakoa,K.,K.Friedman,E.Tardy,F.Lasi,M.KronenandA.Vunisea(2008).StatusofTrochusFisheries Someexistingprojects NationalCTIPlansofAction Projectcompilinginformationonnationalprogramsandprioritiesineachcountrycoveringthe marine/coastalresourcessector(contactctisecretariat,mr.m.ekorudianto(eko): 11

14 DRAFTVersion2 TheReefFisheriesObservatoryattheSecretariatofthePacificCommunity(SPC) ( updatafromextensivefisheryandsocioeconomicsurveysacrossthepacific,includingdatafrom PapuaNewGuinea,SolomonIslandsandanother15countriesandterritories.Contact:MrLindsay 12

15 DRAFTVersion2 3.ExistingspatialmanagementintheCoralTriangle Cinner,J. 1,White,A.T. 2,Aswani,S. 3 Tan,J.M.L 4 4/11/08 Outlineoftheissue ThesixCoralTrianglecountries(CT6)haveevolvingsystemsofMPAsatthenationaland/orlocal levels(figure1).thecoraltriangleinitiative(cti)linksthesesixcountries,whichhavepreviously notcooperatedasaunifiedgroup.previously,indonesia,malaysiaandphilippinescooperatedwith othersoutheastasiancountriestoproducearegionalactionplanforanmpanetworkinsoutheast Asiain2002.PapuaNewGuineaandtheSolomonIslandspreviouslylinkedwithPacificIsland nationsthroughnetworkssuchasthelocallymanagedmarineareanetwork(lmma).thectiaims tolearnfrom,builduponandscaleupexistingefforts.abriefdescriptionofeachcountry smarine protectedarea(mpa)programanditsnationalmpacommitmentsfollows. Figure1.MPAsineachcountry,bysize,andtheCoralTriangleareaasdefinedbyagradientofdiversityof coralsandfish. EastTimor(noinformationexceptforNinoKonisSantanaNationalParkofwhichthemarine componentisinformallyknownasjakomarinepark) 1 ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity,Townsville,QLD,4811,Australia. [email protected] SeniorScientist,GlobalMarineTeam,TheNatureConservancy,[email protected] 3 DepartmentofAnthropologyandInterdepartmentalGraduatePrograminMarineScience,Universityof CaliforniaatSantaBarbara,CA ,[email protected] 4 ViceChairman,BoardofTrustees,WWFPhilippines 13

16 DRAFTVersion2 Indonesiahasestablished114MPAs(37withintheCoralTriangle),38ofwhichcontaincoralreefsas thedominanthabitat.legallydesignatedmpascurrentlycoveralmost70,000km 2.Manyofthese NationalParksweredesignatedinthe1980 s.mostofindonesia smpasarecombinedwith terrestrialparks,andareadministeredbytheministryofforestry.allmpasareadministeredata nationallevelbutmanagedatadistrict(regional)level.therearealsoagrowingnumberofvillage levelmpasthatarecomanagedwiththedistrictandnationalgovernments.monitoringofselected MPAsinIndonesia,bylargeNGOsworkingincollaborationwiththegovernmentmanagementunits, indicatesthatafewareasareshowingpositiveimpactsonfishstocksandcoralreefcondition.itis estimatedthatlessthan20%ofindonesia smpasarefunctionallymeetingtheirmanagement objectives.indonesianinstitutionsarejustbeginningtodevelopampamonitoringand managementeffectivenesssystem.thegovernmentcurrentlyaimstoprotect100,000km 2 by2010 and200,000km 2 by2020.besidestheformallydeclaredmpas,customarymanagementofmarine resourcesispresentinpartsofindonesia,includingsangihetalaud,muluku,andaceh(seebelow). Malaysiahasestablished83MPAsofwhich51.8%or43MPAsincludecoralreefscoveringabout 14,168km 2.SabahProvincehas5MPAsmanagedthroughtheSabahWildlifeDepartment(state government).thetotalnotakeportionofmpasinmalaysiais2310km 2 (16%oftotalMPAarea). ThemanagementeffectivenessofMPAsinMalaysiaisconsideredgoodbyregionalstandardsgiven thatdestructivefishingisnotcommoninmostmpasandfishingeffortisatleastpartiallycontrolled. Nevertheless,thereisnostandardmonitoringsystemthatincludesmeasuresformanagement effectivenessbeingimplementedatastateornationalscale. PapuaNewGuineahasnationallydesignatedapproximately22MPAs(includingWildlife ManagementAreas,MarineParks,Historicreserves,andProvincialparks).InPapuaNewGuinea, inshoremarineresourcesareownedbycommunitiesthroughcustomarymarinetenure,ratherthan bythestate.thiscustomaryownershipislegallyrecognizedandprovidesthebasisforanumberof localrestrictionssuchasfisheriesclosures,gearrestrictions,andspeciesavoidance,knownas customarymanagement.withinthiscustomaryownershipandmanagementframework,mpa systemshavebeendevelopedthroughthelmmanetworksince2000. Philippinesdeclareditsfirstnationalmarinepark(HundredIslands)in1940,followedbyMPA designationsatthelocalandnationalgovernmentlevelsinthe1970suptothepresent. Approximately1100MPAs,coveringabout200km2,aremanagedbymunicipalandcity governmentsthroughcomanagementarrangements,allofwhichcontainnotakeareassurrounded bysomeformofmanagedfishingarea.underthenationalprotectedareassystemactof1992,28 nationalmpashavebeenproclaimedthatcoverabout15,500km2.thephilippinemarine SanctuaryStrategy,endorsedin2002,hasatargetof10%of marinewaters tobefullyprotected by2020inampanetwork.thesulusulawesimarineecosystemareaofthesouthernphilippinesis thefirstregional seascape 1 areatobesystematicallyplannedatalargescale.thephilippineshasa monitoringprotocolformpasthatisadoptedbymostimplementingorganizationsthatfeed informationintoanationalmpadatabasecoordinatedbythempasupportnetwork(msn),which involvesbothgovernmentsandngos. 1 Seascapereferstolargeresourcemanagementareasdefinedbyecologicalandoceanographicaffinities.The SuluSulawesiSeascape,thefirstdefined seascape inthecoraltriangle,coversareasinsouthernphilippines, SahahMalaysiaandCelebesSea,Indonesia 14

17 DRAFTVersion2 SolomonIslands,similartoPapuaNewGuinea,inshoremarineresourcesareownedby communitiesthroughcustomaryownership.thiscustomaryownershipisrecognizedtovarying degreesingovernmentlawinthesolomonislands(thefisheriesact1998).inthepastdecade, manysolomonislandscommunitieshaveestablishedmpasontheirreefsasameansofmanaging andconservingtheirmarineresources.thesempashaveoftenbeenestablishedinpartnershipwith NGOsoruniversitieswhoprovidescientificandmonitoringassistance.TheMinistryofEnvironment isincreasinglygettinginvolvedinmpadesign,management,andfinanceandisnowbeginningto recognizevariouslocalinitiatives(e.g.,theroviana/vonavonampanetworkwasofficially recognizedbythegovernmentinaugust2008).legislationisbeingdraftedtolegallyaccommodate locallydriveninitiativesandthereisamovetowardsfocusingonlocalinitiativesinsteadof exclusivelydependingonngos.therearenowover50communitybasedmpasestablishedinthe SolomonIslands.AlthoughmanyoftheseMPAsaresmall(rangingfrom1km 2 to145km 2 ),thevast majorityofthemareeffectivelyconservedandhavehighcompliancewithcommunitybased regulations.thearnavonislandsistheoldest(1995)andlargestcommunitymanagedmpawith nationalrecognitioninthesolomonislands. WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? TheneedformoreandbettermanagedMPAsishighlightedintheCTIdraftPlanofActionasakey goal(#3)thatneedstobeaddressedinallthecountriesofthecoraltriangle.butthectiproposed networkofmpasiscertainlynotstartingfromscratch.mostcountrieshaveexisting:1)systemsof protectedareas;2)plansfornetworksofmpas;3)legalandinstitutionalmechanismsformarine andcoastalresourcesmanagement,and4)customaryorlocalpractices,allofwhichshouldbe recognizedbyandincorporatedintotheproposednetwork,whereappropriate.atthesametime, therearelargediscrepancieswithinandamongthesixcountriesintermsofmpasandnetwork design,plans,levelsofimplementationandmeansformonitoringandevaluation. WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? Severalimportantquestionsneedtobeconsideredregardingthegoalofscalinguptonetworksof MPAsby2015.Theseinclude: Isdevelopingastandardsystemofsocioeconomic,governanceandecologicalmonitoringto surveympasthroughoutthectregionviable?ifso,howcanmonitoringbestincludenationally relevantprocesses(ecosystemandsocial)andpotentialforadaptationtoclimatechange? WhatistheminimumacceptabledatarequiredtoplanfunctionalMPAnetworks(seeissue paperondataanduncertainty,also,marinelearningpartnershipfinalreport,inpress,contact AlanWhite{[email protected]})? Howcanthenumber,size,locationandspacingofnewMPAsbecoordinatedtomaximize resilience(e.g.byintegratingwithexistingandplannedspatialandnonspatialmanagement tools)?howcanthisbedrivenbycountrylevelinitiativeswithadequateroomfornational flexibility? CanenforcementofMPAsbeimprovedifcoordinatedatnetworkscales? WhatareviablerevenuestreamsforMPAmanagementandhowmightnetworkscale coordinationhelptomaximizerevenue? Howcanwebestbuildonlessonslearnedtodate? 15

18 DRAFTVersion2 Integratingcustomarymanagementandmarineconservation.InpartsoftheCoralTriangle, communitieshavecustomaryownershipovermarineresourcesandhaveestablishedcustomary managementpractices,particularlyinindonesia,papuanewguinea(png),andthesolomon Islands.Thesepracticescanincludeexclusiveuserights,gearrestrictions,andfisheriesclosures. Customaryclosuresareoftenimplementedforshortperiods(severalweeksto12months although insomecasestheycanlastforyearsorevenbepermanent),andaconcentratedeffortofafamily, clan,orthewidercommunitymaybeappliedtoharvesttheclosedareaafteritisopenedagain. Customaryclosuresinclude fallow rotationoffishingareasandtheclosureofcertainareasto allowoverfishedspeciestorecover.theseareoftenverysmallinspatialscaleandgenerally operatewithintheareaownedbyaspecificclanorvillage.althoughtenurearrangementsand customarymanagementpracticescreateaplatformforresourcemanagementinpartsofthecoral triangle,theyalsopresentuniquechallenges(suchascoordinatingatlargerspatialscales).despite apparentsimilaritieswithmpas,thepractices,motives,andexpectationsbehindcustomary managementareoftenverydifferentfromwhatconservationgroups,governments,andscientists wishtoachieve.anexternallyderivedfocusonbiodiversityastheprimarydriverfordesigningmpas maynotcoincidewithlocalexpectationsandformsofcustomarymanagement.acknowledgingthis isimportantbecausemanyngoinitiatedprojectshavealreadyfailedduetotheirinsistencein placingbiodiversityovertheneedsandexpectationsoflocalpopulations.alternativemanagement toolsthatcanmeetlocalutilitariangoalsmustalsobeconsidered. Thereareexamplesof hybrid managementsystems,whichlinkcustomarypracticesand contemporaryconservationgoals,suchasinthemarovoandrovianalagoonsinthesolomon Islands.InpartsofthePhilippines,localImamshaveusedtheIslamicprincipleofAlKhalifato reinforcelegalconservationmeasures,essentiallycreatinga doublelayer ofprotection.figure2 presentssomekeyconsiderationsforplanningmpaswheremarinetenureandcustomary managementsystemsexist,buttheseconsiderationsaregenerallyapplicabletodevelopingmpas withcommunities. Figure2.Propertiesofsuccessful hybridmanagementinstitutions. Customary/traditionaland contemporarymanagementsystems canhavecontrasting:goals;social andecologicalbenefits;andspatial scales.thesixprinciples(denotedas greyboxes)mayhelpovercomethese differencesasmanagers,scientists, andcommunitieshybridizethetwo systems.adaptedfromcinner& Aswani

19 DRAFTVersion2 Incontrasttothecountrieswherecustomarymanagementpracticesarestillcommonandhave potentialtofurthertheobjectivesofmarineconservation,themorepopulatedcountriesof Indonesia,MalaysiaandthePhilippinesdependprimarilyonstatutorylawbeingimplementedatthe localandnationalgovernmentlevelstofurthertheirimplementationofmpasandrelated mechanismsformarineconservation.inthesecountries,thereisatrendtodecentralizationof authoritytolocalgovernmentbodiesthatareincreasinglyplayinganactiveroleintheplanningand implementationofmpasandmpanetworks.thistrendismostdevelopedinthephilippineswhere municipalitiesandcitieshavefulljurisdictionovertheircoastalandmarineareasto15kmoffshore andareclosedtocommercialfishing.enforcementisleftuptolocalgovernment.ineffect,this constitutesabandoflocallymanagedareasthatcoverstwicethelengthoftheuscoastline.in Malaysiamostmanagementisunderthestate(provincial)governmentandinIndonesia,regional anddistrictgovernmentsareplayingamoreactiverole.thistrendofdevolutionallowsfor managementplanningandimplementationprocessestobemoresensitivetolocalcustomsand encouragesgreaterstakeholderinvolvement,thustheprinciplesinfigure2arehighlyrelevantto communitybasedmanagementintheseareas.althoughinthephilippinesandmalaysiacustomary managementsystemsseemtohavevanished,itisimportanttoconductsocialandecological researchincoastalcommunitiestotrulyunderstandwhetherornotthesesystemsarecompletely goneandifremnantscanbebuiltonandhybridizedwithgovernmentgoalstomanagemarine ecosystems Backgroundreading Cheung,C.,P.Alino,A.Uychiaoco,H.Areco.2002.MarineProtectedAreasinSoutheastAsia.ASEAN RegionalCentreforBiodiversityConservation,DepartmentofEnvironmentandNatural Resources,LosBaños,Philippines.142pp. Cinner,JandS.Aswani.2007.Integratingcustomarymanagementintomarineconservation. Burke,L.,E.SeligandM.Spalding.2002.ReefsatRiskinSoutheastAsia.Washington,D.C.:World ResourcesInstitute. IUCNWorldConservationUnionWorldCommissiononProtectedAreas.5thWorldParksCongress Recommendation Kelleher,G.1999.GuidelinesforMarineProtectedAreas.IUCN,Gland,SwitzerlandandCambridge. Miclat,E.,J.Ingles,J.Dumbap.(2006)PlanningacrossboundariesfortheConservationoftheSulu SulawesiMarineEcoregion.Ocean&CoastalManagement.910: PetSoede,L.2006.MPAsinIndonesia:whatprogresshasbeenmadesince1984?MPANews8(1):3. PartnershipforInterdisciplinaryStudiesofCoastalOceans(PISCO).2007.TheScienceofMarine Reserves.2 nd Edition,UnitedStatesVersion. 17

20 DRAFTVersion2 Roberts,C.M.,B.Halpern,S.R.Palumbi,andR.R.Warner.2001.Designingmarinereservenetworks: Whysmall,isolatedprotectedareasarenotenough.ConservationBiologyInPractice2(3): Russ,G.R.,A.C.,Alcala,A.P.Maypa,H.P.CalumpongandA.T.White. MarineReserveBenefitsLocal Fisheries.EcologicalApplications14(2004): UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgram(UNEP)andWorldConservationMonitoringCentre(WCMC) 2008.EstablishingnationalandregionalnetworksofMPAs areviewofprogresswithlessons learned.unepandwcmc,draftreport,106p. WCPA/IUCN2007.Establishingnetworksofmarineprotectedareas:aguidefordevelopingnational andregionalcapacityforbuildingmpanetworks.fulltechnicalreport,iucn. WFC(WorldFishCenter)2007.CoralReefMPAsofEastAsiaandMicronesia.WorldFishCenter (REEFBASEProject),SeaAroundUsProject,JapanWildlifeResearchCenter.CD. White,A.T.,Christie,P.,d Agnes,H.,Lowry,K.andN.Milne2005.DesigningICMProjectsfor Sustainability:LessonsfromthePhilippinesandIndonesia.OceanandCoastalManagement48: White,A.T.,P.M.AlinoandA.T.Meneses2006.CreatingandManagingMarineProtectedAreasin thephilippines.fisheriesimprovedforsustainableharvestsproject,coastalconservationand EducationFoundation,Inc.,andMarineScienceInstitute UniversityofthePhilippines,Cebu City,Philippines.83p. Wilkinson,C.,A.Caillaud,L.DeVantier,andR.South2006.StrategiestoReversetheDeclinein ValuableandDiverseCoralReefs,MangrovesandFisheries:TheBottomoftheJCurvein SoutheastAsia?OceanandCoastalManagement49: WorldBank2006.ScalingupMarineManagement:theRoleofMarineProtectedAreas.Reportno GLB.EnvironmentDepartment/SustainableDevelopmentNetwork.WorldBank, WashingtonD.C.,USA.100p. Someexistingdatasets TheWFCREEFBASE(2007)databasewww.reefbase.org UNEPandWCMC2007.WorldDatabaseofProtectedAreas. PhilippineMPADatabase(Philreefs2007www.philreefs.org/) CoastalConservationandEducationFoundation: Someexistingprojects NationalCTIPlansofAction Projectcompilinginformationonnationalprogramsandprioritiesineachcountrycoveringthe marine/coastalresourcessector(contactctisecretariat,mr.m.ekorudianto(eko): 18

21 DRAFTVersion2 4.Ecologicalresilienceand shiftingbaselines LaurenceM c Cook 1,TerryHughes 2,AngelAlcala 3,DavidBellwood 4,CarlFolke 5,JamaluddinJompa 6, JohnPandolfi 7,BobSteneck 8,HughSweatman 9 5/11/08 Outlineoftheissue Ecologicalresiliencereferstothe capacityofanecosystemtoresist,orrecoverorregeneratefrom disturbancesordamage,withoutchangesinstate( phaseshifts )soastomaintainkeyfunctions andprocesses. Justlikehealthyhumansarebetterabletodealwithandrecoverfromdiseasesand injuries,resilientecosystemscancopewithstressesanddisturbances. Muchmoreisknownabouttheresilienceofcoralreefsthanmostothertropicalmarineecosystems. Coralreefsaresubjecttofrequentdisturbancesanddamage,whichstressorkillcorals,often resultinginseaweedsoralgaecolonisingthedeadcoral.healthycoralreefsareusuallyableto rebuildthemselvesafterdamage,withcoralsreestablishingdominance.suchreefsareconsidered resilient,andcontinuetoprovidekeyecosystemgoodsandservices,suchasfishand attractivenesstotourists. Disturbances B overfishingofherbivores; extranutrients A Healthy, coraldominated state C Macroalgaldominated state Diagramillustratingresilience:A.Healthyreef,symbolisedbytheballatpositionA,willrecoverfromdisturbancesand returntoitsusualstate.humanimpactsmayreducetheresilienceofthesystem,makingitmorelikelyto tip overinto thealgaldominatedstate;thisisillustratedbytheballatpositionb,inashallowerbowl.inpositionc,thereefisdegraded, anditismuchmoredifficultandexpensivetoreturntheballtopositiona. 1 PewFellowshipsPrograminMarineConservation; ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,Australia 2 ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity. 3 SillimanUniversityAngeloKingCenterforResearchandEnvironmentalManagement,Philippines 4 ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity. 5 TheBeijerInstitute,RoyalSwedishAcademyofSciences,Sweden 6 CoralReefRehabilitationandManagementProgram,MinistryofMarineAffairsandFisheries,Indonesia 7 TheUniversityofQueensland,Australia;ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,Australia 8 SchoolofMarineSciences,UniversityofMaine,U.S.A.;ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies, Australia 9 AustralianInstituteofMarineScience,Australia 19

22 DRAFTVersion2 Humanimpactsoncoralreefs,suchasclimatechange,overfishing,destructivefishingandwater pollutioncanreducetheabilityofthereeftorecoverfromsuchdamage,makingitlessresilient.the reefwilloftenfailtorecoverfromdisturbances,andwillgraduallybecomedegraded,andunableto providefish,touristvalue,andmanyotherecosystemservices. IntheCoralTriangle,humanactivitiesthatreducereefresilienceincludeoverfishing,fishing practicesthatdamagereefhabitats(suchasblastfishing,cyanidefishing,muroamifishing),water pollution,anddirectdestructionofreefs,suchasbyuncontrolledtourismorminingforbuilding materials.waterpollutionoftenincludessedimentandnutrientrunofffromtheland,from agriculture,deforestationandsewage,otherchemicalpollution,andgarbageandlitter,suchas plasticbags. Similarimpactscanoccurinotherecosystems.Mangroveforestsarealsovulnerabletowidespread clearing,forcoastaldevelopmentandaquacultureponds.seagrassbedsarealsovulnerableto dredging,destructivefishingpracticessuchasblastfishingandtrawling,aswellaspollution. Unfortunately,formanyotherhabitats,suchasspongegardens,shoalsandmuddyorsandybottom areas,thereisinsufficientinformationaboutthebasicecologicalprocessesthatunderpinecosystem information. Ecosystemmanagersseektoprotectandenhancetheresilienceofecosystems,byreducinghuman stressesandimpacts.importantly,reducingonestresswilloftenhelptheecosystemrecoverfrom otherstresses.forexample,protectingtheherbivorousfishesonacoralreefwillhelpprotectfrom seaweedovergrowthofcorals,evenwhennutrientrunofffromthelandiscausingincreasedgrowth ofseaweeds.importantly,itismucheasier,andcheaper,tomaintaintheresilienceofahealthyreef, thantotrytorestorethereefoncedegraded.whenrecoverydoesoccur,itmaytakemanyyearsor decades,duetotheslowgrowthofmosthardcorals. ShiftingBaselines (alsoknownasslidingbaselines)referstothewaythatthereferencepoints againstwhichwecomparetheconditionofanecosystem,oftenundergochronic,slow,hardto noticechangesordegradation.ifourreferencepointsorbaselinesaregraduallydegrading,thenwe willunderestimatehowseverelydegradedourecosystemsare.forexample,ifthecurrent generationofreefusersorscientistshaveonlyeverseenareefwhichhasbeenoverfishedor exposedtorunoff,thentheymaynotrecognizethereefasdegraded.eventhosereefsinaregion thatareinthebestconditionmaybesignificantlydegradedincomparisonwithwhatour grandfathersknew50yearsago. Thereisincreasingevidencethatmany,apparentlyhealthycoralreefsandothertropicalecosystems aroundtheworldhavealreadybeensignificantlyalteredbyhumanactivities,suchasoverfishingof toppredatorslikesharks.ifthebaselineshiftedbeforewereallyhadachancetochartit,thenwe canendupacceptingadegradedstateasnormalorhealthy. Forexample,inthePhilippines,totalfishbiomassongoodreefshasdeclinedfromaround tonsperkm 2 to510tonsperkm 2 atpresent.historicalbiomasshasbeenestimatedby extrapolationfromthefewremainingrelativelyunexploitedreefs,suchastubbatahareefinthe SuluSea.Withfullprotectionfor510yearssomefringingreefshavebeenabletoreturntoa biomassofonly5060tons/km 2. 20

23 DRAFTVersion2 WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? Resiliencesciencetellsusthatreducingtheimpactofonethreatorstresswilloftenalsoincrease theresiliencetootherthreats. Also,thatthegreatestbenefitsaretobegainedfrommanagingallthethreatsandstresseson ecosystems,inanintegratedmanner. Thusforexample,providingprotectionfromdestructivefishingandfromoverfishinginMPAs willoftenhelpfisheriesproductivity. Inparticular,intheCT6,manyreefsandotherhabitatsareaffectedbyrunoffofchemicals, sedimentsandnutrientsfromtheland,aswellasbyactivitiesinthesea.thismeansthatthe greatestbenefittoreefs,andtofoodsecurity,willcomefromcombinedeffortstoaddressland runoffandfishingpracticesatthesametime. IntheCT6countries,manyreefshavenowbeendegradedforsometime,sothatmanypeople havebecomeusedtopoorcoralconditionandlowfishstocks.itisimportantthatthecti effortsincorporatethese shiftingbaselines andtheneedforincreasedefforttohelpreef recovery,nottojustmaintainthepresent,degradedcondition.thiswilloftenmeanworkingto restoringprocesseswhichareimportanttoresilience. WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? MPAsgenerallyservetoprotectagainstoverfishinganddestructiveactivities,butmaynotbe effectivetoolsformanagingenvironmentalquality(e.g.waterpollution)andmaybeinsufficientto protecttheoverallecosystem(i.e.includingareasoutsidempas).achievingresilientreefandother ecosystemsrequiresmuchmorethancarefuldesignofmpanetworks.itrequires: Comprehensiveandintegratedmanagementofallthemajorstressorsintheregionandthe broaderseascape,includinginparticularwaterpollutionandrunofffromtheland; EffectiveimplementationofprotectionwithinMPAdesignatedareas(e.g.effectivecompliance andenforcement); Protectionandmanagementofcoralreefsshouldincludeprotectionoflinkedmarineecosystems suchasseagrassbedsandmangroves,becauseofthecloseecologicalrelationshipsamong theseecosystems; ComplementarymanagementofareasoutsideMPAnetworks(e.g.carefulfisheriesmanagement inareasopentofishing,withemphasisonmaintainingprocessessuchasherbivoryand connectivity).thisincludesprovisionofalternativelivelihoodoptionsforlocalcommunities whichdonotexacerbateenvironmentaldegradation; 21

24 DRAFTVersion2 Increasedlevelsofprotectiontocompensatefortheeffectsofexistingdegradation(e.g. increasedproportionofprotectedareas,and/orincreasedlevelsofprotectionwithinprotected areas).fromtheperspectiveofbuildingresilience,3040%oftotalareashouldideallybe protectedinnotakeareas; Activeparticipationoflocal,andtraditionalorindigenouscommunitiesandlocalgovernment agencies,integratedwithinnationalgovernmentframeworksoflegislationandgovernance.the extentofinvolvementofdifferentlevelsofgovernmentandcommunityorganisationsmustbe appropriatetolocalcircumstances:whatworksinonecontextmaynotbeappropriatein others; Understandingpastnaturalstatesprovidesmanagerswitha measureofsuccess tousein evaluatingtheeffectivenessofmanagementactions.italsoprovidesrestoration/rehabilitation goalsthat,evenifnotrealisticallyachievable,provideaframeworkforecosystem improvement. Finally,becauseitiseasierandcheapertoprotectecosystemsnowtomaintainresiliencethanto restoredegradedecosystems,wherepossible,proactivemanagementwillalwaysbemuchmore costeffectivethanreactivemanagement,afterdegradation.evenwheredegradationhasalready occurred,initiatingremediationeffortssoonerandmorestronglymaydramaticallyimprove outcomes. Backgroundreading Ainsworth,C.H.,T.J.PitcherandC.Rotinsulu(2008)."Evidenceoffisherydepletionsandshifting cognitivebaselinesineasternindonesia."biologicalconservation141(3): AlcalaAC,RussGR(2006)NotakemarinereservesandreeffisheriesmanagementinthePhilippines: Anewpeoplepowerrevolution.AMBIO35: Bellwood,D.R.,Hughes,T.P.,Folke,C.andNyström,M.(2004)Confrontingthecoralreefcrisis, Nature,429, Hughes,T.P.etal.2003.Climatechange,humanimpacts,andtheresilienceofcoralreefs.Science 301, JacksonJ.B.C.ReefssinceColombus.CoralReefs16:S23S32 JordanM.West,RodneyV.Salm(2003)ResistanceandResiliencetoCoralBleaching:Implicationsfor CoralReefConservationandManagement.ConservationBiology17: McCookLJ,FolkeC,HughesTP,NyströmM,OburaD,SalmR(2007)Ecologicalresilience,climate changeandthegreatbarrierreef:anintroduction.in:johnsonj,marshallp:climatechangeand thegreatbarrierreef.p.7596 Pandolfi,J.M.,J.B.C.Jackson,N.Baron,R.H.Bradbury,H.M.Guzman,T.P.Hughes,C.V.Kappel,F. Micheli,J.C.Ogden,H.P.Possingham,E.Sala.2005.AreUScoralreefsontheslipperyslopeto slime?science307:

25 DRAFTVersion2 Someexistingdatasets SillimanUniversityAngeloKingCenterforResearchandEnvironmentalManagement,Philippines hasadatabaseincluding,forexample,datafrom fromthespratlyislands.(contact:angel Alcalaalsowww.su.edu.ph/suakcrem/index.htm) TheReefsThroughTimeSeries(4 th series)underthephilippinecoralreefinformationnetwork Someexistingprojects CoastalConservationFoundation: OneOcean:oneocean.org/about_crmp/where_we_are.html SillimanUniversityAngeloKingCenterforResearchandEnvironmentalManagement Acknowledgements InvaluablecommentswereprovidedbyJMLTan,DrP.AlinoandDrK.Dobbs. 23

26 DRAFTVersion2 5.Datasufficiencyanddealingwithuncertainty PMAlino 1,BPressey 2,LFernandes 3,JOliver 4,HPossingham 5,JMLTan 6,BVallejoJr. 7 5/11/08 Outlineoftheissue Thereisneverperfectdatafornaturalresourcemanagement.Howcanmanagersanddecision makersdealwithimperfectandincompleteinformation?howcantheyassessiftheavailabledata isgoodenoughtotakeactionversuswaitingforbetterinformation? WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof ActionincludinganMPAnetwork? Thereisn tperfectinformationavailabletoinformthectidraftplanofaction;norhastherebeen foranyothermarineconservationinitiative.whilemuchisknownaboutthebroadbiophysical processesandtheoverallconditionsandpatternsofusewithregardtothecoraltrianglethere remainsconsiderableuncertaintyandsignificantinformationgaps(e.g.finerscalemapsofcoralreef diversity,other????).whileeffortstoclosesuchgapsmustcontinue,thereisaneedforregional managementactionnowsothatthesignificantthreatstothesustainabilityoftheareaandits peoplescanbeeffectivelydiminished. ThroughthedevelopmentofadraftPlanofAction,thecountriesoftheCThaveindicatedthattheir preferenceistoactnow.howbest,then,todealwiththeimperfectdata?someoptions(not mutuallyexclusive)include: 1. Determiningwhichdatasetsarecrucialfordecisionmakersandwhichprovidebackground secondarysupport 1 TheMarineScienceInstitute,UniversityofthePhilippines,Diliman,QuezonCity,Philippines, [email protected] 2 ProgramLeader,ConservationPlanningforaSustainableFuture,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreof ExcellenceinCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity,Q.+61(0) ,[email protected] 3 MarineResourceManagementCoordinator,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellenceinCoralReef Studies,JamesCookUniversityandtheAustralianInstituteofMarineScience,Townsville,Q.Australia.Ph.+61 (0) ;[email protected] 4 Director,ScienceCoordination,TheWorldFishCenter 5 Director,AppliedEnvironmentalDecisionAnalysis,UniversityofQueensland,Brisbane,Q.Ph. +61(0) ;[email protected] 6 ViceChairman,WWFPhilippines,[email protected] 7 AssistantProfessor,InstituteofEnvironmentalScienceandMeteorology,VilladolidHall,CollegeofScience UniversityofthePhilippines,Diliman,QuezonCity,1101Philippines. 24

27 DRAFTVersion2 2. Collationofexistingdataandinformationincludingdatamanagementtoensurethemost currentinformationisavailabletomanagers. 3. Provisionofthecollateddataandinformationinamannerthatisusefultothedecision makersandmanagerswhowillbeimplementingthegoalsofthecti.thismatchingof informationcollationeffortswithendusers(e.g.decisionmakers,managers)willworkbest ifthosedoingthecollationworkcloselywiththeendusers. 4. Investigatedatasufficiencyasabasisforconservationplanningversusthecostandtime requiredtocollectadditionaldata.deviserulesofthumborprinciplesforplanningwith uncertaindata. 5. Designofmanagementsolutionstoincorporatetheuncertaintyand,ideally,tobeadaptive. Thislattermeansthatthedesignofthemanagementsolutionissuchthatinformationcan becollectedtodeterminethesuccessofthesolutionanddeterminehowmanagementcan beimproved(seealsoissuepaperonmpadesign) 6. Toimprovethebasisformanagementinthefuture,thedraftPlanofActionalsoadvocates developmentofsystemstoenhanceinformationcollection.thiscouldincludea combinationofsystemsfor (a) systematicidentificationofthemostimportantdatagapsintheregionandwithin countriesagainstagreedcriteria (b) targetedpriorityresearchtocollectthemostimportantinformationthatiscurrently absent ideallyincollaborationwiththepotentialendusers(managersanddecision makers)and (c) regularreviewofmanagementobjectivesandpracticesasnewinformationbecomes available. Thetimingofthelatter(c)shouldnotbesooftenastocause(i)confusionwithresource usersastotherules,(ii)businessuncertaintynor(iii)failuretogivethenaturalsystemtime torespondtothemanagementinterventions.thetimingofanyreviewofmanagement practiceshowevershouldbefrequentenoughtotaketimelyadvantageofnewinformation asitbecomesavailable. Workshopparticipantscouldaskthemselves,giventhenatural,social,economicandinstitutional systems(includingtherateofproductionofresearchandmonitoringoutcomes)oftheirvarious countries: 1. Doweknowwhatinformationisavailable? 2. Doweknowwhatisthemostimportantinformationthatiscurrentlymissing? 3. Howshouldwedealwiththeinevitableuncertaintyindataonbiodiversityandsocio economics? 25

28 DRAFTVersion2 4. Canweuseexpertopiniontocompensate,somewhat,forthedatagaps?How? 5. Canweuseroughstatisticalmodels,likedistancetopopulationcentres,toestimatesocio economicvalues? 6. Howmuchcanbiophysicaldata,likecurrents,temperatureanddepth,substitutefor biologicaldata? 7. Oncewehaveahandleonuncertainty,howcanthatbeusedtoinformdecisions? 8. Whatwouldbeanappropriatetimeframeoverwhichtoreview,say,boundariesofany newmpanetworkinthelightofnewinformation?. SimilarquestionscouldbeaskedofanynewmanagementinitiativeundertheCTI. Backgroundreading Allison,G.W.,Gaines,S.D.,Lubchenco,J.&Possingham,H.P.(2003)Ensuringpersistenceofmarine reserves:catastrophesrequireadoptinganinsurancefactor.ecologicalapplications,13,s8s24. AppliedEnvironmentalDecisionAnalysis(AEDA)2008.Accountingforuncertaintyindesigning marinereserves.aedainfosheet#3.1(feb08) AEDA.2007.PlanningconservationnetworksinadynamicworldAEDAInfoSheet#2.2(Nov07) Burgman,M.A.,Possingham,H.P.,Lynch,A.J.J.,Keith,D.A.,McCarthy,M.A.,Hopper,S.D.,Drury, W.L.,Passioura,J.A.&Devries,R.J.(2001)Amethodforsettingthesizeofplantconservation targetareas.conservationbiology,15, Fernandes,L.,Day,J.Kerrigan,B.,Breen,D.,De ath,g.,mapstone,b.,coles,r.,done,t.,marsh,h., Poiner,I.,Ward,T.,Williams,D.,Kenchington,K.(inreview)Aprocesstodesignanetworkofmarine Grantham,H.S.,Moilanen,A.,Wilson,K.A.,Pressey,R.L.,Rebelo,T.G.andPossingham,H.P.(inpress) Diminishingreturnoninvestmentforbiodiversitydatainconservationplanning.Conservation Letters HalpernBS,ReganHM,PossinghamHPandMcCarthyMA(2006).Accountingforuncertaintyin marinereservedesignecologyletters,(2006)9:2 Mumby,PJ,KBroad,DRBrumbaugh,CPDahlgren,ARHarborne,AHastings,KEHolmes,CVKappel, FMicheli,JNSanchirico(2008)Coralreefhabitatsassurrogatesofspecies,ecologicalfunctions,and ecosystemservices.conservationbiology,volume22,no.4, Pressey,R.L.,Cowling,R.M.&Rouget,M.(2003)Formulatingconservationtargetsforbiodiversity patternandprocessinthecapefloristicregion,southafrica.biologicalconservation,112,

29 DRAFTVersion2 Pressey,BL,Cabeza,M,Watts,ME,Cowling,RMandWilson,KA(2007)Conservationplanningina changingworld.trendsinecologyandevolution,22:pp Rodrigues,ASLandTMBrooks(2007)Shortcutsforbiodiversityconservationplanning:the effectivenessofsurrogates.annu.rev.ecol.evol.syst.38: Someexistingprojects Assessingrelativecostsandbenefitsofavailabledataforconservationplanning(contact: Incorporatinguncertaintyintoconservationplanningwithconsiderationofpatchdynamicsof resources(e.g.pelagicproductivity)anddisturbance(e.g.storms,coralbleaching)inthebismarck 27

30 DRAFTVersion2 6.HowhumanusesandvaluescanmatterfortheCTI Bunce,L. 1,Cinner,J. 2,Foale,S. 3,Nash,W. 4 4/11/08 Outlineoftheissue Theidentificationandlistingofthevarietyofhumanusesandvalueswillbeakey(andsignificant) componentofthecti(somesampleprojectsarelistedbelow).usesthathavebeenorwillbe documentedincludethevarietyoftypesoffishingandnonfishingusesofresources.valuesthat arepertinentincludelivelihoods/incomevalues,foodsecurity/accessandshorelineprotection,for example.thispaperaimstoexplorehowissuesaroundhumanusesandvaluescaninfluence choicesaboutthebestmanagementoptionsandpotentialmanagementsuccess. WhiletheCT6countriesallsharemarineresourcessuchascoralreefswithexceptionallyhigh speciesrichness,thereissignificantvariationinbothpressureupontheresourcesandmanagement actionsandoptionsamongandwithinthem.fishingpressurerelatestobothhumanpopulation density(seetable1)andtheexistenceofalternativeeconomicopportunities,whilemanagement optionsaremediatedbyrightsofaccess,andavarietyofsocial,politicalandeconomicfactors, includingtheextenttowhichthestatecanbeconsidered weak or strong.philippinesand IndonesiabothhavevastlyhigherhumanpopulationdensitiesthanthetwoMelanesiancountries (thoughthewesternhalfoftheislandofnewguinea,whichhasanevenlowerpopulationdensity thanpng,ispartofthestateofindonesia).thereisconsiderablevariationinrightsofaccessalso; customarylandandmarinetenureinstitutionsenjoyasignificantlygreaterlevelofrecognitionby thestateinpngandsolomonislandsthaninthesoutheastasiancountries. Table1.PopulationdensityandpercapitaGDPdatafortheCT6countries Country Totalpopulation Populationdensity (people/km 2 ) PapuaNewGuinea 6,331, ,972 SolomonIslands 506, ,864 EastTimor 1,155, ND Indonesia 231,627, ,725 Philippines 90,457, ,400 Malaysia 27,170, ,300 PercapitaGDP(US$)* *NB:PercapitaGDPfiguresforSolomonIslandsandPNGdonottakeintoaccountthemonetaryvalueofthe subsistenceeconomyinthosecountries,whichissignificant. 1 ConservationInternational:[email protected] 2 ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity:[email protected] 3 ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity:[email protected] 4 WorldfishCentre,[email protected] 28

31 DRAFTVersion2 PopulationPressureandAlternativeEconomicOpportunities ThesignificantlylowerhumanpopulationdensitiesofPNGandSolomonIslandsmeanthat,generally speaking,overfishinghassofaronlyoccurredforasmallnumberofrelativelyvulnerableexport commodityfisheries(seeissuepaperonnonspatialmanagementapproaches).becausefinfishare mostlyconsumedforsubsistenceorsolddomestically,populationsofthesearemostlyinrelatively goodshapeinthesecountries.insoutheastasia,thepictureissomewhatdifferent,withover harvestingofmanyspecies,includingfinfish,commonlyreported.thesedifferencesinthelevelof pressureonfisherieshaveimportantimplicationsforthecapacityofdifferentpopulationswithinthe CoralTriangletoabsorbtheimmediateeconomiccostsassociatedwithincreasedconstraintson fishingeffort,whetherthroughspatialornonspatialmanagementinterventions.forexample, becausetheyenjoyarelativelyhighleveloffoodsecurity,coastalsubsistencefarmersinthe SolomonIslandshavebeenabletoaccommodatetherecently(April2008)imposedtotalbanon harvestingofbechedemerinsolomonislands,eventhoughformanyofthemitwasthemost significantsourceofcashincome. Culturalattitudestocapitalistendeavour Whenseekingalternativeorsupplementarylivelihoodsorsustainablefinancingtosupport conservation,tourismisoftendiscussedasanoption.thisoptioncanbequitesuccessfulinsome situations.inpartsofmelanesia,however,therecanbeconstraintsontheuseoftourismtodefray theshorttermcostsofmpas,intheformofculturalconstraintsonwidespreadengagementwith capitalistenterprise(schoeffel1997,foale2008,fukuyama2008).inthephilippines(andelsewhere inthecoraltriangle)thereareproblemswithequitabledistributionofthebenefitsfromdive tourismventures,whichinevitablygeneratesresentment(fabinyi2008). RightsofAccess Traditionalrulesofaccesstocoastalwaters(customarymarinetenureCMT)arelargelyenshrined intheconstitutionsofpngandsolomonislands,whilestatesupportforcmtinthesoutheastasian countriesismorelimited,thoughincreasingunderrecentdecentralisationschemesinphilippines andindonesia. SomeclaimthattheCMTsystemisanimportantelementoftraditionalmanagementinstitutions, becauseitpreventstheoverfishingthathasbeenobservedin(inadequatelyregulated)openaccess systems.thisisfamouslyreferredtoasthe TragedyoftheCommons becauseitisinnoindividual fisher sinteresttolimitfishingeffortinanopenaccessfisherywhileotherfishersarenotalso limitingtheirs.whileitistruethatcmtrestrictsaccesstothegroupthatsharecustomaryrightstoa territory,itisstillpossibletoobserve micro TragediesoftheCommonsevenwithinmarine territoriesdefinedunderthecmtsystem,particularlywheresocialcohesionislow,localleadership isweak,and/orthelimitstoresourcesareeithernotperceivedoronlypartiallyunderstood(foale andmanele2004). Perceptionsoflimitstostocks Whileextremepovertyanddesperationmaydriveoverfishinginregionswithhighhuman populationdensities,insparselypopulatedareasthelackofanappreciationofthelimitstofisheries 29

32 DRAFTVersion2 (Johannes2002)combinedwithexpandingmarketsandrisingcommoditypricescandothesamefor exportablespecies.inthelattercase,however,theremaybemorescopeforinterventionsbasedon welldesignedandculturallyinformededucationcampaignswhichinclude,amongotherthings,a clearexplanationofstockrecruitmentdynamicsandtheroleofoverfishinginrecruitmentfailure forfisheriesthatareexperiencingrisingpressure.thismayinthefuturehelptoavoidlastresort measuressuchasthecompleteclosureofseverelyoverharvestedfisheriesbythegovernment, whichwehaverecentlyobservedinsolomonislandsandvanuatu. Gender,cultureandreligion UseofmarineresourcesinmanypartsoftheCT6ishighlygendered.Womenoftenperformakey roleinsubsistencefishing,butoftentargetdifferentspeciesfrommen.theyalsotendtohaveless accesstotransportandfishingtechnologythanmen,andassucharemorespatiallyconstrainedin theiractivities.thishasimplicationsforthelocationofnotakeclosures(seebelow). Insomeplacesthereareaspectsofculturesuchastotemsandsacredplaceswhichcanresultina (usuallysmall)conservationeffect.manytraditionalbeliefsandvaluesareundergoingconstant changehowever.modernreligiousbeliefscanalsohavesomeconservationeffect,suchasthe prohibitiononconsumptionofturtles,andfishwithoutscalesbytheseventhdayadventistchurch. WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? Usesandvaluesthatpertaintothemarineenvironmentarelikelytobeverydifferentamongthe differentct6countries,withpovertyandlowlevelsoffoodsecuritylikelytocompriseasomewhat greaterchallengetoeffortstomanagefishingeffortindenselypopulatedlocations. WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? Theothersideofthe twoedgedsword ofcustomarymarinetenure(inmelanesia)isthatbecause marineterritoriesrepresentalevelofexclusivityatafairlyfinespatialscale(typicallyhundredsof metrestokilometres),theincentive(intheoryatleast)foranygivengroupofreefownerstoaccept notakeareaswithinpartoftheirterritorycanbecompromisedbytheextenttowhichtheyare likelytobesharingthebenefits(i.e.thespillover)withneighbouringgroupstowhoseterritories theymaynotenjoyanyrights(foaleandmanele2004).thismeansthatanynetworkofmpasmust benegotiatedwithmultiplecontiguousreefowninggroups,depending,ofcourse,onthematchor mismatchbetweenthescaleatwhichmpasareecologicallyeffective,andthescaleatwhich customaryterritoriesaredivided. Economicandgenderissuesshouldbetakenintoaccountwhenzoningnotakeareas.Wherea choiceexistsbetweenlocatinganotakezoneatvariousdistancesfromavillage,themoredistant locationshouldbeselected,sothatwomen,who(unlikemen)commonlydonothaveaccessto motorisedtransport,cancontinuetoaccessnearbyreefsandmangrovesforsubsistencefishingand gleaning(vunisea2008).thesecloserlocationswouldintheoryultimatelybenefitfromspillover 30

33 DRAFTVersion2 fromthereserve.however,itshouldbekeptinmindthatmpasarealsohardertoenforcethe furthertheyarefromtheresidence(s)ofthemanager(s). Insum,MPAsaremorelikelytobeoptimallylocated,andindeedsuccessful,iftheirproposaland establishmentisprecededbycarefulandsystematicsocial,politicalandeconomicbaselineand feasibilitysurveys.thisworkshouldincludeafocusonexistingperceptionsandbeliefsaboutlimits tofishstocks,andtheimpactsoffishing.baselineresearchisalsovitalifthesocialandeconomic successofthempasistobeaccuratelymeasured.itisalsovitalthatpeopleareprovidedwithan accessibleformofthelatestresearchoutputsona)thetimescaleandb)theeconomicvalueof spillover(i.e.cpueoutsideoftheclosure)thattheycanexpectfromthempas,sothatexpectations arenotundulyinflated. Backgroundreading BunceL,TownsleyP,PomeroyR,PollnacR(2000).SocioeconomicManualforCoralReef Management.AIMS,TownsvilleAustralia.264pages Fabinyi,M.(2008). Divetourism,fishingandmarineprotectedareasintheCalamianesIslands, Philippines. MarinePolicy32(6): Foale,S.J.(2008a)."ConservingMelanesia scoralreefheritageinthefaceofclimatechange." HistoricEnvironment21(1):3036. Foale,S.J.andB.Manele(2004)."SocialandpoliticalbarrierstotheuseofMarineProtectedAreas forconservationandfisherymanagementinmelanesia."asiapacificviewpoint45(3): Fukuyama,F.(2008).StatebuildinginSolomonIslands.WashingtonDC,JohnsHopkinsUniversity: 31. Johannes,R.E.(2002)."DidIndigenousConservationEthicsExist?"SPCTraditionalMarineResource ManagementandKnowledgeInformationBulletin14:37. Schoeffel,P.(1997).Mythsofcommunitymanagement:sustainability,thestateandrural developmentinpapuanewguinea,solomonislandsandvanuatu.statesocietyandgovernancein MelanesiaDiscussionPaper97/8.Canberra,ResearchSchoolofPacificandAsianStudies,Australian NationalUniversity. Vunisea,A.(2008)."The"cultureofsilence"andfisheriesmanagement."SPCWomeninFisheries InformationBulletin18:4243. White,A.T.,P.Christie,H.D'Agnes,K.LowryandN.Milne(2005)."DesigningICMprojectsfor sustainability:lessonsfromthephilippinesandindonesia."ocean&coastalmanagement48(36):

34 DRAFTVersion2 Someexistingdatasets SolomonIslandsHouseholdIncomeandExpenditureReport: Hanson,L.W.,B.J.Allen,R.M.BourkeandT.J.McCarthy(2001).PapuaNewGuineaRural DevelopmentHandbook.Canberra,LandManagementGroup,DepartmentofHumanGeography, ResearchSchoolofPacificandAsianStudies,TheAustralianNationalUniversity. Someexistingprojects GlobalSocioeconomicMonitoringInitiative(SoutheastAsiaRegion)islistingthemajorusesand availablestatisticsonlevelsofuse.contactsheilavergara,chair,socmonsoutheastasia ADBRETA:REG StrengtheningcoastalandmarineresourcemanagementintheCoral TriangleofthePacific. ADBRETA6446REG:StrengtheningSoundEnvironmentalManagementintheBruneiDarussalam, Indonesia,MalaysiaandPhilippinesEastASEANGrowthArea.ApprovedinFebruary2008,theRETA willbeimplementedbysoutheastasiadepartmentofadb. Fabinyi,M.(2008)."Divetourism,fishingandmarineprotectedareasintheCalamianesIslands, Philippines."MarinePolicy32(6):

35 DRAFTVersion2 7.Participatorymarineresourcemanagementplanning P.M.Alino 1,LeanneFernandes 2,BobPressey 3,JMLTan 4,AlanWhite 5 5/11/08 Outlineoftheissue Includingtherightpeopleattherighttime(s)intherightamountandinthecorrectmanner throughoutanaturalresourceplanningandmanagementprocessenablesitssuccess.whotheright peopleare,whenaretherighttimes,howmuchistherightamountandwhatisthecorrectmanner, ishighlysituationspecific.thesemattersmustbeworkedoutthroughalocallysensitiveandscale specificplanningprocess.theprocessforthectiwouldneedtoacknowledgethatdifferentct6 countriesmayhavedifferentctiprioritiesatdifferenttimesintermsofimplementingthectiplan ofaction. Thecruxoftheissueisthatplanningthatadequatelyinvolvesstakeholderssothatsufficientbuyin iscreated,mustoccuratappropriatescales.thisimpliesthatnested(andcoordinated)layersof planningactivitiesoccursimultaneously. WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof ActionincludingdeliveryofanMPAnetwork? ForeachCTcountry,foreachCTIdraftPlanofActiongoal,objectiveandstrategytherewillbean ideallevel,type,amountandtimingofinteractionwithalltherelevantplayersthatwillenable success.however,resourcelimitationswillrequiresettingprioritiesregardingwhatamountof involvementcanhappen,withwho,howandwhen.planningforandimplementingthectimust alsocoordinateandcomplementefforts,includingconsultationandparticipatoryefforts,with existingplanningefforts.sucheffortsincludelocal(municipallevelplanning,management,systems andprocesses),national(e.g.nationalbiodiversityactionplanswhichincludesprioritysetting efforts)andregionalplans(e.g.thesulusulaweisimarineecoregionalplanning,solomonbismark SeaMarineEcoregionalplanning,theSouthChinaSeaStrategicActionPlan)(Ongetal.2002) Therefore,theplanningfornaturalresourcemanagementprojects,suchasthoseintheCTIdraft PlanofAction,shouldincludeaplanforwhatisfeasiblewithregardtoparticipationand involvementinmanagement.considerationcouldbegiventowhowillbeaffectedpositivelyor 1 TheMarineScienceInstitute,UniversityofthePhilippines,Diliman,QuezonCity,Philippines, [email protected] 2 MarineResourceManagementCoordinator,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellenceinCoralReef Studies,JamesCookUniversityandtheAustralianInstituteofMarineScience,Townsville,Q.Australia.Ph.+61 (0) ;[email protected] 3 ProgramLeader,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellenceinCoralReefStudies,JamesCook University61(0) ,[email protected] 4 ViceChairman,WWFPhilippines,[email protected] 5 SeniorScientist,GlobalMarineInitiative,TheNatureConservancy,Hawaii;[email protected] 33

36 DRAFTVersion2 negativelybytheplanningexercise,whocaninfluencetheplanningexercisepositivelyornegatively, whocanprovideinformation,andwhowillberesponsiblefortakingactiontoimplementthe planningexercise. Theplanforinclusive,butstillfeasible,participationinmanagementcouldaddressthefollowing questions: 1. Whatareyoutryingtoachievethroughparticipationandinvolvementinyourmarine resourcemanagementproject? 2. Whoaretheprimarystakeholders?Stakeholdersmayinclude: a. decisionmakersincluding(butnotlimitedto)relevantelectedandappointedofficial representativesatlocal,stateandnationalgovernmentlevels; b. economicallyinvolvedstakeholders; c. governmenttechnicalandadministrativepersonsatlocalandnationallevels; d. ultimateresourcemanagers(e.g.selectedresourceusersandgovernmentpersons) e. otherlocalcommunitymemberswhomaynotbeusingtheresource(asin(d) above)norotherwiseeconomicallyengaged(asin(b)above) f. localandexternaltechnicalexperts g. Assistingorganizations(e.g.NGOs,donors,academeetc.) Whiletherewillbeoverlapbetweenthesegroups,itisimportantthatforanygiven situationthatthesegroupsbeconsideredandkeyorganizationsandindividualsare prioritizedforparticipation. 3. Towhatdegreecanorshouldthesevariousplayersbeinvolvedwhenconsideringtherisks andadvantagesofinvolvementinthemanagementprocess?whatlevelofinvolvementis appropriateandpossiblegivenresources,timeconstraints,institutionalcultureandoverall objectivesoftheactivityorstrategy. 4. Whatwillbetheconcernsandviewsofthevariousstakeholders? 5. Whatwillbekeymessagestothesestakeholders(bothintermsofsharinginformation aboutwhatishappeningandprovidinganswerstopotentialquestions)? 6. Whatisthebestplanforwhotoinvolve,inwhatwayandatwhatpointsintimethroughout theplanningandmanagementprocess?thisincludesidentificationofwhich consultation/communicationmechanismswillworkbestinwhichsituationsandatwhat pointsintime. Throughoutthemanagementprocessitwillbeimportantthatthosebeingengagedareclearas tothedegreethattheywillbeabletoinformandinfluencethemanagementoutcomes;failed 34

37 DRAFTVersion2 expectationsshouldbeavoidedwherepossible.hence,thisinformationcouldcomprisepartof thekeymessagestosharewithstakeholders. Itisalsoimportanttonotoverengagestakeholdersuntiltheprospectsfortheirrelevant involvementareclearandwarranted.manypastprojectsthathaveinvolvedstakeholders prematurelytotheappropriatetimefortheirengagement,havesquanderedthesupportand enthusiasmofstakeholdersthatisneededatthetimeoffullprojectimplementation(whiteet al2005). Backgroundreading Alcala,A.C.andRuss,G.R.(2006).Notakemarinereservesandreeffisheriesmanagementinthe Philippines:Anewpeoplepowerrevolution.Ambio35(6): Goven,H.,2008.Overview:Reclaiming ProtectedAreas asalivelihoodtoolforpacificisland People.InCohen,P.,A.D.ValemeiandH.Goven.Annotatedbibliographyofsocioeconomic andecologicalimpactsofmarineprotectedareasinpacificislandcountries.worldfish BibliographyNo.1870.TheWorldFishCentre,Penang,Malaysia.36pp. OngPS,AfuangLE,RoselleAmbalRG(2002)PhilippineBiodiversityConservationPriorities:ASecond iterationofthenationalbiodiversitystrategyandactionplan.denrpawb,ciphilippines, UPCIDSandFPE,QuezonCity,Philippines:113pp. Pressey,R.L.&Bottrill,M.C.(inpress)Opportunism,threats,andtheevolutionofsystematic conservationplanning.conservationbiology,inpress. TalaueMcManus,L,ACYambao,SGSalmoIII,andPMAliño1999Bolinao,NorthernPhilippines: ParticipatoryPlanningforCoastalDevelopmentInDBuckles(ed)CultivatingPeace: ConflictandCollaborationinNaturalResourceManagement.IDRC/WorldBank Vunisea,A.(2008)The cultureofsilence andfisheriesmanagement.spcwomeninfisheries InformationBulletin#18 March2008 White,A.,Deguit,E.,Jatulan,W.,EismaOsorio,L.,2006.Integratedcoastalmanagementin Philippinelocalgovernance:evolutionandbenefits.CoastalManagement34, White,A.,P.AlinoandA.Meneses(2006).CreatingandManagingMarineProtectedAreasinthe Philippines.CebuCity,Philippines. White,A.,R.L.EismaOsorioandS.J.Green(2005).Integratedcoastalmanagementandmarine protectedareas:complementarityinthephilippines.ocean&coastalmanagement48:24. White,A.T.,Christie,P.,d Agnes,H.,Lowry,K.andMilneN.2005.DesigningICMprojectsfor sustainability:lessonsfromthephilippinesandindonesia.oceanandcoastalmanagement48: White,A.T.,Hale,L.Z.,Renard,Y.andCortesi,L.editors.1994.Collaborativeandcommunitybased managementofcoralreefs.hartford,connecticut:kumarianpress.130p. 35

38 DRAFTVersion2 White,A.T.,Salamanca,A.andCourtney,C.A.2002.ExperiencewithMarineProtectedAreaPlanning andmanagementinthephilippines.coastalmanagement30:126. White,A.T.andVogt,H.P.2000.Philippinecoralreefsunderthreat:Lessonslearnedafter25years ofcommunitybasedreefconservation.marinepollutionbulletin40: Younge,A.&Fowkes,S.(2003)TheCapeActionPlanfortheEnvironment:overviewofan ecoregionalplanningprocess.biologicalconservation,112,1528. Someexistingprojects TheFisheriesImprovedforSustainableHarvest(FISH)Projecthttp:// CoastalConservationandEducation,Foundation,CebuCity,Philippineshttp:// Guide to participatory LMMA planning: MarineandMPANetworkLearningPartnershipresultsandpublications(c/oA.White,TNCandK. Newman,WWF) CoralReefRehabilitationandManagementProgram(COREMAP) Spatialpatternsofcustomarytenureanditsimplicationsforputtingmarineconservationplanning 36

39 DRAFTVersion2 8.ClimateChangeThreatstoCoralReefsintheCoralTriangle WillisB.L. 1,DoveS. 2,HoeghGuldbergO. 2,LoughJ.M. 3,McCullochM. 4,MundayP.L. 1,Pratchett M.S. 1.,SalmR. 5,vanOppenM.J.H. 2 3/09/08 Outlineoftheissue Climate change poses enormous risks for coral reefs within the Coral Triangle (CT). The human implicationsoftheserisksaresignificant,importantandaddressedinseparatebackgroundpapersin thisseries(forexample, 9.Threatofclimatechangetofishandfisheries, 16.Humanadaptation toclimatechange ).Thispaperfocusesonthebiophysicaldimensionsofclimatechange. The CT lies at the heart of the Maritime Continent with a complex distribution of islands and shallowseasandsomeofthewarmestseasurfacetemperatures(ssts)intheworld.this boiler box ofthetropicsisanareaofintensetropicalconvection,whichisadominantheatsourceforthe globalatmosphericcirculation.itcontainscomplexoceancurrentsystemsthatlinkthepacificand Indian Oceans.Principal atmospheric circulation features are the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)separatingtheNorthernandSouthernHemispherecirculationsanditsextension,theSouth PacificConvergenceZone(SPCZ)inthesoutheastoftheCT.TheITCZliessouthoftheCTinJanuary andtothenorthinjuly.thecthasamonsoonalclimatewithseasonalreversalofwindfieldsand muchofitsrainfallarisesfromintense,localizedthunderstorms.interannualrainfallvariabilityis significantlymodulatedbyelniñosouthernoscillation(enso)eventswithpartsofthecttypically experiencing much drier conditions during El Niño years.tropical cyclones (which do not form within~10 o oftheequator)aresignificantweatherphenomenaprimarilyinthenorthernpartsofthe CT. Observedclimatechange:ClimatechangeisnotafutureeventfortheCT,significantwarminghas already occurred.averaged over the CT region, annual average, annual maximum and annual minimumsstsinthemostrecent20years( )are~ o Cwarmerthanovertheearlier period, (Figure 1).The current rate of warming for annual CT SSTs (~0.11 o C/decade between ) is slightly greater than the rate for the tropical oceans as a whole (0.08 o C/decade) and comparable to that for global average land and sea temperatures (0.12 o c/decade).ctsstwarmingisalsogreaterforannualmaximumthanannualminimumssts. TherearespatialvariationswithintheCTintheobservedrateswithwarmingbeinggreatestinthe 1 SchoolofMarineandTropicalBiology,andARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCook University,Townsville,QLD4811,Australia. 2 CentreforMarineStudies,andARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,TheUniversityofQueensland, StLucia,QLD4067,Australia 3 AustralianInstituteofMarineScience,PMB3,TownsvilleQLD4810,Australia 4 ResearchSchoolofEarthSciences,andARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,AustralianNational University,Canberra,0200,Australia 5 Director,CoastalMarineProgram,AsiaPacificRegion,TheNatureConservancy 37

40 DRAFTVersion2 northernctecoregions1and2(~ o C/decade)andlowestinthesouthernEcoRegions7and 10(~0.08 o C/decade). Projected climate change: Observed and projected global warming is greater at high than low latitudesandgreateronlandthanintheoceans.thect,despitelyinginthewarmestoceanregion on earth, will not be immune to significant warming nor to other changes in its physical environment,withsignificantconsequencesforitstropicalcoralreefsandassociatedecosystems. Evidence is emerging that tropical organisms may be more sensitive to the relatively smaller magnitudewarmingpredictedthantheirhigherlatitudecounterparts,asthelatterareadaptedto muchlargerrangesoftemperatures.projectinghowclimatewillchangebothgloballyandforthect dependsonseveralfactors,particularlyglobalandlocalresponsesthataretakenintheshortand longtermtocurbandstabilisegreenhousegasemissions.inaddition,therearestilldifficultiesin applyingglobalclimatemodelstocorrectlymodelcurrentclimateofthemaritimecontinent,which makesfutureprojectionsmorespeculativeforthisregionthaninotherpartsoftheworld.changes in the following physical environmental variables will be of consequence for the CT s coral reef ecosystems: Sea surface temperatures: Annual, maximum and minimum SSTs in the CT have already significantlywarmedandareprojectedtobebetween13 o Cwarmerbytheendofthiscentury. Thereis,however,littlespatialdetailinthepatternofprojectedwarmingfromexistingmodels. Ocean acidification: ph of the global oceans has already decreased by ~0.1 units due to absorption by the surface oceans of ~1/3 of the extra carbon dioxide injected into the atmosphere from fossil fuel burning and other human activities. This progressive ocean acidificationisprojectedtocontinue,withphdecreasingby0.30.4unitsby2100.projections indicatethatthearagonitesaturationstateandhencecoralcalcificationwillbecome marginal forcoralreefsofthectwithintheperiod Rainfallandriverflow:TherearesomeindicationsthatequatorialPacificrainfall,especiallyin thevicinityoftheitcz,willincreasebutthereareconflictingscenariosfromdifferentclimate models.evenwithoutchangesinaveragerainfall,itseemslikelythatrainfalleventswillbecome moreextremeandthatinterannualvariabilityofmonsoonrainfallwillincrease.importantly, theintensityofdroughtassociatedwithagivenrainfalldeficitwillbegreaterinawarmerworld. Sealevel:Globalsealevelhasalreadyincreased(mainlythroughthermalexpansion)by~10to 20cmoverthe20 th century.currentipcc(2007)projectionssuggestafurther~3060cmriseby 2100 but this is regarded as a very conservative estimate due to underestimation of the contribution of melting of land ice.the IPCC (2007) report also recognises the possibility of scaledupicesheetdischargesfrommeltingofthelargelandbasedicesheetsinantarcticaand Greenland,whichwouldleadtosealevelrisesintheorderof+4mto+6m.However,becauseof uncertaintiesassociatedwiththepossibletimingofsuchevents,thesemuchhigherestimates arenotdirectlyincludedinpredictionsfor2100. Tropicalcyclones:Thereisnoclearconsensusamongstglobalclimatemodelsastowhetherthe locationorfrequencyoftropicalcycloneswillchangeinawarmingworldbutthereisagreement thattheywillbecomemoreintense(withgreatermaximumwindspeedsandheavierrainfall), andthereissomeevidencethatthisisalreadyoccurring. 38

41 DRAFTVersion2 ElNiñoSouthernOscillationevents:Thereisnoclearconsensusastohowthefrequencyand intensityofensoeventswillchangeinawarmingworldthoughthisphenomenonislikelyto continueasasignificantsourceofinterannualclimatevariabilityinthectregion. Ocean circulation patterns: There is little information currently available about what may happentothecomplexoceancirculationpatternsofthectastheworldwarms. In summary, although some aspects of future climate projections for the CT region are not well constrainedatpresent,sstswillcontinuetowarm,sealevelwillcontinuetorise,thesurfaceocean saturationlevelswillbecomeprogressivelylesshospitableforcoralreefdevelopmentandextreme events,whichareasourceoflocaliseddestructionforcoralreefs(egfloodsanddrought,tropical cyclones),willbecomemoreintense.akeyissueistheunprecedentedrateatwhichthesechanges areoccurring.anotherimportantissueisthat,fortheforeseeablefuture,thephysicalclimateand environmentofthectwillbechangingandwedonot,atpresent,knowwhattheendpointwillbe (i.e.itisnotsimplyachangetoanewclimateregimetowhichcoralreeforganismscanadapt). Implicationsofclimatechangeforcoralpopulations Thermalstressandbleaching:Thermalstressisoneofthekeythreatstocoralreefecosystemsin the coming decades.most corals live within 12 C of their upper thermal limits. Beyond these thresholds, the association between corals and their symbiotic algae, commonly called zooxanthellae,breaksdown.lossofzooxanthellaefromthepartnershipcausescoralstoturnwhite (i.e. bleaching; Figure 2), with dire consequences for the nutritional economy of the coral host. Approximately16%oftheworld scoralreefsdiedduringthesevereglobalbleachingeventin1998. Climatechangemodelspredictthatlargescalemortalitycausedbybleachingwilloccurregularlyand potentiallyannuallyby2030insomereefregions.branchingspeciesofacropora,whichcurrently dominatemanycommunitiesinthectandprovide3dimensionalhabitatformanyreefassociated fishandinvertebrates,areamongthemostvulnerabletorisingtemperatures.whilerapidgrowth ratesofthesespeciesaugmenttheirrecoverypotential,increasinglyfrequentandseverebleaching events will potentially outstrip their capacity to recover. Unless corals can adapt to predicted thermalregimes,coralreefecosystemswillchangedramatically(figure2c). Potential for acclimatisation or adaptation to thermal stress: Some corals harbour thermally tolerantzooxanthellatypesatlowdensitiesinadditiontoamoresensitivedominanttype,providing a possible mechanism for short term acclimatisation to thermal stress.these thermally tolerant zooxanthellaemayrepopulatecoraltissuesfromsurvivingresidentpopulationsfollowingbleaching, protectingcoralsfromstarvation,reducingmortalityandenhancingtheirrecovery,althoughgrowth rates are reduced. Initially, these corals are less susceptible to bleaching in subsequent thermal stressevents,buttypicallytheyreverttotheiroriginalzooxanthellacommunitiesandtheirtolerance to temperatures predicted by moderate to extreme IPCC scenarios is unknown. Whether zooxanthellae, or the corals themselves can acquire increased thermal tolerance through genetic adaptationinresponsetoselectioniscurrentlynotknown.thelonggenerationtimesofcoralsargue againsttheirpotentialtoadapttopredictedratesofoceanwarming.littleisknownaboutsexual reproductioninzooxanthellae,buttheymayhavegreaterscopeforgeneticadaptationwithintime scalespredictedforclimatechangegiventheirlikelyshortgenerationtimes. 39

42 DRAFTVersion2 Ocean Acidification: Unlike in the atmosphere, where the main greenhouse gas, CO 2, causes warming through its strong physical interaction with infrared radiation, CO 2 is a highly reactive speciesintheoceans,whereitdissolvesinsurfacewatersandinitiatesaseriesofchemicalreactions that alter seawater chemisty. Rapidly rising levels of atmospheric CO 2 have resulted in an overall increaseinseawateracidity(i.e.areductioninseawaterph)inaprocessthathasbecomeknownas ocean acidification. Increasing ocean acidity also has a major impact on seawater carbonate equilibria,causingareductionintheconcentrationofcarbonateionsandhenceinthesaturation stateoftheoceans.oceanacidificationwillthusinhibittheabilityofmanymarineorganismsthat producecarbonateskeletons,especiallycorals,tocalcify.thisislikelytobeamoreseriousproblem than originally perceived, as experimental data now indicate that coral calcification rates are dependentonthedegreeofoversaturationofcarbonateinseawater.thusdoublingofatmospheric CO 2 willresultinanapproximatelytwofoldreductionincarbonateionconcentration,which,inturn, willcauseasignificantreductionincoralcalcification.thetropicalregionsofthectareexpectedto be particularly vulnerable to ocean acidification because corals are already calcifying in an environment close to their upper thermal limits and hence are especially sensitive to lower carbonateionconcentrationsfromdecreasingseawaterph.henceskeletonsarelikelytobecome morefragileandgrowthandrecoveryofcoralsispredictedtobecomeprogressivelyslower. Increasingdisease:Theoutcomesofinteractionsbetweencoralsanddiseasecausingpathogensare significantlyaffectedbythesurroundingenvironment.warmingseas,increasingacidificationand risingintensityofstormspredictedbyclimatechangemodelsrepresentsourcesofstressthatwill increase the vulnerability of corals to disease. Increased temperatures may also increase the virulence of pathogens, compounding the likelihood of disease outbreaks.links between high thermalanomaliesandoutbreaksofanumberofcoraldiseases(figure3)highlightthepotentialfor significantlossesofcoralwithpredictedclimatechange. Increasing storm damage: Coral reefs are naturally highly dynamic ecosystems, but increasingly frequentacutedisturbances,coupledwithhumaninducedchronicstressors,threatenthephysical framework of coral reefs in the region.increased frequency and severity of injuries will further compromisetheresistanceofcoralstodiseaseandincreasethepotentialfordiseaseoutbreaks. Implicationsofclimatechangeforfishandinvertebratepopulations Decliningabundancewithlossofcriticalhabitat:Livecoralsandthecomplexphysicalstructures theyprovidearecriticalhabitatformanyreeffishesandinvertebrates.extensivecorallosscaused by increasingly frequent and more severe coral bleaching events will cause local extinctions, and possiblyevenglobalextinction,ofsomespeciesthatdependonlivecoralforfoodand/orhabitat. Otherspecies,willsufferpopulationdeclinesduetothelossofsettlementhabitatandareductionin shelterfrompredators.structuralcollapseofdeadcoralcolonieswillaffectmanysmallpreyspecies, withpotentialflowoneffectstolargercoralreeffishes,suchascoraltrout. Decliningphysiologicalperformanceandreproduction:Increasedoceantemperatureswilldirectly affectthephysiologicalperformanceandbehaviourofreeffishes,especiallyduringtheirearlylife history. Small temperature increases may favour larval development, but this is likely to be countered by negative effects on adult reproduction. Recruitment is typically variable, but it is 40

43 DRAFTVersion2 expectedtobecomeevenmoreunpredictable.thiswillmakeoptimalharveststrategiesforcoral reeffisheriesmoredifficulttoidentifyandpopulationsmoresusceptibletooverfishing. Shiftingdistributionalranges:Asubstantialnumberofspecieswillexhibitgeographicrangeshifts, potentially away from the CT, as oceans warm. Reef fishes differ in their thermal tolerance, consequentlysomespecieswillshifttheirrangesmorerapidlythanothers,withconsequencesfor community composition. Species that already have small ranges near the margins of reef developmentwillfaceanincreasedriskofextinctionduetorangecontractions. WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? Impacts of climate change on coral reef ecosystems will act synergistically with other stressors, particularly those relating to over-fishing and poor water quality. The key to increasing the capacity of coral reef ecosystems to cope with climate change is to enhance their resilience. The following recommendations, in relation to the goals of the draft PoA, aim to increase the resilience of the CT ecosystem primarily by controlling and reducing additional human-related stressors. It should be noted, however, that the only effective longterm strategy for reducing the physical threats of climate change will be concerted global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Goal 1. Priority seascapes: Large-scale areas prioritized for investment, management and action should be distant from sources of non-climate related stress, such as those associated with degraded coastal catchments, poor land use practises or uncontrolled urbanisation and development. Given current lack of knowledge regarding stress tolerance and functional roles for most coral reef species, high diversity areas with layers of functional redundancy should be prioritized. Goal 2. Ecosystem approach to management of fisheries and other marine resources: Coordinated governance of marine ecosystems and adjacent terrestrial ecosystems that drive water quality in coastal areas will help to reduce stressors and buffer reefs and fisheries from climate change impacts. Coordinated governance of all marine resource user groups is integral to maintaining regional biodiversity and fish stocks. It will be critical to work concurrently with global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to constrain the magnitude of global warming and ocean acidification below critical ecosystem thresholds. Goal 3. Marine Protected Area networks (MPAs): Placement of MPAs should consider thermal refugia, identified through analyses of current temperature and current patterns. Such regions could become important sources of larvae to replenish degraded reefs. Stewardship of local resources is critical for effective implementation of local MPAs and will depend on socio-economic adaptation of local communities to climate change (see issue paper 7 in this series). Goal 4. Climate change adaptation measures: Management practises cannot accelerate the adaptionofbiologicalsystemstoclimatechange,buttheycanremovehindrancesorbarriersthat would impede adaptation of coral reef populations. Understanding the links between ecosystem healthandbiophysicalstressorsassociatedwithclimatechange,particularlywarmingandacidifying oceans, increasing storm damage and rising sea levels, is critical to the development of new managementapproachesandshouldbeafocusforfutureresearchefforts(seeissuepaper16inthis series).developmentofmanagementstrategiestocopewithincreasinglyfragilereefstructuresand coralsthatareincreasinglyvulnerabletobleaching,diseaseandpredatoroutbreakswillbecriticalto 41

44 DRAFTVersion2 the longterm persistence of reefassociated fish and invertebrate stocks. Towards this end, education programs to help affected communities understand current and projected ecosystem changesduetoclimatechangewillbeessential(seeissuepaper16inthisseries). Goal5.Improvingthreatenedspeciesstatus:Theidentificationofbiophysicalthresholdsforkey speciesthatunderpinthereefecosystem,aswellasothertropicalcommunitieslikeseagrasses,isa critical knowledge gap that should be addressed with some priority. Coordinated governance arrangementsshouldbedevelopedformigratoryspeciestoimprovethreatenedspeciesstatus. WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? Climatechangeimpactsonoceantemperature,chemistryandcirculationarenotreadilyreversible and MPA networks do not address the underlying physical causes of climate change.however, management strategies can contribute to ameliorating the impacts of physical, climaterelated changesbymaximisingtheresilienceofreefstothesethreats.thiscanbestbeachievedthrough coordinated regional governance of marine resources, including an integrated network of MPAs. Such a network, in conjunction with coordinated management of coastal terrestrial regions, will serve to maintain biodiversity, protect areas of refugia, sustainably manage extractive activities, particularlyfishing,and improvewaterquality through betterlanduse practices.the biophysical impacts of climate change also raise significant social and economic concerns, including compromised regional food security and decreased alternative livelihood opportunities through activitieslikeecotourism.suchimpactswillsignificantlyinfluencethedegreetowhichtheregion s burgeoninghumanpopulationcanadapt,highlightingtheneedforaneffectivempanetwork. ExtentofMPAnetworks.ItiscriticalthatfuturemanagementofcoralreefsystemsinCTcountries addressandalleviateclimateandnonclimatestressorsinpartnership.extensionofanmpanetwork throughoutthectregion,inthecontextoflocalvariationsinprojectedclimatechangerisks,will enhancetheresilienceoftheregionasawhole. DesignofMPAnetworks.MPAscannotprotectreefsfromclimatechange,buttheycanincrease theircapacitytocopewiththeeffectsofclimatechange.tothisend,thedesignofmpanetworks must complementregionaleffortsat maximisingresilienceofthewholeecosystem. MPAsshould conservebiodiversityespeciallyofkeygroups,suchasherbivores,tomaintainthehealthofcoral reefs.additionally,mpasshouldbeplacednotonlyinhighlyvisitedsites,butalsoinsitesidentified as important refugia for fish and coral species, for instance thermal refugia where cooler local conditionsprotectagainstmasscoralbleaching.theidentificationandprotectionofrefugiaiscritical forseedingmoreheavilyimpactedreefs,therebyenhancingtheresilienceofthesystemasawhole. Implementation and management. Physical stressors resulting from climate change will be exacerbated by anthropogenic use of CT marine resources and reefs, for example: water pollution caused by agricultural, industrial and sewage runoff; overfishing, especially through destructive fishing practices involving cyanide and dynamite; and increased sedimentation and damage to reefs resulting from dredging for commercial developments and shipping access (e.g. Arceo et al. 2002). Hence it is critical that MPA management plans and implementation strategies minimise human-related stressors through the promotion of local 42

45 DRAFTVersion2 practices that support reef stewardship. Coastal zone management and adaptation programs that provide alternatives to habitat-destroying practices are essential to improve the quality of water flowing onto coral reefs. Ultimately, lobbying countries that are the highest producers of global greenhouse gases to reduce their emissions is the fundamental course of action required to minimise (and potentially reverse) emerging and predicted physical impacts of climate change on coral reef and tropical ecosystems that underpin CT economies. Backgroundreading ArceoHO,QuibilanMC,AlioPM,LimG,LicuananWY(2002)CoralbleachinginPhilippinereefs: coincidentevidencewithmesoscalethermalanomalies.bulletinofmarinescience69: BrunoJF,SeligER,CaseyKS,PageCA,WillisBL,HarvellCD,SweatmanH,MelendyAM.(2007) Thermalstressandcoralcoverasdriversofcoraldiseaseoutbreaks.PLoSBiol.5(6):18 HoeghGuldbergO,MumbyPJ,HootenAJ,SteneckRS,GreenfieldP,GomezE,HarvellCD,SalePF, EdwardsAJ,CaldeiraK,KnowltonN,EakinCM,IglesiasPrietoR,MuthigaN,BradburyRH,DubiA, HatziolosME(2007)Coralreefsunderrapidclimatechangeandoceanacidification.Science 318: IPCC,2007:ClimateChange(2007)ThePhysicalScienceBasis.ContributionofWorkingGroupIto thefourthassessmentreportoftheintergovernmentalpanelonclimatechange[solomon,s.,d. Qin,M.Manning,Z.Chen,M.Marquis,K.B.Averyt,M.TignorandH.L.Miller(eds.)].Cambridge UniversityPress,Cambridge,UnitedKingdomandNewYork,NY,USA,996pp. JohnsonJEandMarshallPA(editors)(2007)ClimateChangeandtheGreatBarrierReef.Great BarrierReefMarineParkAuthorityandAustralianGreenhouseOffice,Australia,818pp. Lough,J.M.(2008)ShiftingclimatezonesforAustralia stropicalmarineecosystems.geophysical ResearchLetters35,L14708,doi: /2008GL Lough,J.M.(inpreparation)WarmingwatersfortheCoralTriangle. MarshallP,SchuttenbergH(2006)AReefManager sguidetocoralbleaching.greatbarrierreef MarineParkAuthority,Townsville,63pp McLeodE,SalmR(2008)ClimatechangeprojectionsandadaptationstrategiesfortheCoralTriangle. WhitepaperpreparedfortheCTISecretariat. MundayPL,JonesGP,PratchettMS,WilliamsAJ(2008)Climatechangeandthefutureforcoralreef fishes.fishandfisheries9: Neale,R.andJ.Slingo(2003)Themaritimecontinentanditsroleintheglobalclimate:aGCMstudy. JournalofClimate16:

46 DRAFTVersion2 PratchettMS,MundayPL,WilsonSK,GrahamNAJ,CinnerJE,BellwoodDR,JonesGP,PoluninNVC, McClanahanTR(2008)Effectsofclimateinducedcoralbleachingoncoralreeffishes:ecologicaland economicconsequences.oceanographyandmarinebiology:anannualreviewvol.46,pp RaymundoLJ,CouchCS,BrucknerAW,HarvellCD,WorkTM,WeilE,WoodleyCM,JordanDahlgren E,WillisBL,AebyGS,SatoY(2008)ACoralDiseaseHandbook:GuidelinesforAssessment, MonitoringandManagement.CoralReefTargetedResearchandCapacityBuildingforManagement Program,CurrieCommunications,Melbourne Someexistingdatasets LoughJM(AustralianInstituteofMarineSciences):AnalysesofseasurfacetemperaturesintheCoral Triangle Someexistingprojects HaapkylaJ,WillisBL(ARCCoEforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity: Coraldisease prevalenceinthewakatobimarinepark,indonesia) 44

47 DRAFTVersion2 a. Annual average SST o C Year b. Annual maximum SST y = x R 2 = o C Year y = 0.011x R 2 = c. Annual minimum SST o C Year y = x R 2 = 0.23 Figure1:ObservedSSTvariationsfortheCoralTriangle, (datafromHadlSST)fora) annualaverage,b)annualmaximum,andc)annualminimumssts.dashedlineislineartrend;grey linesarerespectivemeansfor and illustratingthesignificantwarmingthathas 45

48 DRAFTVersion2 alreadyoccurred.redlinesgivesstvaluesfor2020through2100basedonprojectingthe warmingtrend. Figure2.Predictedoceanwarmingwillcauseincreasinglyfrequentandmoreseverethermalstress forreefassociatedorganismsandcoralsareespeciallyvulnerable.widespreadmortalityofcorals willhaveflowoneffectsforfishandinvertebratesthataredependentoncoralsforhabitatorasa foodsource.ultimately,healthyreefsmayundergotransitionstodegraded,lowdiversityreefs: A) healthy reef with abundant fish life; B) bleached staghorn corals; C) severely degraded reef undergoing algal colonisation of dead staghorn corals.photos courtesy of the Great Barrier Reef MarineParkAuthority. Figur Figure3.Outbreaksofcoraldiseases,suchastheonesshownhere,aremorelikelytooccurwhen summerseatemperaturesriseabovenormalmaxima.a)whitesyndromecausingtissuelossona platingacropora.b)blackbanddiseasecausingtissuelossonaplatingpachyseris.photosbymeir SussmanandMikeFlavell. Acknowledgements:ManythankstoP.M.Alino,R.Beeden,K.Dobbs,P.MarshallandL.Tanfor theirinput 46

49 DRAFTVersion2 9.Threatofclimatechangetofishandfisheries MorganS.Pratchett 1,JohannD.Bell 2,PatrickLehodey 3,PhilipL.Munday 1,andShaunK.Wilson 1 4/11/08 Outlineoftheissue Fish and fisheries are fundamental to food security and economic development in the Coral Triangle, and a major goal of the Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI) is to promote long-term sustainable fisheries development. However, impacts of climate change on the key habitats that support fisheries (coral reefs, mangroves, and sea grasses), and the direct effects of climate change on fishes, could derail these plans by reducing local abundance and access to important stocks. The key threats to CTI fisheries from climate change include: Changes to the distribution and abundance of tuna. Within the Coral Triangle, increasing water temperature is expected to lead to declines in abundance of skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis). Recent modeling forecasts that skipjack tuna will be increasingly concentrated in the central Pacific as a result of climate change (Figure 1). If so, this will reduce the number and biomass of skipjack tuna within by CTI waters. Degradation of coral reefs and declines in coastal fisheries. Rising sea surface temperatures, combined with increasingly severe storms and ocean acidification, are expected to severely damage coral reef habitats. Degraded coral reefs support a lower abundance and diversity of fishes, which compounds existing pressures on fisheries associated with these ecosystems (e.g., over-exploitation) and further reduces the amount of fish that can be sustainably harvested from coastal waters in CTI countries. Tonnes of fish per km 2 FIGURE 1. a) Estimated distribution and abundance of skipjack tuna in the Pacific in 2000; and b) preliminary modeling of skipjack tuna distribution in 2050; based on the study Forecasts of population trends for two species of tuna under an IPCC scenario presented by Lehodey et al. at the international symposium Effects of Climate Change on World s Oceans, Gijon, Spain, May ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity,TownsvilleQLD4811,Australia. [email protected],Ph SecretariatforthePacificCommunity,BPD5,98848NoumeaCedex,NewCaledonia. 3 MarineEcosystemsModelingandMonitoringbySatellitesCLS,SatelliteOceanographyDivision,Toulouse, France 47

50 DRAFTVersion2 Skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) RelevancetothedraftCTIPlanofAction A major goal (Goal #2) of the draft CTI plan of action is to implement a multi-national, ecosystembased management policy for major fisheries resources, recognizing the importance of fish and shellfish in sustaining human populations and supporting economic development throughout the region. Food fishes In the Coral Triangle, there is great reliance on fish for food, which mainly centered around coastal fisheries. Fish caught in near-shore habitats, including shallow-water coral reef environments, account for a significant proportion of the seafood consumed in the region (Figure 2). The major families of coastal fish used for food vary within and among countries (Table 1), but many of these stocks are facing over-exploitation. Increasing demands from rapidly growing human populations will only increase the pressure on coastal fisheries.. Other Seafood Tuna FIGURE 2. Proportional consumption of fish from different sources for the Solomon Islands, based on national annual per-capita consumption of 7kg of Tuna, 19kg of reef fish,and 6kg of other seafood. Data source: 2007 SPC Statistics and Demography Programme - Household income and expenditure surveys ReefFish TABLE 1. Variation in dominant families of coastal fishes caught within representative areas of the CTI. Data source: Russ et al. 2004, and Dalzell et al Location Dominant Family Phillipines (Apo) Carangidae (jacks), Acanthuridae (surgeonfish) Northern PNG Mugilidae (mullet) Southern PNG Lethrinidae (emperors) Solomon Is. Lutjanidae (snapper) Climate change is projected to compound the existing stresses (such as over-exploitation) on coastal fisheries and further limit their capacity to provide the fish required for food security. In particular, increasing water temperatures and acidification are likely to reduce the area and quality of the coral reefs (Figure 3) that underpin much of the coastal fisheries production. Seagrasses, which also provide nursery and feeding habitats for many species, may also be affected. In addition, higher water temperatures are projected to directly affect the physiology and behaviour of coastal fishes, particularly during their early life history. This may lead to declines in abundance or redistribution of fish within the Coral Triangle. 48

51 DRAFTVersion2 a) b) c) FIGURE 3. Healthy coral assemblages (a) are important for sustaining high diversity and abundance of coral reef fishes. Climateinduced coral bleaching (b) leads to structural collapse of the reef habitat (c). The loss of habitat structure provided by intact coral colonies impacts on most reef fishes, including large predatory fishes such as coral trout. Photos: P Marshall (GBRMPA) and SK Wilson Commercial fisheries In CTI countries, fisheries commodities produced for export are usually based on: 1. Pelagic oceanic fishes (mainly tuna), 2. Invertebrates collected from coastal habitats (sea cucumbers, trochus, spiny lobsters), and 3. Fishes caught over deep-reef slopes and sea mounts. The potential benefits of tuna are not fully realized by some of the CTI countries, particularly PNG and Solomon Islands, due to the limited capacity of national fleets and infrastructure. Instead, much of the tuna in the western and central Pacific is caught by large purse seine and longline vessels owned by distant water fishing nations (DWFNs), mainly Japan, Taiwan, Korea and USA (Figure 4). The DWFNs typically pay PNG and Solomon Islands around 3-4% of the landed value of the catch in access fees. In 2001, of the total landed value of fish in the entire western and central Pacific was ~US$2 billion and access fees totaled ~US$60 million. Increased use of pelagic oceanic fish stocks by CTI countries would be expected to reduce demands on coastal resources, spread the risks of over-exploitation, and provide more revenue for local economic development. A key strategy in facilitating increased access to pelagic resources for both smaller-scale commercial enterprises, and subsistence, may be the deployment of low-cost, anchored Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs) in near-shore waters. While the ecological effects of FADs are unknown, it is clear that they provide better access to pelagic fishes in near shore waters 49

52 DRAFTVersion2 Figure 4. The percentage of tuna caught (all species combined) in the western and central Pacific by different groups of countries: AU NZ Australia and New Zealand, PH ID- Philippines and Indonesia, DWFN Distant water fishing nations, and PICT - Pacific Island Countries and Territories. DATA: Dr John Hampton, Oceanic Fisheries Programme, SPC. Climate change could impede plans to increase national benefits from tuna by increasing the percentage of the catch taken by local operators. The projected movement of skipjack tuna to the east, as they follow the water temperatures and prey concentrations that optimize their survival and growth, may jeopardize the long-term profitability of national industrial fishing fleets and canneries developed within the CTI. WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? An important step in minimizing future effects of climate change on coastal fisheries is to reduce other direct stresses. This means:- i) Reducing and redistributing fishing effort through implementation of effective fishing closures and MPAs, gear restrictions, and/ or quotas on target stocks. This will require effective localized management measures designed to maintain spawning biomass within sustainable bounds. ii) Maintaining critical fish habitats by: preventing removal of, or physical damage to, the corals, seagrasses, and mangroves that provide the physically complex habitats that support fish and invertebrates; and improving water quality by preventing rubbish and pollutants from entering waterways, and minimizing nutrient inputs from land run-off. Otheradaptations 50

53 DRAFTVersion2 To meet national aspirations to increase the economic benefits from tuna, under the scenario of skipjack tuna moving further east, CTI countries may wish to consider limiting harvests by DWFNs within their Exclusive Economic Zones. To increase resilience to many of the uncertain effects of climate change on coastal fisheries, countries within the CTI could consider diversifying ways of catching and producing fish, and reducing reliance on highly vulnerable fish stocks. Identifying alternative sources of fish, and innovative ways to meet increasing demands for fish as food (such as low-cost inshore FADs to attract pelagic fish for subsistence and small pond aquaculture), is a critical step in building adaptive capacity to climate change. Diversification of fisheries will also help sustain those people who rely most heavily on fish as the pressures from population growth and higher fuel costs increase. Vulnerability of coastal communities to the effects of climate change will also be reduced by developing supplies of food, and livelihoods, outside the fisheries sector. Relevantprojects The Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) is coordinating a major project (with funding from AusAID) to assess the impact of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture in the Pacific. This project will identify the potential threats posed by climate change to fisheries and aquaculture in the region, and the adaptations needed to retain the benefits of fisheries as recognized by the Pacific Islands Framework for Action on Climate Change (PIFACC) The primary goals of the SPC project are to assess: Implications of climate change for national and regional plans to optimize the use of fisheries resources for food security, livelihoods and economic growth. Adaptations and management needed to maintain the benefits of fisheries in the face of climate change; Regional capacity to forecast and mitigate the effects of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture; and Priorities for cost-effective development assistance to address the effects of climate change on fisheries. The SPC vulnerability assessment is being coordinated by Dr Johann Bell ( [email protected]), with significant contributions by many international scientists including the authors of this paper. It s outcomes may also be of interest to other CT countries. Backgroundreading For information about of these publications, please contact Dr Morgan Pratchett ( [email protected]) Bell JD, Kronen M, Vunisea A, Nash WJ, Keeble G, Demmke A, Pontifex S, Andréfouët S (2008) Planning the use of fish for food security in the Pacific. Marine Policy (in press) doi: /j.marpol Lehodey P, Chai F, Hampton J (2003) Modelling climate-related variability of tuna populations from a coupled ocean biogeochemical-populations dynamics model. Fisheries Oceanography Vol. 12, pp Munday PL, Jones GP, Pratchett MS, Williams A (2008) Climate change and the future of coral reef fishes. Fish and Fisheries Vol. 9, pp

54 DRAFTVersion2 Pratchett MS, Munday PL, Wilson SK, Graham NAJ, Cinner JE, Bellwood DR, Jones GP, Polunin NVC, McClanahan TR (2008) Effects of climate-induced coral bleaching on coral-reef fishes: ecological and economic consequences. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review Vol. 46, pp Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) Policy Briefs 1/2008 (Fish and Food Security) and 5/2008 (Fisheries and climate change) 52

55 DRAFTVersion2 10.Capacitybuildingformarineresourcemanagementincluding MPAs Foale,S. 1,Russ,G.R. 2 Preston,G. 3 4/11/08 Outlineoftheissue Capacitybuilding isatermthatmeansagreatmanythings.inthecontextofmarineresource managementitcaninclude1)holdingworkshopsinvillages,2)supportingtalentedenvironmental leadership3)improvingcapacitythroughrestructuringandreformingfisheries,environmentand otherrelevantdepartmentsofnationalandprovincial(orstate)departments,4)teachinglocally relevantfisheriessciencetoschoolstudents,5)fundingpostgraduatescholarships,6)drafting enablinglegislation,7)businessmanagementtraining,8)supplyingboats,equipment,trainingand operatingbudgetsformonitoringandenforcement.whichofthesedifferentapproacheswarrants fundingandsupportbyforeigncapitalwillinevitablyvaryconsiderablyamonglocations,andshould ideallybebasedonrelevantresearchonneedsandgapsinneeds. TheBigInternationalNonGovernmentOrganisations(BINGOs)haveinthepastdevotedsubstantial fundingtovillagebasedworkshopformat awareness work,andsimilarworkcontinuestobedone bynewerorganisationssuchasthelocallymanagedmarinearea(lmma)network.reefcheck, LMMA,FSPIandotherconservationorganisationsteachlocalpeoplevariousreefresource monitoringmethodsaspartoftheirmpaprograms. Supportandencouragementforlocalenvironmentalleadershipmaywellturnouttobeoneofthe mostfruitfulinvestmentsincapacitybuilding,iftheachievementsofseveralpapuanewguineaand SolomonIslandslocalleadersareanythingtogoby.Thefactthatmanyoftheregion sinspiring leadersworkforthebingosandnotforgovernment(andthatmostofthesewererecruitedfrom governmentdepartments)isaformofbraindrainthatdeservessomediscussion.anadditional problemisthatwithingovernments,positionsinresourcesectordepartmentssuchasfisheriesand forestryarenotasprestigiousasinothers,suchasforeignaffairs,andtalentedpeopleareoftenlost inthiswayaswell.shouldfisheries(andforestry)departmentsbesubsidisedbyaidgrantsinan efforttohelpthemretaingoodstaff?giventhevastlygreatercapacityofthebingostoadequately remuneratetalentedpersonnel,howisthepowerrelationshipbetweenbingos,largeregional organisationsandnationalgovernmentslikelytoevolveinthecontextofthecti?whatmightbe theimplicationsforcapacitybuildingandcapacityretentionwithinctcountries? GovernancechallengesandinefficiencyhavebothbeensignificantproblemsinPNGandSolomon Islandsfisheriesdepartmentsinthepast.ThePNGNationalFisheriesAuthorityunderwentamajor restructureintheearly2000s,(aformofinstitutionalcapacitybuilding),whichtransformedthe 1 ARCCoEforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity:[email protected] 2 ProfessorofMarineBiology,DeptofMarineBiology,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellencein CoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity 3 Gillett,PrestonandAssociatesInc.( 53

56 DRAFTVersion2 organisationfromonewhichin1999hadanetcosttogovernmentofabout2.5millionkinaper year,toonethat,fouryearslater,generatedaprofitof44millionkina(thefigurefor2007was52 million),mainlythroughimprovedcollectionoffisheryaccessrevenuesaroughlyanalogousnzaid fundedprocess(simros)isunderwayinthesolomonislandsatpresent,althoughtheprospectsfor suchlargegainsareless,duetothesmallersizeofthesolomonislandstunafisheryandthe resourcesonwhichitisbased. Oneknowledgecapacitygapthathasbeenidentifiedinsomesituationsisunderstandingof processesofstockreplacement;itisalsooneofthekeyunderpinnings(alongwithgovernance problemsatvariouslevels)ofpoorfisherymanagement(foale2006a,b).incorporatinglocally relevantfisherybiologyinformationintothesciencecurriculaofupperprimaryandsecondary schoolsisalongtermstrategythatmayyieldsubstantialbenefitsoverthemediumtolongterm. Fundingofscholarshipsforundergraduateandpostgraduatestudentsoffisherymanagementand integratedcoastalmanagementislikelyalsotobeaproductiveuseofmoney,particularlyforthe smallercountriesofthect6. WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? LittleislikelytobeachievedundertheCTIinitiativewithoutacriticalmassofeffectivelocaland nationalsupportineachcountry(e.g.alcalaandruss2006).localsupport,inturn,dependsupon communitiesandtheirleadersunderstandingtheimportanceofanintegratedsystemofmarine resourcemanagementtoolsinpreventingstockcollapseinfisheriesandecosystemdegradationon coralreefs.theseunderstandingsdependoneducationaswellasadequategovernmentalcapacity atlocal,regionalandnationallevel,aswellasconvincingdemonstrationsoftheeconomicandother benefitsofanyproposedchangestoresourceexploitationarrangements. Duetothevarietyoflevelsandsituationswithinwhichcapacitymaybeanissue,weconsider developmentofamenuapproachtocapacitybuildingtobeausefulconsideration(coupledwith needs/gapanalyses): Whattopics?(fromthenaturalandsocialsciencetothelegaltothetechnicaltoprojectand teammanagement) Whatlevel?(primary,secondary,tertiary,alternative?) Whatdeliverymechanism?(learningbydoing,workshops,lectures/classrooms, combinations) Whatduration?(weeks,months,years) Whatlocation?(incountry,overseas,e.g.Australia) 54

57 DRAFTVersion2 WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? Avarietyofcapacitybuildingapproachesismorelikelytobesuccessfulthanone.Strengthening scienceeducationinschoolssothatthecurriculumincludeslocallyrelevantmaterialonfishery biologyandmarineecologywillatleastgenerateasuccessionofcohortsofenvironmentallyaware highschoolgraduateswithinarelativelyshorttime.asthesepeoplemoveoutintocommunities theywillinevitablycontributetosomeincreasesinconservationbytheirknowledgeofthelimitsto fisheries,andtostockrecruitmentprocessesanddynamicsforeconomicallyimportantspecies.they willalsohaveasolidunderstandingoftheimportanceofnonspatialandspatialmanagementtools tomaintainingtheproductivityofthesefisheries.howevertherelationshipbetweenknowledgeand behaviourcanneverbeassumedtobealinearone,andarangeofotherfactors,suchaseconomic pressures,governanceandsocialcohesion,whichalsoinfluencechoicesrelatingtothesustainable orunsustainableuseoffisheries,mustalsobetakenintoaccount. Sustainedfinancial,trainingandlogisticsupportshouldalsogotothegovernmentfishery departmentsandagenciesofthect6,andnotjustto communities,howevertheseareconceived. Innovativeinstitutionalsolutionsmustbefoundtoproblemswithsetting,monitoringandenforcing exportcommodityfisheryregulations,asgovernmentsplayakeyroleinmanagementofthese fisheries. Backgroundreading Alcala,A.C.andRuss,G.R.(2006).Notakemarinereservesandreeffisheriesmanagementinthe Philippines:Anewpeoplepowerrevolution.Ambio35(6): Ausaid(2008).TrackingDevelopmentandGovernanceinthePacific.Canberra,Ausaid:44. BunceL,TownsleyP,PomeroyR,PollnacR(2000).SocioeconomicManualforCoralReef Management.AIMS,TownsvilleAustralia.264pages Courtney,C.A.,A.T.WhiteandE.Deguit(2002)."BuildingPhilippineLocalGovernmentCapacityof Foale,S.J.(2006a)."Theintersectionofscientificandindigenousecologicalknowledgeincoastal Melanesia:implicationsforcontemporarymarineresourcemanagement."InternationalSocial Foale,S.J.(2006b).IscoralreefconservationpossiblewithoutscienceeducationinMelanesia?Is scienceeducationpossiblewithoutdevelopment?proceedings,10thinternationalcoralreef Walmsley,S.F.andA.T.White(2003)."Influenceofsocial,managementandenforcementfactors onthelongtermecologicaleffectsofmarinesanctuaries."environmentalconservation30(4):

58 DRAFTVersion2 White,A.,E.Deguit,W.JatulanandL.EismaOsorio(2006)."Integratedcoastalmanagementin Philippinelocalgovernance:Evolutionandbenefits."CoastalManagement34(3): Someexistingdatasets TheLMMA,whichworksinIndonesia,Philippines,PapuaNewGuinea,andSolomonIslands,post reportsontheirwork(whichincludesvariousformsofcapacitybuilding)here: ReefbasePacificEducationResources: ReefbaseManagementCapacitysearchpage: Someexistingprojects FoundationofthePeoplesoftheSouthPacificInternationalhttp:// SolomonIslandsMarineResourcesOrganizationalStrengthening(SIMROS)project,fundedbyNZAID from simrosiiisduetofollowonin2009.andsolomonislandsdiagnostictrade IntegrationStudy(DTIS)(needcontacthere) LMMAisalsoanongoingproject( MahonianaDari: organisationbasedinkimbebay,westnewbritain,papuanewguinea. GlobalCoralReefMonitoringNetwork(GCRMN): ReefCheckhttp:// ThePhilippineMarineSanctuaryStrategyhasinvolvedaseriesofnationalmultisectoralworkshops andtargetsatleast10%ofmunicipalwatersby2020: 56

59 DRAFTVersion2 11.ObjectivesandmultipleusezoningforanetworkofMPAsforthe CoralTriangle PMAlino 1,LFernandes 2,GRRuss 3,JMLTan 4,JMTanzer 5 Draft5/11/08 Outlineoftheissue ThedraftCTIPlanofActionidentifies,asagoal,thedevelopmentofafullyfunctional,regionwide networkofmarineprotectedareas(mpa).theseterms,networkandmarineprotectedarea,mean differentthingstodifferentpeople.toachieveanyobjectives,thempanetworkneedstobe developedagainstaclearunderstandingof: a. Whatisintendedbythetermmarineprotectedareaandnetwork b. TheobjectivesoftheMPAnetwork c. Theprioritiesamongstthoseobjectives d. Theavailableprotectionlevels/zoningoptionsthatcanbeappliedindesigningthenetwork(see alsopaperondesigninganmpanetwork). Withinallthediscussionspresentedinthispaper,weremaincognisantthatevenmultipleuse, multipleobjectivempasarebutonetoolinthemarineresourcemanagementtoolbox(forexample, seeotherbackgroundpapersonnonspatialmanagementtools,humanadaptationtoclimate change,climatechangeandfisheries). RelevanceoftheissuetothegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanofAction TheCoralTriangleInitiativedraftPlanofActionidentifiesfivegoalsaswellassubordinateobjectives orstrategiesthatwouldbenefitfromafunctionalnetworkofmpasincludinganecosystem approachtofisheriesmanagement,foodsecurity,betterprotectionofthreatenedspecies,building resilience,includingresiliencetoimpactsofclimatechange,aswellthempanetworkgoalitself. Otherconsiderationsforobjectivesaretodowithdesirabledegreesofrepresentation,resilience, profitability,accesstolocalusersandmore. Forthepurposesofthisworkshop,anMPAisnotjustanotakearea.Thefollowingisalistofsome ofthekindsofmpasthatcouldbeusedtohelpachieveacrosstherangeofctidraftplanofaction goals:nogo/noentryareasexceptforscientificresearch;notakeareas;seasonalclosures;other temporalclosures;areaswithgearrestrictionsforvariousreasons(e.g.limitingeffort,limitingby catch,protectionofthreatenedspecies;protectionofhabitat);local/traditionaluseonly(e.g. 1 TheMarineScienceInstitute,UniversityofthePhilippines,Diliman,QuezonCity,Philippines, [email protected] 2 MarineResourceManagementCoordinator,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellenceinCoralReef Studies,JamesCookUniversityandtheAustralianInstituteofMarineScience,Townsville,Q.Australia.Ph.+61 (0) ;[email protected] 3 ProfessorofMarineBiology,DeptofMarineBiology,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellencein CoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity 4 ViceChairman,WWFPhilippines,[email protected] 5 CoralTriangleFacilitator,AustralianGovernmentDepartmentoftheEnvironment,Water,Heritageandthe Arts,WWFandTheNatureConservancy,[email protected], 57

60 DRAFTVersion2 LMMAs),tourismonlyorareaswithotherkindsoflimitations(e.g.prohibitinginterferencewith threatenedspecies).theinternationalstandardforcategorisingprotectedareas,includingmarine protectedareas,encompassesthisrangeofkindsofprotection(seetablebelow). IUCN Category Main objective or purpose IA Strict Nature Reserve Managed mainly for science IB Wilderness Area Managed mainly to protect wilderness qualities II National Park Managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation III Natural Monument Managed mainly for conservation of specific natural/cultural features IV Habitat/Species Management Area Managed mainly for conservation through management intervention V Protected Landscape/ Seascape Managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation VI Managed Resource Protected Area Managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems Insomecountries,variousmultisectoralconsultationshaveagreedonacommonbasisofdefinition ofterminologywiththetermmarineprotectedarea(mpa)asagenerictermofprotective management(whiteetal.2006,miclatetal.2004) Analternativewayofconsideringboththedifferentkindsofcategoriesofprotectionandmarine protectedareasistohaveverylargempaswithinwhichthereisdifferentlevelsofprotection otherwiseknownasmultipleusezoning.withinsuchanmpa,notakeareasornotakezones comprisejustpartoftheoverallmpa.thegreatbarrierreefmarineparkisanexampleofthis. WithintheCTregiontherearealsoexamplesofmultipleusezoningwithinmarineprotectedarea boundariesbutunderthebannerofintegratedcoastalmanagement[icm].inthephilippines,for example,thereisthesustainablephilippinearchipelagicdevelopmentstrategywhichwasone impetusfortheformulationoftheirroftheexecutiveorder533ontheicminthephilippines. 58

61 DRAFTVersion2 Previousworksuggeststhatnotakeareascanbeaneffective,ifnotsufficient,partofthesolution toissuesofoverfishing.thefigurebelowshowsthepositiveimpactofnotakeareasuponfish stocksinsidetheprotectedareas,anddatashowingthatfishcatchhasbeenmaintainedor increasedoutsidetheprotectedareas. Figure:ChangesinbiomasswithinreservesandcatchoutsidereservesinthePhilippines(Alcala& Russ2006) Anetworkofmarineprotectedareas,asdistinctfromlotsofseparateMPAs,canbedefinedas comprisingareasthatareecologicallyconnectedandpossessaselfreplenishingfunction(seealso paper#10onconnectivity). WiththisdefinitionofwhatanMPAnetworkcomprises,explicitidentificationofclearMPAnetwork objectivesagainstthectidraftplanofactiongoalswillenablebetterdesignofthenetworktohelp achievethesegoals.mpaswithpurelyfisheriesobjectivescouldbedesignedquitedifferentlyto MPAswhoseobjectivesareonlytodowithprotectionofthreatenedspeciesoroverallbiodiversity protection,andsoon.thempanetworktosupportthectidraftplanofactionwillrequiremultiple objectives.definingthoseobjectivesclearlycanthenenablempanetworkdesigneffortstofocus onachievingthosemultipleobjectives. 59

62 DRAFTVersion2 ObjectivestoconsiderfortheCTIMPAnetworkshouldbedefinedwithconsiderationofthedraft PlanofActionandcouldaddress: Enhancedprotectionoffisheriesresources Enhancedprotectionofthreatenedspecies Enhancedprotectionofspecies,habitatsandnaturalprocesses Provisionofasafetymarginagainsthumanandnaturaldisturbancesincludingclimate change Maximisingpositiveandminimisenegativeimpactsuponhumanusesandvalues AnynetworkofMPAswillassistwithdealingwiththreatsandimpactsbutnotsufficeinisolation.A networkofmpaswillprovideapotentiallysignificantlevelofeffectiveresourcemanagementbut mustbedevelopedandimplementedasoneofasuiteofmanagementmeasuresaimedatensuring protectionandsustainableuse. 1 WhatistherelevanceofthisissuewithregardtoanMPAnetworkin thect? InthedesignofanMPAnetworkwithmultipleobjectives,theremaybedesigndecisionswhereby onedesignfavoursobjectiveaoverobjectiveb.forthesereasons,itisimportantthattherelative priorityofthemultipleobjectivesisexplicit.thendecisionmakerscanalignthempanetwork designagainstthemostimportantmpaobjectives. Anextstepmightbe,againsteachoftheprioritisedMPAobjectives,identifythetypesofprotection thatmightbemostuseful.forexample: Enhancedprotectionoffisheriesresources:notakeareas,limitedfishingareas,controlson destructivefishing,seasonalclosures Enhancedprotectionofthreatenedspecies:limitsonpracticedthataredestructiveto threatenedspeciesandtheirhabitats(thismayincludenotakeareas) Enhancedprotectionofspecies,habitatsandnaturalprocesses:notakeareas,areaswithlimited fishingorcontrolsonthoseaspectsoffishingthataredestructivetootherspecies,habitatsand naturalprocesses Provisionofasafetymarginagainsthumanandnaturaldisturbances:thismaymeanmoreofthe aboveoradditionallowerlevelprotectionbothas insurance,and Maximisingpositiveandminimisingnegativeimpactsuponhumanusesandvalues:notake areas,limitedfishingareas,controlsondestructivefishing,seasonaland/orothertemporal closures,zonesthatseparateconflictinguses. 1 Seehttp:// 60

63 DRAFTVersion2 GiventhemultipleusenatureofMPAsbeingdiscussedhere,theoverallboundaryoftheentiresuite ofmpascouldbesetquitebroadly,ingeographicterms.thatis,dothecountrieswishtoconsider thempanetworkas: a) Alargesetofinterlinkedareaswhichhaveavarietyoftypesofprotectionwithinthemor b) One(orseveral)largearea(s)withinwhichthereismultipleusezoning. Withineachoftheseoptions,theJakartadraftPlanofActionreferstotheneedforaminimum amountofnonextractiveareasthatareecologicallylinked.forthecti,peaceparksand transboundarynetworksofvariouskindscanbeusedtohelpbuildconfidenceinworkingtogether andthusarecrucialindealingwiththemanygovernancechallenges. Backgroundreading Abesamis,R.A.andRuss,G.R.(2005).Densitydependentspilloverfromamarinereserve:longterm evidence.ecologicalapplications15: Alcala,A.C.andRuss,G.R.(2006).Notakemarinereservesandreeffisheriesmanagementinthe Philippines:Anewpeoplepowerrevolution.Ambio35(6): Day,J.C.,Hockings,MandJones,G(2003), MeasuringEffectivenessInMarineProtectedAreas PrinciplesandPractice,inProcWorldAquaticProtectedAreasCongress,Cairns,2002,publbyAust Day,J.C.(2002) Zoning LessonsfromtheGreatBarrierReefMarinePark,inOcean&Coastal GellF.R.andC.M.Roberts.2002.Thefisheryeffectsofmarinereservesandfisheryclosures.WWF US,WashingtonDC.89pp. IUCNWCPAMarine(2007) IUCNCategories TheirApplicationInMarineProtectedAreas, DiscussionpaperatIUCNWCPAMarineSummit,WashingtonDC, summit(seealsodraftguidelinesintoolbarontheright) Miclat,E.andInglesJ.2004.StandardizedTermsandDefinitionsforuseinMarineProtectedArea (MPA)ManagementinthePhilippines.In:ThirdNationalWorkshopontheFormulationofthe OngPS,AfuangLE,RoselleAmbalRG(2002)PhilippineBiodiversityConservationPriorities:ASecond iterationofthenationalbiodiversitystrategyandactionplan.denrpawb,ciphilippines,upcids RussG.R.andAlcalaA.C.(2003)Marinereserves:ratesandpatternsofrecoveryanddeclineof 61

64 DRAFTVersion2 Russ,G.R.andAlcalaA.C.(2004).Marinereserves:longtermprotectionisrequiredforfullrecovery ofpredatoryfishpopulations.oecologia138: RussG.R.andAlcalaA.C.(2004)Marinereservebenefitslocalfisheries.EcologicalApplications 14: Wells,SandDay,J(2005) ApplicationoftheIUCNProtectedAreaManagementCategoriesinthe MarineEnvironment PARKS14(3):2838,IUCN White,A.,P.AlinoandA.Meneses(2006).CreatingandManagingMarineProtectedAreasinthe Existingprojects Day,JCandLaffoley,D.(2007)ChecklistforMPANetworks,IUCNThis Selfassessmentchecklist at LocallyManagedMarineAreashttp:// PALNetisaknowledgesharingplatformforpeopleworkingonprotectedareas. Acknowledgementsto:JonDayandHughPossinghamforinput. 62

65 DRAFTVersion2 12.Connectivityandthedesignofmarineprotectedareanetworksin thecoraltriangle JonesG.P. 1,AblanLagmanM.C. 2,AlcalaA.C. 3,AlmanyG.R. 1,Botsford,L.W. 4,DohertyP.J. 5,GreenA. 6, McCookL.J. 7,MundayP.L. 1,PlanesS. 8,Russ,G.R. 1,SaleP.F. 9,SteneckR.S. 10,ThorroldS.R. 11,Treml E.A. 12,vanOppenM.J.H. 5 andwillisb.l. 1 5/11/08 Outlineoftheissue Connectivityusuallyreferstolinkagesbetweenpopulationsofmarineplantsandanimalsindifferent places.moretechnicallyitis thedemographiclinkingoflocalpopulationsthroughtheexchangeof individualsamongthemaslarvae,juvenilesoradults (Saleetal.2005).Thetermislooselyusedas anumbrellatermwhichincludesthefullrangefromnoconnectivity(whereallpopulationsare effectivelyisolated=closedpopulations)tohighconnectivity(wheremostoftherecruitmentoccurs throughdispersalamongpopulations=openpopulations).manycoralreeforganisms,including broadcastspawningcoralsandmostreeffishes,donotmovebetweendistantlocationsasadults, buthaveapelagiclarvalphasethatcanpotentiallytravelvastdistances.however,untilrecently,we hadlittleknowledgeofhowfarlarvaeactuallygo.theextentofconnectivitycanhaveimportant implicationsthatdeterminethenaturalprocessesthatlimitgrowthofpopulations,theirresilience tonaturalandhumaninduceddisturbance,andtheappropriatescaleofmanagement. Larvalconnectivityisreceivingmorescientificattentionduetoaglobalincreaseincoralreefmarine protectedarea(mpa)networks(moraetal.2006;woodetal.2008).notakemarineprotected areanetworkshavebeenwidelyadvocatedandembracedasoneofthemeanstomanagereef fisheriesandconservecoralreefbiodiversity.mpanetworksappeartobeparticularlyapplicableto 1 SchoolofMarineandTropicalBiology,andARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCook University,Townsville,4811,Queensland,Australia. 2 BiologyDepartment,DeLaSalleUniversityManila,2401TaftAvenue,Manila,Philippines SillimanUniversityAngeloKingCenterforResearchandEnvironmentalManagement(SUAKCREM) DumagueteCity,NegrosOriental6200Philippines 4 1Dept.ofWildlife,Fish,andConservationBiology,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,OneShieldsAve Davis,CA AustralianInstituteofMarineScience,PMB3,TownsvilleQLD4810,Australia 6 TheNatureConservancy,57EdmonstoneSt,SouthBrisbane,Qld,4101,Australia 7 GreatBarrierReefMarineParkAuthority,POBox1379,Townsville,Qld4810,Australia 8 CentredeBiologieetd'EcologieTropicaleetMéditerranéenne,UniversitédePerpignan,52Av.PaulAlduy 66860PerpignanCEDEX,France 9 UnitedNationsUniversity,175LongwoodRoadSouth,HamiltonOn,L8P0A1,Canada 10 SchoolofMarineSciences,UniversityofMaine,DarlingMarineCenter,193ClarksCoveRoad, Walpole,Maine04573,USA 11 BiologyDepartmentMS#50,WoodsHoleOceanographicInstitution,WoodsHole,MA0254,USA,Ph.D. 12 WorldWildlifeFundFullerFellow,SchoolofIntegrativeBiology,121GoddardBuilding UniversityofQueensland,St.Lucia,QLD4072Australia 63

66 DRAFTVersion2 managingthecommunityscalefisheriesofdevelopingcountriesthatdependonreefresources (AlcalaandRuss2006)andfortheconservationofhighlydiverseandfragmentedhabitats,where specieslevelmanagementisnotpractical(jonesetal.2007).increasesintheabundanceand biomassofexploitedfisheswithinmpaboundariesarewellknown.however,itisalsoclearthat MPAnetworksalonecannotprotectnonexploitedspeciesfromexternalthreatssuchascoastal pollutionandclimatechange(e.g.jonesetal.2004).hence,mpanetworksneedtobeintegrated witharangeofdifferentapproachestoprotectingcoralreefbiodiversityinthecoraltriangle(ct). Whilemuchisknownaboutthebenefitsofnotakecoralreefareastopopulationswithintheir boundaries,therearemanyquestionsthatrelatetotheextentofpopulationselfreplenishmentand connectivity.arepopulationswithinindividualnotakeareasselfsustainingandthereforeeffectively protected?donotakeareasexportlarvaeandproviderecruitmentsubsidiestoallreefsbeyond theirboundaries?andistheresignificantlarvalexchangeamongprotectedpopulationsthatcould enhancetheresilienceoftheoverallnetwork?howispopulationresilienceinmpanetworks influencedbyhumanimpactsoncoralreefhealth?scientistsarestillsearchingfortheanswerstoall ofthesequestionsandsomeoftheirworkisalreadybeingcarriedoutinthecountriesofthect(e.g. Jonesetal.2005,Almanyetal.2007,Tremletal.2008).Recentprogressishelpingusunderstand howexistingmarineprotectedareanetworksoperate,andhowmpanetworkscanbedesignedin thefuturetoachieveparticularmanagementgoals.aseriesofsixpapersinaspecialthemesection inthejournal CoralReefs tobepublishedin2009,provideanuptodatesummaryofthecurrent knowledgeofconnectivityincoralreefenvironments(seealmanyetal.2009,botsfordetal.2009, Jonesetal.2009,McCooketal.2009,Mundayetal.2009,Stenecketal.2009). WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? Knowledgeofcoralreefconnectivityiscriticaltothefollowinggoalslistedinthedraftmanagement plan. Priorityseascapes:Highconservationpriorityshouldbegiventoplacesthatareimportant sourcesoflarvaeandisolatedplacesthatarereliantonselfreplenishment. Ecosystemapproachtomanagementoffisheriesandothermarineresources:Appropriately sizedandspacedmpasareonecriticalelementofecosystemmanagement.however,mpa designrequiresknowledgeoflinkagesamongmpas,linkagesbetweenmpasandfished areas,andlinkagesbetweenmpasandadjacentecosystems.mpanetworksalonearenot sufficientbythemselvesasfisherymanagementtools. MarineProtectedAreanetworks(MPAs):Connectivityisacriticalaspectofnetworkdesign, relevanttotheoptimalsize,number,spacingandplacingofnotakeareas. Improvingthreatenedspeciesstatus:Knowledgeoflarvalandadultmovementsiscritical fordeterminingthesizeofmpasdesignedtoactassanctuariesforthreatenedspecies. 64

67 DRAFTVersion2 Toachievethisknowledge,asignificantincreaseinthelevelofscientificresearchintheCTregion willberequired.thectcoralreefsarediverseandcomplexecosystems,andtofullyunderstand connectivity,weneedinformationonmorespeciesatmoreplacesandatmoretimes.nosingle approachtostudyingconnectivitywillprovidealltheanswers.werecommendthesupportof collaborativeprojectsthatcanapplyarangeofdifferentapproaches,includingbiophysical modelling,genetics,andadultandlarvaltagging.theseprojectswillbemostsuccessfulifthey incorporateincountryexpertise,localcommunitiesandknowledgeintothescientificprocess. WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? Wepropose10guidelinesforMPAnetworkdesigntomaximisethebenefitsofnotakeMPAsfor sustainableharvestingandbiodiversityconservation,basedoncurrentknowledgeandexpert opinionconcerninglarvalretention,connectivityandpopulationresilience.notethatwhileeach recommendationshouldbeviewedasanultimategoal,significantbenefitscanbeachievedby settinginterimtargets.also,itisnotnecessarytoaddressall10guidelinesatoncetoachieve significantbenefits.westressthatknowledgeofctcoralreefconnectivityisincompleteand scientificopinionvaries.theseguidelineswillbesubjecttochangeasnewinformationisobtained. (1)Aimfor~30%oftotalreefareainnotakeMPAs.Thisshouldensureadequateprotectionof spawningstocksinsidempas,sufficient%retentionoflarvaeforpersistencewithinmpas,and sufficientlarvalexporttosupplementadjacentfishedareasandothermpas.approachthisgoalby settinginterimtargetsandevaluatethebenefits. (2)ManagelargeexploitedspeciesoutsideMPAs.Traditionalcatchquotas,sizelimitsandgear restrictionsarenecessarybecauselarvalsubsidiesfrommpastoallfishedareascannotbe guaranteed.gearrestrictionsarenecessarytoreduceimpacts,forexample,onbycatchof threatenedspeciesoutsidempas. (3)EstablishrepresentativeMPAsindifferent bioregions.connectivityamong bioregions (biologicallyandphysicallydistinctareas)isexpectedtobelow.therefore,eachbioregionmustbe partiallyrepresentedinmpanetworkstosustainbiodiversity. (4)EstablishmanyMPAsratherthan1largeMPAineach bioregion.onelargempacannot providerecruitmentsubsidiestoallfishedareas.severalmpasminimisestheriskofanyone disturbanceaffectingallreefinmpas.alargenumberofsmallermpasisalsofarmorepractical, sincelocalcommunitiesaremorelikelytoacceptsuchadesign. (5)DeliberatelyvarythesizeofindividualMPAs.Thiswilltakeaccountofnaturalvariationin populationsizesanddispersaldistanceswithinandamongspecies,soasbothlarvalretentionwithin MPAs,andlarvaldispersalfromMPAsintofishedareascanbeachieved.TherehasbeennoMPA thathasbeentoosmalltoprovidesomebenefitswithinboundaries.however,smallmpasmaynot adequatelyprotectlargemobileanimals. 65

68 DRAFTVersion2 (6)DeliberatelyvarythespacingbetweenMPAs.Thiswilltakeaccountofnaturalvariationin dispersaldistanceswithinandamongspecies,contributingtobothconnectivityamongmpasand dispersalintofishedareas. (7)PrioritysitesforMPAs:(a)Remotelocations>20kmfromnearestotherreefhabitat,especially offshoreislands.(b)uniqueplaceswithdistinctiveassemblagesofanimalsorplants.(c)sites frequentlyusedbythreatenedspeciesand/orhotspotsforendemicspecies.(d)larvalsourcesand upstreamsiteswithunusuallyhighcurrents.(e)sitesknowntoberesilienttobleachingandother disturbances. (8)MatchscaleofMPAnetworkstothescaleofhumancommunities.Larvalretentionshouldbe sufficientforlocalcommunitiestobenefitdirectlyfromtheirownmpas,whichwillencourage complianceandexpansionofmpanetworks.ensurelocalcommunitiesinvolvedwithmpadecision makingandenforcement. (9)EvaluateMPAeffectivenessforfishedspeciesandbiodiversity.Quantitativemonitoringofcoral cover,fishandinvertebrateabundance(insideandoutsidempas)andcatch(outsidempas)is essentialtoassesswhethermpasareachievingtheirgoals,andasabasisforadaptivemanagement. Wherepossible,linkimplementationofMPAnetworkswithconnectivityresearch. (10)LinkcoastalMPAdesignwithcoastalterrestrialreservesandlandmanagement.MPAswillbe ineffectiveinprotectingmarinebiodiversitywherecoralreefsarebeingdegradedfromcoastal pollution,sedimentationandotherexternalinfluences. Backgroundreading AlcalaAC,RussGR(2006)NotakemarinereservesandreeffisheriesmanagementinthePhilippines: AlmanyGR,BerumenML,ThorroldSR,PlanesS,JonesGP(2007)Localreplenishmentofcoralreef fishpopulationsinamarinereserve.science316: availablefrom AlmanyGR,ConnollySR,HeathDD,HoganJD,JonesGP,McCookLJ,MillsM,PresseyRL,Williamson DH(2009)Connectivity,biodiversityconservation,andthedesignofmarinereservenetworksfor BotsfordLW,CoffrothMA,JonesGP,ParisCB,PlanesS,ShearerTL,ThorroldSR,WhiteJW(2009) MeasuringconnectivityandestimatingresilienceofcoralreefmetapopulationsinMPAs:matching empiricaleffortstomodellingneedscoralreefs(specialissue).availablefrom JonesGP,McCormickMI,SrinivasanM,EagleJV(2004)Coraldeclinethreatensfishbiodiversityin marinereserves.proceedingsofthenationalacademyofscience101: availablefrom 66

69 DRAFTVersion2 JonesGP,PlanesS,ThorroldSR(2005)Coralreeffishlarvaesettleclosetohome.CurrentBiology JonesGP,SrinivasanM,AlmanyGR(2007)Populationconnectivityandconservationofmarine JonesGP,AlmanyGR,RussGR,SalePF,SteneckRR,vanOppenMJH,WillisBL(2009)Larvalretention andconnectivityamongpopulationsofcoralsandreeffishes:history,advancesandchallenges. McCookLJ,AlmanyGR,DayJ,GreenA,JonesGP,LeisJM,PlanesS,RussGR,SalePF,ThorroldSR (2009)Managementunderuncertainty:guidelinesforincorporatingconnectivityintothe MoraC,AndréfouëtS,CostelloMJ,KranenburgC,RolloA,VeronJ,GastonKJ,MyersRA(2006)Coral reefsandtheglobalnetworkofmarineprotectedareas.science312: MundayPL,LeisJM,LoughJM,ParisCB,KingsfordMJ,BerumenML,LambrechtsJ(2009)Climate changeandcoralreefconnectivity.coralreefs(specialissue).availablefrom SalePF,CowenRK,DanilowiczBS,JonesGP,KritzerJP,LindemanKC,PlanesC,PoluninNVC,RussGR, SadovyYJ,SteneckRS(2005)Criticalsciencegapsimpedeuseofnotakefisheryreserves.Trends SteneckRS,AblanLagmanMC,AlcalaA,ArnoldSN,ButlerM,McCookLJ,ParisCB,RussGR,SalePF (2009)Thinkingandmanagingoutsidethebox:Coalescingconnectivitynetworkstobuildregion TremlEA,HalpinPN,UrbanDL,PratsonLF(2008)Modelingpopulationconnectivitybyocean currents,agraphtheoreticapproachformarineconservation.landscapeecology23:1936. WoodLJ,FishL,LaughrenJ,PaulyD(2008)Assessingprogresstowardsglobalmarineprotection targets:shortfallsininformationandaction.oryx42: Someexistingprojects (1)JointARCCentreofExcellence(JCU)andTheNatureConservancy(Brisbane)projectinKimbeBay (PNG),includingthedesignofanMPAnetworkinrelationtopatternsoflarvalconnectivity(Contact (2)JointARCCentreofExcellence(JCU)andTheNatureConservancy(Brisbane)projectatManus Island(PNG)fundedbyUSbasedNationalFishandWildlifeFoundation.Thisprojectusesbarium markingmethodologytotagthelarvaeatspawningaggregationsites.(contactg.almany 67

70 DRAFTVersion2 (3)WoodsHoleOceanographicInstitute,PackardFoundationfundedprojectondirectestimatesof connectivityinpngusinglarvalmarkingandgeneticanalyses.(contacts.thorrold (4)ARCCentreofExcellence(JCU)andSUAKCREMprojectintheBohalSea,Philippines,including thedesignofanmpanetworkinrelationtopatternsoflarvalconnectivity(contactg.russ (5)WorldWildlifeFullerFellowshipprojectfocusingRegionalMarineConservation:Merging seascapegeneticsandbiophysicalmodelingwithinagraphtheoreticframework.(contactetreml (6)ARCDiscoveryGranttoE.Treml,H.Possingham&C.Riginos:Coralreefconnectivity:anempirical (7)PIRENSFGranttoE.Treml,K.Carpenter,P.Barber,P.Halpin:OriginsofHighMarineBiodiversity intheindomalayphilippinearchipelago:transformingabiodiversityhotspotintoaresearchand 68

71 DRAFTVersion2 13.Incorporatinginformationaboutmarinespeciesofconservation concernandtheirhabitatsintoanetworkofmpasforthecoral Triangleregion Mark Hamann 1, Michelle Heupel 2, Vimoksalehi Lukoschek 2, Helene Marsh 1. (alphabetical order). 1 School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University Townsville, 4811, Australia; 3 Dept. Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA. 5/11/08 contacts:[email protected],[email protected],[email protected], [email protected] Outlineoftheissue Introduction: The conservation status of a species is an indicator of the likelihood of that species continuing to exist either now or in the near future. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species produced by the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the International Union of the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the best-known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system. The IUCN Red List System lists the status of species at a global scale. Species are classified as threatened if they are listed as Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable by the IUCN or a similar system operating at a national scale. However, the information about many species occurring in the Coral Triangle is insufficient for their conservation status to be assessed. Such species are typically classified as Data Deficient. A Data Deficient categorisation does not mean that the species is not threatened, but indicates that more research is needed for its status to be determined. The Global Marine Species Assessment, which began in late 2005, is the first global review of the threat of extinction for every marine vertebrate species, plants and selected invertebrates. The project involves a range of partners in compiling and analyzing all existing data on approximately 20,000 marine species, and will determine the risk of extinction according to the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. The term species of conservation concern is more inclusive than the term threatened species because it includes Data Deficient species. In this briefing, we have concentrated on four groups of species of conservation concern: sharks and rays, sea snakes, marine turtles, and marine mammals. These species have similar characteristics that need to be recognised for management, including their: high social, cultural and economic values vulnerability not only to short-term or acute impacts, but also to cumulative or chronic impacts; high levels of mobility, requiring management efforts to be mounted at local, State, national, and international levels to ensure protection throughout their ranges; slow rate of natural increase so that recovery is slow and increases in numbers take many decades to detect. 69

72 DRAFTVersion2 These characteristics increase the management challenge because it will be difficult to determine whether the Goal of the Coral Triangle Initiative Threatened species status improved is being achieved in a management timeframe. In addition, there is considerable controversy about the effectiveness of using high profile species of conservation concern as a basis for designing marine protected areas. Nonetheless, because of their high social values they can be useful flagship species for the Initiative. In addition, marine protected areas are increasingly used as a tool to conserve marine megafauna especially the groups considered here. Biodiversity significance within the Coral Triangle (CT) of marine species of conservation concern: Sharks and Rays The Coral Triangle supports hundreds of species of sharks and rays and is an important global centre of endemism and a hotspot of shark and ray diversity. The fauna includes several iconic species including manta rays, whale sharks and reef sharks (grey reef, blacktip reef, whitetip reef). The life history strategies of sharks and rays makes them vulnerable to over-exploitation In addition, many of the species that are harvested in artisinal and commercial fisheries are poorly known or studied; some species have yet to be formally described. This lack of data combined with limited fisheries management renders these populations highly susceptible to over-exploitation and possible extinction. Sea Snakes Sea snakes occur exclusively in the Indo-West Pacific region. The Coral Triangle supports the highest sea snake species diversity in the world. Over two-thirds of the world s ~90 sea snake species occur in the region including all four major evolutionary sea snake lineages, each the result of an independent invasion of the marine environment. All sea snake species rely on shallow-water, near-shore habitats including coral reefs, inter-reefal rocky and soft sediment habitats, mangroves and estuaries, making them vulnerable to habitat loss and destruction. Very few studies have been conducted on sea snakes, and most published work has taken place in Australia. These studies indicate two important factors of conservation concern: (1) sea snake abundances has declined significantly at two locations where long-term surveys have been conducted: Ashmore Reef Region in the Timor Sea and the Swain Reefs in the southern Great Barrier Reef; (2) sea snake populations tend to be highly aggregated. Recent genetic studies indicate limited genetic connectivity (dispersal) among populations, suggesting that local populations will not easily recolonize if they become extinct. In February 2009, all sea snake species will be assessed for their threat of extinction for the first time under IUCN Red List Criteria. It is anticipated that some Australian endemic species will be listed as threatened and that many species that occur in the Coral Triangle will be listed as Data Deficient. Marine Turtles The Coral Triangle contains globally significant nesting, foraging, migration and courtship areas for four of the world s seven species of sea turtles: green, hawksbill, leatherback, olive ridley turtles and marginal foraging area for two other species: the flatback and loggerhead turtles. The region also encompasses >90% of nesting habitat for the PNG/Indonesia/Solomons leatherback population. At least five distinct populations of green turtles have 100% of their rookeries in the Coral Triangle, along with several minor rookeries that have not been sampled for genetics. Hawksbill and olive ridley nesting also occurs in the region. Migration paths for sea turtles through the Coral Triangle area are well documented for each of the turtle species nesting in the region. Nesting populations of green turtles in the region have declined by over 80% in some areas. Similarly, nesting hawksbill populations have declined by as much as 90% in areas such as Indonesia and the Solomon Islands. No data exists on foraging turtles in the CT and hence population characteristics such as sex ratios, growth and survivorship are not known. There is still much data lacking on population trends throughout the region for all species. The current global population status according the IUCN Red List follows: 70

73 DRAFTVersion2 Green turtles Endangered Hawksbill turtles Critically Endangered Olive Ridley turtles Vulnerable Leatherback turtles Endangered Marine Mammals The Coral Triangle supports a diverse marine mammal fauna; more than 30 species of marine mammals spend at least parts of their lives in the region. Almost all of these animals are members of the order Cetacea whales and dolphins. The cetacean fauna includes at least six species of great whales: blue, Bryde s, fin, humpback, minke and sperm and more than 20 species of oceanic and coastal dolphins and small whales. The region also supports populations of one member of the order Sirenia (sea cows), the dugong, Dugong dugon. It is likely that some of the coastal species of marine mammals that occur in the Coral Triangle are genetically distinct from populations in other regions. There may also be different genetic stocks on either side of the Timor Trench. e.g. the Irrawaddy dolphin occurs in Indonesian waters of the Coral Triangle while a sister species, the Australian snubfin dolphin occurs in Australian waters and possibly those of Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands; the stocks of dugongs that occur in Australian waters are genetically distinct from those that occur in Indonesian waters. The marine mammals of greatest conservation concern in the Coral Triangle are the coastal species, many of which are listed by the IUCN as Data Deficient. Some other species are listed as threatened e.g. the Malampaya Sound subpopulation of the Irrawaddy dolphin is now officially assessed and listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN; the dugong is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN at a global scale. Threats to marine species of conservation concern in Coral Triangle region: The species groups of conservation concern considered here are subject to similar threats including: Direct harvest Fisheries bycatch Habitat loss/destruction Climate Change Lack of sufficient data regarding their taxonomic identity and population status. In addition, the following are threats specifically for sea kraits (a type of sea snake) and marine turtles because they have to come on land to lay eggs: Direct harvest of adults on nesting beaches (legal/illegal) Direct harvest of eggs Predation of eggs by both native and introduced species WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? Goal 5 of the draft CTI Plan of Action states that targeted threatened species are no longer declining, and by a certain date, their status is no longer threatened. The first step towards achieving this goal should be to complete assessments to ascertain which species are present in the region and require protection. This could involve a compilation of all the most up-to-date information to: Document the distribution and abundance of populations and species in the region; Identify key locations or habitats that require protection; Document the roles of the species, especially the top predators such as sharks and odontocete cetaceans, in the ecosystem and evaluate the ecosystem consequences of the depletion of their stocks on local production; Evaluate the nature of the different threats and their impacts on different species and populations; 71

74 DRAFTVersion2 Develop strong legislative, policy, and regulatory frameworks for EAFM (Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management) Establish a fully functioning region-wide Coral Triangle MPA Network (CTMPAN); Complete and implement an Early Action Climate Adaptation Plan for near-shore marine and coastal environments; Develop conservation plans for the various species of conservation concern; Embed these conservation plans for megafauna into an ecosystem management plan. It should be noted that because of the longevity of marine reptiles, marine mammals and sharks/rays, the ability to assess their status as no longer threatened can take many decades so indicators of recovery may need to be developed to ensure populations are recovering to the desired goal. WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? Several important lessons were learned during the recent process which established an ecosystem wide system of no-take marine protected areas in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. (1) The use of the best available science to inform decisions and identify areas important to species is crucial. (2) A close working relationship between managers working in different jurisdictions is essential to identify priority nesting/breeding/foraging/migratory areas to ensure complementary zoning arrangements are put in place. This approach requires open communication and a trusting relationship between jurisdictions and across regions. (3) Community acceptance of the value of protecting the habitats of threatened species is a key aspect of successful zoning. A prioritized list of sites based on the best available scientific information will help the community to understand that not all locations are equal and hence greater protection is required in certain areas. (4) A balance must be sought between social and economic values held by stakeholders within the zoning region. This balance will be particularly important in the Coral Triangle because of the issues of food security. It will not be feasible to protect the entire distribution of large, wide-ranging species of conservation concern in the Coral Triangle, but identification and protection of multiple sites, each of which consistently supports relatively high densities of the target species may provide safe havens for these populations. It will be most effective to try to protect animals at a point in their life when they are highly vulnerable. Most of the species of conservation concern considered here are most vulnerable to adult mortality. It is also important to provide protection during periods when large numbers of individuals are present and easily targeted by fishers e.g. breeding aggregations. The designation of closure areas should be based on available data from the Coral Triangle region and from studies of the same or similar species in other regions. Protected areas should include multiple habitat types (e.g. inshore mangrove areas, seagrass beds, coral reef, nesting beaches etc) to ensure as many populations/life stages benefit as possible. Regions should be as large as possible to allow for movement of larger individuals, but should be placed in areas where enforcement is possible/probable to ensure their protection. Grech and Marsh (2008) developed a rapid approach to assess the risk to species of conservation concern in a region and evaluate options to ameliorate that risk. This approach relies on expert opinion and is a useful tool in data poor environments such as the Coral Triangle. While MPAs are integral to species conservation, they are but one tool in the toolbox. Management actions should not rely solely upon highly protected areas for conserving species of conservation concern. The range of human-related mortality factors directly and indirectly affecting threatened species must be considered and appropriate actions undertaken to minimize these specific impacts 72

75 DRAFTVersion2 upon depleted populations. For example, as Foale et al. (this volume) have pointed out given the vulnerability of the shark fishery it may be wiser to consider some kinds of moratoria until more reliable fishery monitoring and management regimes can be developed and implemented. Moratoria have already been applied to commodity fisheries in Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Tonga in response to severe over-fishing. Backgroundreading General GlobalMarineSpeciesAssessmenthttp://sci.odu.edu/gmsa/ IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Sharks/rays Cavanagh, R.D., Kyne, P.M., Fowler, S.L., Musick, J.A., and Bennett, M.B Conservation Status of Australian Chondrichthyans: Report of the IUCN Shark Specialist Group Australia and Oceania Regional Red List Workshop. 170 pp. University of Queensland School of Biomedical Sciences, Brisbane, Australia. In PDF at: Last PR and Stevens JD Sharks and Rays of Australia. CSIRO, Australia. Robbins WD, Hisano M, Connolly SR and Choat JH Ongoing collapse of coral-reef shark populations. Current Biology 16: Roberts CM Selecting marine reserve locations optimality versus opportunism. Bulletin of Marine Science 66: Stevens JD, Bonfil R, Dulvy NK and Walker PA The effects of fishing on sharks, rays and chimaeras (chondrichthyans), and the implications for marine ecosystems. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57: White WT, Last PR, Stevens JD, Yearsley GK, Fahmi and Dharmadi Economically Important Sharks and Rays of Indonesia. ACIAR Publishing, Canberra. Sea Snakes Lukoschek, V., Heatwole, H., Grech, A., Burns, G. and Marsh, H. (2007) Distribution of two species of marine snakes, Aipysurus laevis and Emydocephalus annulatus, in the southern Great Barrier Reef: metapopulation dynamics, marine protected areas and conservation. Coral Reefs 26: Lukoschek, V., Waycott, M. & Marsh, H. (2007) Phylogeography of the olive sea snake, Aipysurus laevis (Hydrophiinae) indicates recent Pleistocene range expansion but low contemporary gene flow. Molecular Ecology 16: Guinea ML (2007) Sea snakes of Ashmore Reef, Hibernia Reef and Cartier Island with comments on Scott Reef Dept. Environment, Heritage & Arts: Final Report Survey 2007, 1-20, unpublished. Alcala AC, Maypa JP, Russ GR (2000) Distribution of the turtleheaded sea snake Emydocephalus sp. on coral reefs of the central Philippines. UPV Journal of Natural Sciences 5:

76 DRAFTVersion2 Lukoschek, V. & Livingstone, S. (2008) Extinction risk of sea snakes to be assessed under IUCN Red List Criteria Reef Encounters 37: (In Press) Marine Turtles Abreu-Grobois A and Plotkin P (2006) 'Marine turtle recovery group 2006 red list status assessment, olive ridley turtle, Lepidochelys olivacea.' Report to the IUCN SSC. Dobbs K, Fernandes L, Slegers S, Jago B, Thompson L, Hall J, Day J, Cameron D, Tanzer J, Macdonald F, Limpus C. Incorporating marine turtle habitats into the marine protected area design for the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Pacific Conservation Biology 2007; 13: Hamann, M., Limpus, C., Hughes, G., Mortimer, J. and Pilcher, N. (2006) 'Assessment of the conservation status of the leatherback turtle in the Indian Ocean and South East Asia.' (IOSEA Marine Turtle MoU Secretariat: Bangkok). Limpus, C. (1997) Marine Turtle Populations of South-East Asia and the Western Pacific Region: Distribution and Status. In 'Proc. of Works. on Marine Turtle Res. and Manage. in Indonesia. East Java, Indonesia, Nov. 1996, Wetlands International/PHPA/EA, Bogor'. (Eds Y. Noor, I. Lubis, R. Ounsted, S. Troeng and A. Abdullah). Mortimer, J. and Donnelly, M. (2007) 'Marine turtle recovery group 2007 red list status assessment, hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata.' Report to the IUCN SSC. Seminoff, J (2002) 'Marine turtle recovery group 2002 red list status assessment, green turtle, Chelonia mydas.' Report to the IUCN SSC. Marine Mammals Dobbs K, Fernandes L, Slegers S, Jago B, Thompson L, Hall J, Day J, Cameron D, Tanzer J, Macdonald F, Marsh H, Coles R. Incorporating dugong habitats into the marine protected area design for the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Queensland, Australia. Ocean and Coastal Management 2008; 51: GBRMPA (2000). Whale and dolphin conservation in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park: policy document. (GBRMPA: Townsville.) Available at downloaded on March Grech A, and Marsh H. (2007) Prioritising areas for dugong conservation in a marine protected area using a spatially explicit population model. Applied GIS. 3(2), Grech, A., and Marsh, H. (2008) Rapid assessment of risks to a mobile marine mammal in an ecosystem-scale marine protected area, Conservation Biology 22: Grech, A., Marsh, H. and Coles,R. (2008) Using spatial risk assessment to evaluate and address the problem of marine mammal bycatch. Aquatic Conservation IUCN (2008) IUCN Red List for cetaceans in 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Marsh, H Dugong dugon. In: IUCN IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. < 74

77 DRAFTVersion2 Marsh H. (2008) Marine mammals. In Hutchings. P., Kingsford, M. and Hoegh Guldberg, O. A Field guide to the Great Barrier Reef. CSIRO Publishing. Marsh H, Penrose, H., Eros, C. and Hugues, J. (2002). Dugong : status reports and action plans for countries and territories. United Nations Environment Programme. Early Warning and Assessment Report Series 1, 162pp. Perrin W.F., Reeves R.R., Dolar M.L.L., Jefferson T.A., Marsh H., Wang J.Y., and Estacion, J. (2005). Report of the Second Workshop on the Biology and Conservation of Small Cetaceans and Dugongs of South-East Asia. CMS Technical Series Publication No. 9. UNEP/CMS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany. Someexistingdatasets Sharks/rays The most informed individual to contact regarding shark issues is Dr. William White at CSIRO in Hobart. ([email protected]) There are few or no data sets for most species. Sea Snakes There are currently no existing datasets that will be directly relevant to designing a network of MPAs in the CT region. The 2009 IUCN Red List assessment of sea snakes will produce the most up-to-date and complete dataset on the status of sea snakes in the CTI region (Dr Suzanne Livingstone, [email protected]). Marine Turtles SEAFDEC Marine turtle database for Philippines, Indonesia & Malaysia IOSEA & CMS IMAPS database of nesting sites and migration paths Malaysian state fisheries agencies (Sabah) turtle tagging database Philippines Government s turtle tagging database Indonesia Government department s turtle tagging database (Contact: [email protected]) Marine Mammals Marsh et al. (2002) and Perrin et al.(2005) provide useful if rather dated overviews of the information available for coastal species of marine mammals. For more information contact: [email protected] Someexistingprojects Sea Snakes There are several existing projects that are relevant to sea snakes and MPAs in the CTI. An IUCN workshop in Brisbane 2009 will assess extinction risk of all sea snake species against Red List Criteria. V. Lukoschek, A. Lane and K. Sanders are three of a team of advising sea snake experts. Contacts: [email protected] Marine Turtles Considerable work is being undertaken in the Coral Triangle and globally looking at many of the issues. Where projects are complete and outputs, results and lessons learned are available in references and datasets they have been referenced in the above sections on Background reading or 75

78 DRAFTVersion2 Datasets. Some projects are ongoing and the deliverables are not easily accessible and could be pursued via websites, personal contacts etc.. For example a SEAFDEC funded/coordinated project is investigating the genetic population structure for hawksbill turtles and completion of the green turtle genetic projects (some of which are relevant to the Coral Triangle region). Results should be available in late 2008/early A Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation and Management of Marine Turtles and their habitats in the Indian Ocean and South-East Asia has been signed under the convention on Migratory Species. A dedicated secretariat that has been established to coordinate activities under the MoU can be contacted by ing [email protected]. Marine Mammals There is considerable work being undertaken in the Coral Triangle and globally considering many of the issues relevant to this initiativethere are many ongoing projects and Action Plans are being developed e.g. Action Plan for Dugong Conservation in Indonesia being coordinated by Hans de Iongh ([email protected]). The Ocean Park Conservation Foundation in Hong Kong funds many of these projects and could potentially provide a useful overview. A Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation and Management of Dugongs (Dugong dugon) and their habitats throughout their Range has been signed under the convention on Migratory Species. A dedicated Secretariat has yet to be established. Contact should be made by ing [email protected]. Acknowledgments The assistance of Kristen Weiss and the input from Porfirio M. Alino, Kirstin Dobbs, and Lory Tan is gratefully acknowledged. 76

79 DRAFTVersion2 14.DesigninganetworkofMPAsfortheCoralTriangle PMAlino 1,LFernandes 2,EGame 3,AGreen 4,HPossingham 5,BPressey 6,JMLTan 7 5/11/05 Outlineoftheissue Todevelopafullyfunctional,regionwidenetworkofmarineprotectedareasthatare comprehensive,adequate,ecologicallyrepresentativeanddesignedtoaddressthethreatofclimate change,asdesiredinthedraftctiplanofaction,thefirststepistodevelopconcretedesign principles(sometimecalled operational principles).theseprinciplescouldincludeasetof biophysicaldesignprinciplesandasetofsocioeconomic,culturalandmanagementfeasibility designprinciples.theycanbebestdevelopedagainstaclearunderstandingof: e. TheobjectivesofyourMPAnetwork f. Theprioritiesamongstthoseobjectives g. Theavailableprotectionlevels/zoningoptionsthatcanbeappliedindesigningthenetwork. Anotherpaper(11)hasdiscussedissuesaroundMPAnetworkobjectives,prioritiesandzoning optionsandprovidesoneimportantbasisforthispaper.manyoftheotherpapershavediscussed issuesthatneedtobeaddressedindevelopingoperationalprinciples. WhilemuchliteratureandadviceaboundsingeneraltermsforMPAdesign,thereislessonMPA networksandlessthatisconcreteintermsofhowmuch,howfar,howmany,howbigandwhere(in termsofbiodiversity,habitats,usesetc).furthermoremostoftheseissuesconcernstradeoffs,for exampletheoptimalecologicalsizeofamarinereservesystemmaynotbeconsistentwithother socioeconomicobjectives.butevenfordatapoorsituations,somemoreconcreteguidelinesand casestudieshaverecentlybecomeareavailable(seebackgroundreadingsection). Protectedareasshouldalsobedesignedtoaccommodatefuturenaturalandhumaninduced disturbances.mainresponsestothreatsanddisturbancesinclude: 1 TheMarineScienceInstitute,UniversityofthePhilippines,Diliman,QuezonCity,Philippines. [email protected] 2 MarineResourceManagementCoordinator,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellenceinCoralReef Studies,JamesCookUniversityandtheAustralianInstituteofMarineScience,Townsville,Q.Australia.Ph.+61 (0) ;[email protected] 3 ConservationPlanningSpecialist,TheNatureConservancy,[email protected] 4 SeniorScientist,TropicalMarineConservationProgram,AsiaPacificRegion,TheNatureConservancy,51 EdmondstoneSt,SouthBrisbane,[email protected] 5 Director,AppliedEnvironmentalDecisionAnalysis,UniversityofQueensland,Brisbane,Q.Ph. +61(0) ;[email protected] 6 ProgramLeader,ConservationPlanningforaSustainableFuture,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreof ExcellenceinCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity,Q.+61(0) ,[email protected] 7 ViceChairman,WWFPhilippines,[email protected] 77

80 DRAFTVersion2 largertargetsforprotectionifoccurrencesoftheresourceareunlikelytoberetained outsidetheprotectedarea,thatis,buildinaninsurancefactor(alisonetal.2003;gameet al.2008a,2008b); allelsebeingequal,chooseareaslessexposedtothethreat(s);and prioritise(intime)protectionhighlyirreplaceableand/orhighlythreatenedresourcesor features. Thedesignprincipleswillbemostusefuliftheyarequantitativesothat,whenapplied,theyprovide specificguidelinesfordesigninganmpanetworkandformeasuringsuccessofthenetworkagainst thedesignprinciples. RelevanceoftheissuetothegoalsoftheCTIPlanofAction MPAnetworkobjectivesanddesignprinciplesmustbeexplicit.Bybeingexplicit,theMPAnetwork cansupportachievementacrossthectidraftplanofactiongoalsanddevelopclearermeasuresof achievement. Explicitnesshasseveraladvantages:makesitclearwhatplannersandmanagersareaimingfor; allowspeopletoestimatetherequirementsforachievingobjectives(includingsocioeconomic benefitsandcosts);allowsindividualareastobeidentifiedthatfunctionaspartsofacoherent, integratedregionalsystem;allowsprogresstowardsobjectivestobemeasured.explicitobjectives canbeachievedforminimumcostusingasuiteofmathematicaltools,fromthecomplextoasimple spreadsheet. TheMPAnetworkcanhelp:tosustainfisheries;improvefoodsecurity;buildresilienceagainst climatechange;protectthreatenedspecies;withapplyingaseascapesapproachaswellas contributetobiodiversityprotection.determiningtherelativepriorityofthesetypesofobjectives willinformanympanetworkdesign. RelevanceoftheissuewithregardtoanMPAnetworkintheCT TheMPAnetworkcomponentofthedraftActionPlanalreadyidentifiesthatcertainpercentagesof areasmustbesetaside;whatthosepercentagesareisnotyetdefined.norareotherdesign principlesabouthowbig,howfarapartandsoon. Thereareinformationgapsregardingtheplants,animalsandhabitatsoftheCoralTriangle, thereforeanympanetworkshouldattempttorepresentexamplesofwhatisnotknownaswellas whatisknown.toenableanmpanetworktorepresentbothwhatisandisn tknowninthecoral Trianglethen,itcouldbeagreedthatitisnecessarytoidentifybiologicallydistinctareasthatcanbe usedasthebasisfordesigningthenetwork.muchofthiscanbeachievedusingexistingbiophysical dataasasurrogate(seealsopapernumber5ondealingwithinsufficientdata).thiswouldthen allowforacomprehensivedescriptionofthebiodiversityofanareaintheabsenceofcomplete knowledge.someexampleshavealreadybeendevelopedforthecoraltriangle(forexamplesee Figurebelow). 78

81 DRAFTVersion2 Whatdescriptionsofbiologicallydistinctareashavealreadybeendevelopedandwhichshouldthe MPAnetworkshouldbebuiltupon,whilestillensuringthedesignprinciplesareadequatetoinsure againstimperfectionsinthedescriptionofbiodiversitythatisused.ideallytheprinciplesshouldbe abletocopewithwhatisknow(e.g.regardingconnectivity)andwithuncertaintyaboutthe ecosystemandhowitmayrespondtofuturethreats(e.g.potentialhabitatshiftsinresponseto climatechange).theprinciplesshouldalsoaddressthemultitudeofsocioeconomicvaluesand usesincludingenvironmentalgovernanceregimesandmore.theprinciplesshouldaimtoensure comprehensiveandrepresentativeexamplesoftheentirerangeofbiologicaldiversityinthectare includedwithinthempanetworkdespitedatagaps.anyprinciplesdevelopedwillbeabestguess: thereisnotperfectinformationtoensureaperfectsetofprinciples. Concretedesignprinciples,developedwithconsiderationoftheMPAnetworkobjectives,could answerthefollowingquestions. A. FordesigningthenotakecomponentoftheMPAnetwork: BIOPHYSICALOPERATIONALDESIGNPRINCIPLES i. Whatminimumamount(%)ofprotectionshouldoccurforeachbiologicallydistinct area? ii. iii. Whatlevelofreplicationshouldoccurforeachbiologicallydistinctarea? Wherehabitatinformationisavailableonhabitattypeswithinbiologicallydistinctarea (e.g.coralreefs),howmuchofeachhabitattypeshouldbeprotected? 79

82 DRAFTVersion2 iv. ShouldtheMPAnetworkavoidfragmentationofhabitatasfaraspossible(e.g.include wholereefsunitsinsteadofpartsofreefswherepossible)? v. HowtoincludeexistingnotakeMPAsinconsiderationofaCTwideMPAnetwork? vi. vii. viii. ix. Howtoaddressavailableinformationaboutecologicalprocesses(e.g.spawning, breeding,foragingoraggregationsites) Howtoaddressconnectivity?Thatis,whatshouldbethedistancebetweenMPAsfor themtofunctionasanetwork,andhowshouldtheybearranged? Howtoconsiderbiophysicallyspecialand/oruniqueplaces? Howshouldwedealwiththreatsthatcan,orcannot(climatechange)bestopped? x. Howshouldwedealwithalreadydegradedareas? xi. Whatminimumsizeshouldbeused? SOCIOECONOMIC,CULTURALANDMANAGEMENTFEASIBILITYOPERATIONALDESIGNPRINCIPLES xii. xiii. xiv. xv. Howbesttocomplementhumanusesandvalues? Howtoconsiderallthecostsandbenefits? Howtobestincorporateexistingmanagementandmarinetenurearrangements? Howtooptimisecompliance(sustainabilityofmanagementarrangements)inthe design? B. Foreachtypeofareabased/zoningprotectionofthebroaderMPAnetworkthatisnotnotake thesamequestionsneedtobeansweredasabove.differentprinciplesmayalsoberequired dependingonthemanagementframework(eg.governmentversuscommunitybasedmpas). Throughoutthisprocess,decisionsmayneedtobemaderegardingthescaleatwhichanyMPA networkshouldbedesignedandimplemented itmaybedifferentfordifferentobjectives. ItispossiblethattoachievecollectivelyagreedresourcemanagementgoalsacrosstheCT,onesetof biophysicaloperationalprincipleswillneedtobeappliedacrosstheentirectarea.however,each countryisdifferent(andareaswithincountriesaredifferent)socially,economicallyandculturally. Forthesereasonsitislikelythatthesocioeconomic,culturalandmanagementfeasibility operationalprincipleswillbedifferent,atleast,percountry.itmayevenbenecessarytohave differentsocioeconomic,culturalandmanagementfeasibilityoperationalprincipleswithindifferent areaswithinonecountry.alternatively,workshopparticipantsmayconsideritpossibletodevelop justtwosetoftheseprinciplesforsoutheastasiaandformelanesia. BystartingtodefinesomeoftheseprinciplesattheTownsvilleWorkshop,wewillbesupportingthe CoralTriangleInitiative sdraftactionplangoalformpas. 80

83 DRAFTVersion2 Varioustypesofsoftwareareavailablethatmightbeusefulasdecisionsupporttoolsfortostart implementingthekindsofoperationalprinciplesdiscussedabove.theusefulnessofthesoftware willdependonthedegreetowhichtheprinciplesareexplicitandquantitative,andthedataare availabletoinformtheprinciples. Marinereservedesignsoftwarecanbeexcellenttoolsforprocessinglargeamountsofinformation (Moilanenetal.2008).However,itisimportanttorememberthattheyaredecisionsupporttools andnotthedecisionmakers.finaldecisionsregardingthempadesignwillbemadebylocal mangersandstakeholders. Backgroundreading Airime,S.,J.E.Dugan,K.D.,Lafferty,H.Leslie,D.A.McArdle,R.R.Warner.2003.Applyingecological criteriatomarinereservedesign:acasestudyfromthecaliforniachannelislands.ecological Allison,G.W.,Gaines,S.D.,Lubchenco,J.&Possingham,H.P.(2003)Ensuringpersistenceofmarine reserves:catastrophesrequireadoptinganinsurancefactor.ecologicalapplications,13,s8s24. orhttp:// DobbsK,FernandesL,SlegersS,JagoB,ThompsonL,HallJ,DayJ,CameronD,TanzerJ,Macdonald F,LimpusC.2007.Incorporatingmarineturtlehabitatsintothemarineprotectedareadesignforthe GreatBarrierReefMarinePark.PacificConservationBiology13: (contact: DobbsK,FernandesL,SlegersS,JagoB,ThompsonL,HallJ,DayJ,CameronD,TanzerJ,Macdonald F,MarshH,ColesR.2008.Incorporatingdugonghabitatsintothemarineprotectedareadesignfor thegreatbarrierreefmarinepark,queensland,australia.oceanandcoastalmanagement51:368 FernandesL,DayJ,LewisA,SlegersS,KerriganB,BreenD,etal.Establishingrepresentativenotake areasover1/3ofthegreatbarrierreef:largescaleimplementationofmarineprotectedareatheory withlessonsforglobalapplication.conservationbiology2005: (contact Game,E.T.,E.McDonaldMadden,M.L.PuotinenandH.P.Possingham2008aShouldweprotect theweakorthestrong?risk,resilienceandtheselectionofmarineprotectedareasconservation Game,E.T.,M.E.Watts,S.WooldridgeandH.P.Possingham2008bPlanningforpersistencein marinereserves:aquestionofcatastrophicimportanceecologicalapplications18: (contact GreenA.L.,MousP.J.2007.DelineatingtheCoralTriangle,itsecoregionsandfunctionalseascapes. ReportbasedonanexpertworkshopheldattheTNCCoralTriangleCenter,BaliIndonesia(April 81

84 DRAFTVersion2 May2003),andonexpertconsultationsheldinJune August2005.Version4.0(August2007). ReportfromTheNatureConservancy,CoralTriangleCenter(Bali,Indonesia)andtheGlobalMarine Green,A.L.,Lokani,P.,Atu,W.,Almany,J.(eds)2006SolomonIslandMarineAssessment:Technical reportofsurveyconductedmay13tojune17,2004.tncpacificislandcountriesreportno.1/06. (contact: Green, A., Lokani, P., Sheppard, S., Almany, J., Keu, S., Aitsi, J., Warku Karvon, J., Hamilton, R & Lipsett-Moore, G Scientific Design of a Resilient Network of Marine Protected Areas, Kimbe Bay, West New Britain, Papua New Guinea. TNC Pacific Island Countries Report No. 2/07. (contact: [email protected]) Mora,C.,Andréfouët,S.,Costello,M.J.,Kranenburg,C.,Rollo,A.,Veron,J.,Gaston,K.J.,Myers,R.A Science.312: (contact:[email protected]) McLeod,E.,Salm,R.,Green,A.,Almany,J.(inpress)Recommendationsfordesigningmarine protectedareanetworkstoaddresstheimpactsofclimatechange.finalfrontiers.(contact: [email protected]) Pressey,R.L.,Watts,M.E.,Barrett,T.W.andRidges,M.J.(inpress).TheCPlanconservationplanning system:origins,applications,andpossiblefutures.in:spatialmodelsforconservation.eds.a. Moilanen,H.P.PossinghamandK.A.Wilson.OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford(contact: [email protected]). Spalding,M.D.,Fox,H.E.,Allen,G.R.,Davidson,N.,Ferdana,Z.A.,Finlayson,M.,Halpern,B.S.,Jorge, M.A.,Lombana,A.,Lourie,S.A.,Martin,K.D.,McManus,E.,Molnar,J.,Recchia,C.A.,Robertson,J. 2007Marineecoregionsoftheworld:abioregionalizationofcoastalandshelfareas.Bioscience 57(7): (contact:[email protected]) Veron,J.E.N.,DeVantier,L.M.,Turak,E.,Green,A.L.,Kininmonth,S.,Allen,G.R.,StaffordSmith, M.G.,Mous,P.J.,Peterson,N.A.(Manuscript)Globalcoraldiversity:ablueprintforreef conservation.submittedforpublication.(contact:[email protected]) WCPA/IUCN.2007.Establishingnetworksofmarineprotectedareas:Aguidefordevelopingnational andregionalcapacityforbuildingmpanetworks.nontechnicalsummaryreport. WCPA/IUCN2008.IUCNInformationPaper:towardsachieving2012MPAtargets. ([email protected]) West,J.M.,Salm,R.V.2003Resistanceandresiliencetocoralbleaching:implicationsforcoralreef conservationandmanagement.conservationbiology17(4): (contact:[email protected]) 82

85 DRAFTVersion2 Somedatasets WorldFishCentre( Someexistingprojects/resources ConventiononBiologicalDiversityhttp:// Marxan(conservationplanningsoftware) NeedSuluSulaweisi,BismarkSolomonSeareferenceshere PALNetisaknowledgesharingplatformforpeopleworkingonprotectedareas. PlanningprinciplesforAustralia smpaswithinbioregionsoftheeez: WorldCommissiononProtectedAreas(WCPA)BestPracticeSeries.Inprep:"Designsfornature: regionalconservationplanning,implementationandmanagement (contact: Acknowledgement:ThankstoNancyDahlTacconiforherinput. 83

86 DRAFTVersion2 15.LongtermbiophysicalmonitoringofanetworkofMarine ProtectedAreasintheCoralTriangle HughSweatman 1,JamaluddinJompa 2,CletoNanola 3,GarryRuss 4 4/11/08 Outlineoftheissue TheCTIaimstoimplementafullyfunctioningregionwideCoralTriangleMPANetwork(CTMPAN)by 2020,withthejointobjectivesofreducingpovertyandconservingtheregion sbiodiversity. ThebroadMPAobjectivesunderGoal#3ofthedraftCTIPlanofActionareclear,andotherpartsof thedraftctiplanofactionalsorefertousingmpastoachieveotherobjectives.buthowwillwe knowifthectmpanisachievingthem? ThedraftCTIPlanofActionspecificallyidentifiestheneedfor awelldefinedmonitoringprogramto assessmanagementeffectivenessovertimeofctmpansitesandnetworks (Goal#3Strategy8). WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? Asmentioned,aneffectiveMPANintheCThasbeenidentifiedasonetooltohelpachievemultiple goalswithinthedraftplanofaction.monitoringprogramscanprovidemeasuresofprogressagainst thesemultipleobjectives.resultscanbeusedforinternalreviewofmanagementofprojectsthat implementandmanagethectmpanandtoreporttoagenciesandgovernments,ngosandthe worldwidecommunity.theycanalsobearegularsourceof news topromotecommunity knowledgeandinterest. WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? AregionalprogramtomonitortheeffectivenessoftheCTMPANwillberequired.Therearea numberofcoralreefmonitoringprogramsinseveralnationsofthect6(e.g.coremapinindonesia, PhilreefsinthePhilippines)thatarealreadymonitoringsitesinMPAsandtheseprogramsshould formkeycomponentsofthectmpanmonitoring. 1 AustralianInstituteofMarineScience,PMB3,TownsvilleMC,Qld4810Australia( [email protected]) 2 ExecutiveSecretary,COREMAPII,(CoralReefRehabilitationandManagementProgram,Ministryof MarineAffairsandFisheries,DGofMarine,Coasts,andSmallIslands)Jl.TebetRayaNo.91.Jakarta. 3 UniversityofthePhilippinesMindanao,DavaoCity,Philippines, 4 SchoolofMarineandTropicalBiology,andARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCook University,Townsville,Queensland,4811,Australia. 84

87 DRAFTVersion2 Requirementsofmonitoringprograms ThejointobjectivesofGoal#3meanthatbothbiologicalandsocioeconomicmonitoringwillbe required;thispaperwillfocusonbiologicalmonitoringassociatedwithassessingtheeffectivenessof MPAsinconservationofbiodiversityratherthantheirroleinreducingpoverty. Alothasbeenwrittenaboutthedesignandimplementationofbiologicalmonitoringprogramsand itisclearthattherearesomegeneralprinciples,butnosinglebestoption. Objectivesandmonitoring Allauthorsagreethataclearstatementofthespecificobjectivesisakeytosuccessindesigninga monitoringprogram.forinstance,thebroadobjectiveofthectitoconservetheregion s biodiversityimpliesthatspeciesdiversitywithinthectmpanshouldnotdecreaseoverthelong term(>10years).alternatively,inviewofchangingclimateorincaseofmajornaturaldisturbing factorssuchastropicalstorms,themeasuremightbethatspeciesdiversityshoulddecreaseless thanincomparablesitesoutsidethectmpan.theabundancesofexploitedspecies(onepartofthe Network scontributiontopovertyreduction)shouldalsobehigherwithinthectmpaningeneral, andparticularlywithinnotakezonesofthectmpan,thaninothercomparableareas. Thesearequalitativegoals;theyneedtoberefinedintoquantitativestatementsofhowbigthe differencesinbiodiversityshouldbe,howmuchgreatertheabundancesofexploitedspeciesshould beandafterhowmanyyears?(forinstance,thedraftctiplanofactionstatesthatthectmpanwill befullyfunctionalby2020). Theforthcomingworkshopcouldbeaforumfordiscussiontosetvaluesforthesegoalswhichwill thenfeedintothenextstage. Howsuredoyouwanttobeaboutdetectingwhatlevelofchange? Acriticalaspectofthedesignofamonitoringprogramisthatitmustbeabletodetectthekindsof changesthatarerelevanttotheobjectivesofthedraftctiplanofactionthisisthesubjectof statisticalpower.monitoringprogramsareusuallylabourintensiveandthereforeexpensive;ifa programcannotdetectrelevantchangesthenthoseresourcesarewasted.theabilityofaprogram todetectchangeswilldependonthesizeofthechangesthatareofinterestandhowvariablethe observationsareandtheamountofsampling(seefieldetal2007andlegg&nagy2006for commentsonstrategiestoincreasestatisticalpowerofmonitoringprograms). Somecriticalinformation,particularlyaboutthevariabilityofdata,canonlybeestimated approximately(basedoninformationfromexistingprogramsinthectandelsewhere)before monitoringstarts,sotheinitialdesignforaprogramisusuallyabestguess.thismakesit particularlyimportantthattheresultsofearlysurveysareprocessedrapidlysothattheycanprovide betterestimatesofvariabilitythatcanbeincorporatedtoimprovethedesignandensurethatthe programcandetectrelevantchangesinthetimeframeoftheproject.importantly,thiscanhelpto securepoliticalsupport,givesreassurancetodonororganizationsandrepresentsalogicalbasisfor additionalfundingrequests. 85

88 DRAFTVersion2 Datastorage,analysisandmanagement Thispointstoageneralityaboutmonitoringprograms:whiledatacollectionusuallyreceivesmuch greaterattentionandthemajorityofresources,theeffectivemanagementofthelargequantitiesof monitoringdataandparticularly,thepromptandcomprehensiveanalysisandreportingofresults areatleastasimportantasthedatacollectionandfundingfortheseactivitiesmustbeconsidered accordingly.thebiologistswhoorganisethefieldprogramandcollectthedataneedtoform effectivepartnershipswithadvancedbiometricianswhocanfullyanalysethecomplexdatasetsand adviseonsurveydesign.thismayinvolveeitheremployingbiometriciansdirectlywithinthe program(potentiallyatthecoraltrianglecenterformarineprotectedareasproposedinthedraft CTIPlanofAction)orelsethroughcollaborationwithdepartmentsofstatisticsatuniversitiesinthe regionorinternationally.thismaybeafieldofexpertisewherecapacitywithinthectneedstobe increased(goal#3,strategy#4). Surveymethods Alothasbeenwrittenonsurveymethodsforcoralreefs(notablyEnglishetal.1997).Indicators suchaslivecoralcoverarerelativelyeasytomeasure,butmaygivelessinformationaboutthe likelihoodthatacoralcommunitywillpersistthanindicatorsthataremoreconcernedwith populationprocesses,suchasgrowth,reproductionandrecruitment.theseareallmuchmore difficultandtimeconsumingtomeasurereliably.environmentalstressestendtobeassociatedwith lessdiversecommunitiesbecausespeciesthataremoresusceptibletothestressoraremorelikely tobeeliminatedovertime,orelsedonotrecoverafterdisturbancesbecauserecruitsareunableto establishsuccessfully.however,measuringchangesspeciesdiversitydependsonanabilityto distinguishamongspecies;reliableidentificationsrequireextensivetrainingandfrequent comparisonsbetweenobserverstomaintainconsistency. Thesurveymethodsthatarechosenshouldbeclearlyandcomprehensivelydocumentedin StandardOperatingProceduresthatareregularlyreviewedandupdated.Frequenttrainingand observercalibrationsessionsareimportanttoensurethatsurveymethodsareconsistentbetween sitesandovertime,sothechangesthatarerecordedreflectchangesintheenvironmentratherthan differencesamongobservers. Somebackgroundreading indicated. EnglishS,WilkinsonC,BakerV(eds)(1997)SurveyManualforTropicalMarineResources2nd Edition.AIMS,Townsville[especiallyChapter7] FieldSA,O'ConnorPJ,TyreAJ,PossinghamHP(2007)Makingmonitoringmeaningful.Austral Ecology32: LeggCJ,NagyL(2006)Whymostconservationmonitoringis,butneednotbe,awasteoftime. JournalofEnvironmentalManagement78:

89 DRAFTVersion2 M.P.LincolnSmith,K.A.Pitt,J.D.Bell,andB.D.Mapstone2006Usingimpactassessmentmethodsto determinetheeffectsofamarinereserveonabundancesandsizesofvaluabletropical invertebrates.can.j.fish.aquat.sci.63:1251 Pomeroy,ParksandWatson2004.HowisYourMPADoing?AGuidebookofNaturalandSocial IndicatorsforEvaluatingMarineProtectedAreaManagementEffectiveness.Gland,Switzerland Wilkinson,C.,Green,A.,Almany,J.Dionne,S.2003.MonitoringCoralReefProtectedAreas.A practicalguideonhowmonitoringcansupporteffectivemanagementinmpas.aims, YoccozNG,NicholsJD,BoulinierT(2001)Monitoringofbiologicaldiversityinspaceandtime.Trends inecology&evolution16: Someexistingprojects COREMAPwww.coremap.or.id PhilippinesMarineInformationandDataAcessSystemhttp:// PhilReefs construction) GEF scoralreeftargetedresearchandcapacitybuildingformanagementprojectissettingup monitoringsitesinthephilippines: &menuPK=228424&Projectid=P ReefCheckhttp:// Acknowledgments The input from Kirstin Dobbs and Porfirio Aliño is gratefully acknowledged. 87

90 DRAFTVersion2 16.Humanadaptationtoclimatechange AlinoPM 1,Cinner,J 2,Brown,K 3 4/11/08 OverviewoftheIssue Climatechangeisexpectedtoincreasethefrequencyandintensityofextremeclimaticevents,such ashighintensitycyclonesandincreasedseasurfacetemperatures(whichcancausecoralstobleach anddie),inadditiontomoregradualchangessuchassealevelrise.theseextremeeventscanhave profoundimpactsonecosystemssuchascoralreefsandthecommunitiesthatdependonthem.for example,estimatesofeconomiclossesfromrecentcoralbleachingeventshavebeenstaggering, rangingfromtensofmillionsofdollarsforasinglecountry($us627millioninthephilippines)toas muchasus$8billionofdollarsforthewiderindianocean.theseimpactspotentiallyhaveprofound impactsforpeoplewhoearnalivelihood,andnationswhichgainincome,fromcoastalandmarine resources.thisbriefingpaperhighlightskeycomponentsofsocialresiliencetheoryanddiscusses howthesecanbeintegratedintoaregionalactionplan(e.g.ctidraftactionplan)toprioritizeearly climateadaptations. Theimpactsofclimatechangearelikelytovaryfromplacetoplace,andfordifferentpeoplewithin society.theseimpactsarelargelydeterminedbydifferinglevelsofvulnerability,whichisacritical componentofsocialresilience.differencesinvulnerabilitycanbeassessedatdifferentscales, includingnational,regional,communityandevenhouseholdlevels. Vulnerabilityinthiscontextisthelevelofsusceptibilitytoharmfromeventssuchascoralbleaching, cyclones,andsealevelrise.vulnerabilityisoftenperceivedashavingdistinctcomponents,which includeexposure,sensitivityandadaptivecapacity(figure1). Figure1.Vulnerabilityiscomprisedofexposureand sensitivity(whichcapturethepotentialimpacts)and adaptivecapacity(whichcapturespeoples abilityto copewithoradapttochange). Exposureisthedegreetowhichasystemisstressed.Thiscanbecharacterizedbythemagnitude, frequency,durationandspatialextentofaclimaticeventsuchascoralbleachingoracyclone. Exposuremayvarybasedonfactorssuchasoceanographicconditions,prevailingwinds,and/or latitude,whichmaycausesomeareastohaveahigherlikelihoodofbeingimpactedbyeventssuch ascyclonesorcoralbleaching.therearelimitedadaptationssocietiescanundertaketominimize exposure.theseadaptationsprimarilyrelyonengineeringsolutions(e.g.levees,seawalls)orcoastal 1 TheMarineScienceInstitute,UniversityofthePhilippines,Diliman,QuezonCity,Philippines, [email protected] 2 ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity,Townsville,QLD,4811,Australia. [email protected] TyndallCentreforClimateChangeResearch,UniversityofEastAnglia,Norwich,UK 88

91 DRAFTVersion2 planning(e.g.,buildingawayfromdangerzones).therearevarioussitesbeingestablishedwhich considersthesocialconcernsundertheloicz(landoceaninteractioninthecoastalzone]program. Sensitivityisthedegreetowhichthestressactuallymodifiesoraffectsasystem.Sensitivitymaybe affectedbythingssuchaslocalleveldependenceonmarineresources.lowdependenceonmarine resourcesmaymeanthatclimaticeventssuchascoralbleachinghavealesserimpactoncoastal communities.societies,governments,anddonorscandevelopanumberofadaptationstominimize sensitivitytoclimaticevents.thesemightincludeearlywarningsystemsforcyclones,alternative livelihoodprogramstoreducedependenceonmarineresources,andminimizingorprohibitingthe useofgeartypesthatspecificallytargetfishesthataremorelikelytobeimpactedbyclimate change. Adaptivecapacityreferstotheconditionsthatenablepeopletoadapttoorcopewithchange.A numberofconditionscaninfluenceadaptivecapacity,includingamongothers:1)peoples abilityto switchtononreefrelatedoccupations,2)socialcapital(thebondswithinacommunity),3)levelof wealth,4)accesstotechnology,5)accesstoinfrastructure,6)capacitytoanticipatechange,and developstrategiestorespond,and7)recognitionofcausalagentsimpactingecosystems(figure2). Peoplewithlowadaptivecapacitymaynotbeabletoadapttochangesintheflowofecosystem goodsandservicesbroughtaboutbyclimatechange,managementstrategieswhichchangeaccess, oropportunitiescreatedbychange. Buildingadaptivecapacitywillbeakeyfeatureinpreparingforclimatechangeinmanyareas throughoutthecoraltriangle.adaptivecapacitycanbeassessedatnational,subnational, communityandhouseholdscales.thereisnoonesetofagreeduponindicators,andmeasuressuch asgrossdomesticproduct(gdp)percapitaorthehumandevelopmentindex(hdi)areoftenused asa roughandready indicatorofadaptivecapacity,althoughcompositeindicatorssuchasfigure 2maybemoreappropriate. Adaptivecapacityiscurrentlyamajorfocusofresearchseekingtoidentifyadaptationstrategiesand buildbothsocialandecologicalresiliencetoclimatechange. Weighted Indicator Scores and total adaptive capacity NW Madagascar Ambodilaitry Area Kuruwitu Mtangata Tanjona Mayungu Vipingo Bamburi Buyu Tampolo Pointe des Lascars Dar Es Salaam St Martin Mazizini Nyamanzi Stone Town Blue Bay Mijikenda Shela Grand Anse Anse Volbert Pointe aux Piments Le Morne Roche Caiman Belombre Infrastructure Gear Diversity Soc.Capital Occ. Multiplicity Mat. Style Life Occ.Mobility ResponseToDecline Human agency MD MD KY TZ MD KY KY KY TZ MD MS TZ MS TZ TZ TZ MS KY KY SZ SZ MS MS SZ SZ Figure2isanexampleofanadaptivecapacityindexdevelopedforadaptationtochangesincoralreefsystemsfor25 communitiesfromfivecountriesinthewesternindianocean(md=madagascar,tz=tanzania,ky=kenya,ms=mauritius, SZ=Seychelles).Thesescoresweredevelopedbasedondetailedsocioeconomicsurveysdesignedtoaddressadaptationto climatechange,andthefigureshowsthecontributionofeachindicatortoasite stotaladaptivecapacityscore.thisisan exampleofastudythathelpstodefinepriorityearlyclimateadaptationsaspartofaregionwideclimateadaptationplan fornearshoremarineandcoastalenvironments(frommcclanahanetal.2008). 89

92 DRAFTVersion2 WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? OnewaytointegratehumanadaptationintoMPAnetworkdesign,planningandmanagementisto plotaspectsofvulnerabilityagainstadaptivecapacity.thisrevealsfourdomainsorquadrantswhere differingconservationandpolicymayberequired:protectandpreserve;capacitybuilding;reliefand reorganization;andadaptandtransform(figure3). Protectedareasarelikelytobemosteffectiveandusefulinsiteswithhighsocialadaptivecapacity becauselocalcommunitiescanreadilyadapttochangesinaccessandtakeadvantageofnew opportunities,suchasincreasedtourism.butdifferentiationinsocialorecologicalvulnerabilitymay helpinformthetypeofmpaandmanagementrequiredinanarea. Regionswithhighvulnerabilityarelikelytofeeltheimpactsofclimatechangemost.Protectedareas mayalsobeimportantstrategytoconservemarineresourceintheseregions,butwillrequirea differentmanagementapproach.forexample,theyshouldnotdependontourismrevenuefor funding,sincetouristsareunlikelytovisittheseareasaftermajorbleachingeventsandfundingmay fluctuateconsiderably. Figure3.(A)Theoreticalmodelindicatinggradientsofsocialadaptivecapacityagainstvulnerabilitytoproduce fourquadrantsofdifferingconservationpriorities.(b)acasestudyplotting28communitiesfromfivewestern IndianOceancountries. Communitieswithlowadaptivecapacityarepoorlyequippedtocopewithevenshortterm restrictionsonresourceuseimposedbynotakeareas.thesecommunitiesmaybeunwillingor unabletocomplywithnotakemeasures.intheseareas,othertypesofmanagementthathave lowersocialcostsmightbemoreappropriate(figure3a).theseregionsfirstrequirebuildingsocial resiliencethroughinvestmentsinpovertyalleviation,infrastructure,socialcapital,andalternative incomes.oncelocalcapacityisenhanced,theseregionsaremorelikelytobeabletotakeadvantage oftheopportunitiesarisingfromconservationandsuccessfullyimplementmanagementstrategies. Priortothesedevelopments,managementoptionswithminimalsocialcostsarerequiredthese 90

93 DRAFTVersion2 mightincludemanagingfishinggearsthatspecificallytargetreeffishesthatareconsideredkeyto recoveryafterableachingevent(figure4).regionswithhighvulnerabilityandlowadaptivecapacity donotcurrentlyhavetheresourcesorabilitytoadapttoclimatechange.theseregionsarea primaryconcernforhumandevelopmentandrequiregovernmentordonorassistancetoameliorate disasterrisk,strengthensocialsafetynets,diversifysourcesoflivelihoods,andreducedependence onlocalnaturalresources. 100 Piscivore Percent of catch Pisc-Macro-Invert Invert-Macro Invert-Micro Planktivore Detritivore Key Species Scrapevator Grazer-Macro Figure4.ShowscatchdatafromthePNGartisanalfishery. Fishspeciesarebrokendownbyfunctionalgroup. Groupsinredrepresentgroupsorspeciesthathave feedinghabits(e.g.herbivores)thatmayplayakeyrolein therecoveryofcoralreefs.banninggearssuchasspear gunsmayhelptherecoveryofcoralreefsaftera bleachingevent,buthaveasmallersocioeconomicimpact onfishingcommunitiesthanafisheriesclosure. 0 Hand Line Gill Net Spear Gun Grazer WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? ForeachCTcountry,therewillbevaryinglevelsofexposure,sensitivity,andadaptivecapacity. Thesewillinfluencethetypesofconservationstrategiesthataremostappropriateandtheregion wideearlyactionplanforadaptation.itwillbeimportanttoidentifywhereresilienceisespecially lackingthroughtheproposedobjective1,strategy1(mapping)ofthectidraftplanofaction.itwill alsobeimportanttoidentifylocalsourcesofresilienceandbuilduponthose.buildingadaptive capacitywillrequireregionwidecoordinationofgovernments,informationproviders,anddonors. Backgroundreading ForinformationabouttheseresourcescontactDrJoshCinner([email protected]) Adger,W.N.(2006)VulnerabilityGlobalEnvironmentalChange16: Adger,W.N.,T.Hughes,C.Folke,S.R.Carpenter,andJ.Rockström.(2005).Socialecological resiliencetocoastaldisasters.science309: FAO,2007Buildingadaptivecapacitytoclimatechange.Policiestosustainlivelihoodsandfisheries. NewdirectionsinfisheriesPolicyBriefNo.08Rome. McClanahanT.R,J.Cinner,JMaina,N.A.J.Graham,T.M.Daw,S.M.Stead,A.Wamukota,K.Brown, M.Ateweberhan,V.Venus,&N.V.C.Polunin.(2008)Conservationactioninachangingclimate. ConservationLetters:1:5359. [email protected] 91

94 DRAFTVersion2 TompkinsE.L,NicholsonColeS,HurlstonL,BoydE.,HodgeGB,ClarkeJ,GrayG,TrotzN,VarlackL. (2005).Survivingclimatechangeinsmallislands:Aguidebook.Norwich:TyndallCentreforClimate ChangeResearch,SchoolofEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofEastAnglia. USIndianOceanTsunamiWarningSystemProgram,2007Howresilientisyourcoastalcommunity? Aguideforevaluatingcoastalcommunityresiliencetotsunamiandotherhazards.USAID, WashingtonDCwww.crc.uri.edu/download/CCRGuide_lowres.pdf Someexistingprojects AsianDisastersNetworkResilienceCommunitieswork 92

95 DRAFTVersion2 17. Atleastdonoharm :CoralTriangleInitiativecontributingto LivelihoodsandPovertyReduction LeaM.Scherl 1 4/11/08 OutlineoftheIssue Povertyandbiodiversityarecriticalissuesofourtime.Itisestimatedthatbillionsofpeopleare livingonlessthanadollarworldwideandatthesametimetherateofspeciesextinctionis timesthatabovenormal.thissituationwillbesimilarwithinthect6countries.povertyand biodiversityarealsointerlinkedinacomplexnexusofsometimescontradictoryissuesthatplayout mostoftenatthelocallevel.thisisbecause,itisinmanyplaceswherepovertyhaspersistedandis widespreadthatthereareremainingareaswithecosystemsthatareveryrichinbiodiversitya situationalsoencounteredwithinthect6countries.conservationeffortscouldcontributeto exacerbatingpovertyofcommunitiesthataredependantmaterially,culturallyorspirituallyonthose resources,iftheirwellbeingisnotproperlytakenintoaccount. Conservationinitiativescangeneratesignificanteconomic,environmentalandsocialbenefits.These benefitsarerealizedatlocal,nationalandgloballevels,buttheoftendisproportionatenatureofthe distributionofsuchbenefitsneedstobeanalysedcarefully.moreover,thereisaneedtostressthat giventhefactthatmanylocalcommunitieslivinginandaroundconservationareashavelimited developmentopportunities,thoseareasofferasomewhatstilluntappedopportunitytocontribute topovertyreductionwhilecontinuingwiththeirvitalfunctionofmaintaininghealthyecosystems. Increasingthebenefitsofconservationareasandreducingtheircoststolocalpeoplecanhelp mobilizepublicsupport,andreduceconflictsandtheenforcementcostsformanagement, particularlyinareasofwidespreadpoverty. TheBaliPlanofActionTowardsHealthyOceansandCoastsfortheSustainableGrowthand ProsperityoftheAsiaPacificCommunity 2 callfor managinglivingresourcessustainably. Inthe globalcontext,thereareseveralspecificrecommendationsadoptedatthelastworldparkscongress relatedtotheroleofprotectedareasincontributingtopovertyreduction 3 :Protectedareasshould strivetocontributetopovertyreductionatthelocallevel(eitherdirectlyorindirectly)andatthevery minimumnotcreate,contributeto,orexacerbatepoverty;knowledgeaboutthelinkagebetween protectedareasandpovertyneedstobeimproved;mechanismsforthepoortoshareactivelyin decisionmakingrelatedtoprotectedareasshouldbestrengthened.theprogramofworkon ProtectedAreasadoptedbytheConventionofBiologicalDiversity 4 insideitspreamble: Callthe attentionofthepartiesandthedevelopmentagenciestointegrateintheirdevelopmentstrategies (forinstance:strategyforassistancetothecountries,strategyforpovertyreductionandnational anddevelopmentstrategies)objectivesrelatedtoprotectedareasandtoreflectthecontributionof protectedareasforsustainabledevelopment,asameanstoachievethemillenniumdevelopment 1 SeniorSocialScientist,AsiaPacificRegion,TheNatureConservancy:[email protected][Viewsexpressedinthis paperaretheauthor s];cochairprotectedareas,equityandlivelihoodstaskforceoftheworldcommission onprotectedareasandcommissiononenvironment,economicsandsocialpolicy(iucn);adjunctassociate Professor,SchoolofEarthandEnvironmentalSciences,JamesCookUniversityofNorthQueensland. 2 APEC IUCN2003WorldParksCongressrecommendation#29onPovertyandPAs 4 AtCBDCOP7in2004inKualaLampur 93

96 DRAFTVersion2 Goals,aninparticularObjective7 (ie;environmentalsustainability).insidethegeneralpurposeit readsthatthecbdshould: contributetoattaintheobjectivesoftheconventionofreducing significantlytheactuallossofbiodiversityataglobal,regional,nationalandsubnationallevelsand contributetopovertyreductionandthesearchforsustainabledevelopment.atthemostrecent CBDCOP9meeting 1 thedecisionrelatedto ProcessfortheRevisionoftheStrategicPlan 2 recognizesthattherevisedandupdatedstrategicplanoftheconvention(tobeapprovedin2010) should: Highlighttheimportanceofbiodiversityforpovertyreductionandtheachievementofthe MilleniumDevelopmentGoals,takingintoaccountthatconservationandsustainableuseof biodiversityshouldcontributetopovertyreductionatthelocallevelandnotharmthelivelihoodsof thepoor The World Bank definition of poverty recognizes that this is a multi-dimensional concept. Defining poverty by income alone is widely recognized as too narrow an approach. To reduce poverty, greater income is important, but poverty reduction can also come from increasing opportunities for the poor through, for example, education and new livelihoods. It can come from empowering the poor in areas such as decision-making on public services and resource allocation. It can come from enhancing the security of poor people by reducing their risk from food shortages, natural disasters, health crises, and other catastrophic events. In a study to address the linkages between Marine Protected Areas and Poverty Reduction in the Asia-Pacific region the World Bank Definition of Poverty was adapted to the context of Marine Protected Areas 3 and includes the dimensions and indicators showed in the table below. Table 1: Dimensions of Poverty and indicators relevant to addressing the links between Marine Protected Areas and Poverty Reduction Opportunities Empowerment Security Income Governancemechanisms Health Housing Communityparticipation Socialcohesion Luxurygoods Benefitsto Culturaltraditions Fishcatch Accessandrights Education Alternativelivelihoods A very important consideration in addressing the contribution of marine resources management to livelihoods and poverty reduction is related to governance systems that are put in place for managing these resources. Governance is about power, relationships, responsibility and accountability. It is about processes for decision-making, who decides, who has influence and how decision-makers are held accountable. It is also about mechanisms that are created to foster and harbour decision-making processes. IUCN in its new version of the Guidelines for Protected Areas Categories 4 identify the 1 HeldinBonn,May COP9DecisionIX/9 3 Leisher,C.,vanBeuring,P.andScherl,L.M.2007.Nature sinvestmentbank:howmarineprotectedareas ContributetoPovertyReduction.TheNatureConservancy. 4 ThoseGuidelineswererecentlylaunchedattheWorldConservationCongress,Barcelona,October

97 DRAFTVersion2 following four broad types of governance of protected areas, any of which can be associated with any management objective of the different I-VI IUCN Protected Areas categories. Table2:Types 1 ofgovernanceofprotectedareas(iucnguidelines) A.Governancebygovernment B.Sharedgovernance C.Privategovernance D.Governancebyindigenouspeoplesandlocalcommunities A diversity of governance systems in each country should at least be considered, if appropriate, and this will differ across the CT6 country and even within a country or a system. Insum,nolossofbiodiversityshouldatleastimplynolossoflivelihoodopportunities conservation shouldnotbeundertakenattheexpenseofthepoor,theprincipleofatleast donoharm should beapplied ie;whereconservationactivitiesaffectpeopleatthelocallevel,thoseactivitiesshould strivetocontributetopovertyreductionand,attheveryminimum,donoharm. It is important to recognize that in the CT6 countries the governments (different levels), NGOs, civil society groups and communities are already addressing a number of dimensions of the contribution of marine resource conservation to livelihoods and poverty reduction. There are, no doubt, already many governance systems in place in each country that take into account the participation of a myriad of stakeholders and address issues of transparency, accountability and equity, and many projects and activities which are investigating and incorporating ways to reduce poverty, including through the provision of alternative livelihoods options. A thorough understanding of all of these activities through a more systematic compilation and analysis of information would be critical to move forward with the Coral Triangle Initiative. As a step towards this process the following guiding questions to participants of the workshop are provided in the hope to stimulate discussion on ways forward and gain more information on what is already taking place. WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsoftheCTIPlanofActionanddeliveringtangible benefitstolocalandindigenouscommunities? ForeachCTcountry,foreachCTIdraftplanofActiongoal,objectiveandstrategythereisaneedto understandthelinksbetweenestablishmentandmanagementofconservationareasandthe potentialcostsandbenefitsthattheycangenerate;withimplicationsforconservaionareasatleast causingnoharmand/orendeavoringtocontributetopovertyreduction 2.Considerationsofthose dimensionswilldifferacrossthect6countriesandaccordingtothelevelofplanningand implementation whetherataregional,country,systemorsitelevel.someorallofthefollowing questionscouldbeaddressedduringtheseprocesses,whichwouldlendtodifferenttypesof activitiesthataretailoredtospecificcontextsandlevelsofintervention. 1 Notethatgovernancetypesdescribethedifferenttypesofmanagementauthorityandresponsibilitythatcan existforprotectedareasbutdonotnecessarilyrelatetoownership. 2 Thosewillneedtotakeintoaccountwhatisalreadyunderwayineachcountryandbuildfromthese experiences. 95

98 DRAFTVersion2 Howcanunderstandingofthelinkagesbetweenconservation(itsfunctionsandgovernance systems)andpoverty(reductionorexacerbation)bepromotedineachcticountry? Whatisneededtoascertainatthesiteorecoregionallevelhowmarineconservationcanat theveryminimumdonoharmtorelevantstakeholdersandparticularlylocalcommunities? Whatisneededtoascertainatthesiteorecoregionallevelhowmarineconservationcan contributetopovertyreductionwherethisisconsiderednecessaryforthesustainabilityof thenaturalresource,biodiversityandlivelihoods? Howcanabalancedassessmentofbothbenefitsandcostsbeundertakenforaproper understandingoftheactualbenefits(ie.benefitsaftercostsaretakenintoaccount)ina particularareaorsystem? Whatarethekeypovertyreductionbenefitsofamarineconservationsiteorsystemand whataretheirfactorsforsuccessindoingsointhatparticularlocationorsystem? Whatgovernancemechanismscanweputinplacethatareaccountable,transparentand takesintoaccounttheinterestsofallstakeholders(includingthemostvulnerablegroups)in anequitablemanner? Whatmechanismscanweputinplaceforequitablesharingofcostsandbenefitsacrossa rangeofstakeholders? Whatmechanisms,ifappropriate,canbeputinplaceforpaymentofenvironmentalservices andhowcanitbeassuredthatthosewillbeequitablydistributed? Howcantheeffortsofmanagingaparticularconservationsiteorecoregioncontributeto sustainabledevelopmentatalocal,nationalandregionallevel? Howcantheecological,economic,socialandculturaldimensionsofconservationbe addressedsimultaneouslyintheongoingmanagementofthemarineresourcestoensurea sustainedimpactonpovertyreduction andalsoacknowledgingthatpovertyisamulti dimensionalconcept(thethreepillarsofsustainabledevelopment)? UsefulReferencesandresources: AdamsW.MandJ.Hutton.2007.People,parksandpoverty:politicalecologyandbiodiversity conservation.conservationandsociety5(2): Agrawal,AandRedford,K(2006)Poverty,DevelopmentandBiodiversityConservation:Shootingin thedark.wcsworkingpaperno26.wildlifeconservationsociety,newyork Duraiappah, Anantha K. (2004). Exploring the Links. Human well being, poverty and ecosystem services. International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) and United Nations EnvironmentalProgram(UNEP). GEF(2006).TheRoleofLocalBenefitsinGlobalEnvironmentalPrograms,GlobalEnvironment FacilityEvaluationOffice,WashingtonDC.) Indigenousandlocalcommunitiesandprotectedareas.Towardsequityandenhancedconservation 96

99 DRAFTVersion2 Fisher,RJ;Maginnis,S;Jackson,W;Barrow,E;andJeanrenaud,S(2005)PovertyandConservation: Landscapes,PeopleandPower.IUCNGland. Governanceaskeyforeffectiveandequitableprotectedareasystems. 08_1.pdf Leisher,C.,vanBeuring,P.andScherl,L.M.(2007).Nature sinvestmentbank:howmarine ProtectedAreasContributetoPovertyReduction.TheNatureConservancy. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). Ecosystems and Human Wellbeing: Synthesis. Island Press,Washington,DC. NaughtonTreves,L;BuckHolland,M;Brandon,K(2005).TheRoleofProtectedAreasinConserving BiodiversityandSustainingLocalLivelihoods.AnnualReviewofEnvironmentandResources,30: Poverty & Environment Initiative. (2005). Attacking Poverty While Improving the Environment: TowardsWinWinPolicyOptions.UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram(UNDP)andtheEuropean Commission(EC). Poverty,Wealth&Conservationhttp://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/pm4_1.pdf. Scherl,L.M.Wilson,A.,Wild,R.,Blockhus,J.,Franks,P.,McNeely,J.,andMcShane,T.(2004,)Can ProtectedAreasContributetoPovertyReduction?OpportunitiesandLimitations.IUCN,Cambridge andgland(translatedportugueseversion,2006). Scherl,LM.(2005)ProtectedAreasandLocalandIndigenousCommunities.InMcNeely,J.A.(ed.). Friendsforlife:NewPartnershipsinSupportofProtectedAreas,pp IUCN,Gland, Switzerland SharingPower Learningbydoingincomanagementofnaturalresourcesthroughouttheworld Usefulwebsites: MarineProtectedAreasandPovertyReductionStudyinAsiaPacific(TheNatureConservancy) LocallyManagedMarineAreaNetworkinthePacificandSEAsia( PovertyandConservationLearningGroupwww.povertyandconservation.info BioSocisthemonthlybulletinofthePovertyandConservationLearninggroupPCLG,highlightingkeynew researchonbiodiversityandsociety,povertyandconservation.toreceiveit, 97

100 DRAFTVersion2 18.OUTBREAKSOFCROWNOFTHORNSSEASTARSADDTO CORALDEPLETIONINTHECORALTRIANGLE. MorganS.Pratchett 1,AndrewH.Baird 1,HughP.A.Sweatman 2,IanMiller 2,StuartCampbell 3,and FraserA.Hartley 3 5/11/08 Outlineoftheissue The coral-feeding crown-of-thorns seastar (Acanthaster planci) is a natural inhabitant on coral reefs throughout the Indian and Pacific Oceans and mostly occurs at very low densities (typically <1 seastar per hectare). However, this species periodically experiences massive population explosions referred to as outbreaks. Each individual seastar is capable of consuming up to 40cm 2 of live coral per day and the combined feeding activities of hundreds and thousands of these starfish on a single reef causes rapid and extensive devastation of coral reef habitats. Outbreaks of crown-of-thorns seastars (up to 20,000 seastars per hectare) have been occurring throughout the Indian and Pacific Oceans since at least the 1960 s, and represent the principal cause of long-term coral loss at many locations in the Pacific, including Australia s Great Barrier Reef (GBR), southern Japan, Palau, Guam and Fiji. Outbreaks of crown-of-thorns seastars have also been reported from several locations throughout the Coral Triangle over the last 2 decades, but have never appeared to cause the levels of devastation recorded in other nearby regions (especially, the GBR and southern Japan). However, there has been a recent spate of outbreaks in both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea (Figure 1), which have caused extensive coral loss. Most recently (in 2008) there was a major infestation of A. planci reported near Halmahera, Indonesia, which reduced coral cover to <5% on approximately 20% of reefs. In many areas, outbreaks are occurring for the first time in recorded history. 1 ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity,TownsvilleQLD4811,Australia. [email protected],Ph AustralianInstituteofMarineScience,PMB3,TownsvilleMC,Queensland4810,Australia. 3 TheWildlifeConservationSociety,MarinePrograms,Bronx,NewYork10460,USA 98

101 DRAFTVersion2 Figure 1. Outbreak of Acanthaster planci on the Great Barrier Reef, where outbreaks appear to occur more frequently in areas open to fishing The Coral Triangle represents a diversity hotspot for coral reef species and many of the species within this region have life history traits, such as limited ranges or habitat specialization, which make them vulnerable to extinction. Coral loss caused by outbreaks of A. planci may pose a significant threat to coral reef biodiversity within the Coral Triangle, but few countries have monitoring programs to quantify the abundance of these crown-of-thorns seastars and the damage caused. RelevancetothedraftCTIPlanofAction Sustainable long-term exploitation of coastal marine resources is critically dependant upon the health of ecosystems (e.g., coral reef ecosystems) that sustain important fisheries species. Coral reef environments are facing global degradation due to the combined impact of climate change, coral disease, destructive fishing and over-exploitation, pollution, and sedimentation. Coral depletion caused by crown-of-thorns compounds these other agents of coral reef degradation to further jeopardize biodiversity and sustainable fisheries. Within the Coral Triangle, the threat posed by outbreaks of crown-of-thorns seastars to coral health and reef condition is currently greater than that affected by climate change and coral bleaching. Many equatorial reefs, particularly those located in the Coral Triangle, have as yet, been largely unaffected by climate-induced coral bleaching. Meanwhile, reports of outbreaks of crown-of-thorns seastars have increased rapidly within this region, which may be attributable to either increased research activity and or real increases in their occurrence. 99

102 DRAFTVersion2 Figure 2. Reported outbreaks of crown-of-thorns sea stars (since 2002) within Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the Philippines. Outbreaks of A. planci can cause massive and widespread coral depletion. For example, at Green Island in 1962 outbreak populations of A. planci killed 80% of scleractinian corals across the entire reef, from the shallow reef crest (<2 meters depth) down to a depth of 40 meters. The critical question is what causes outbreaks. The life-history dynamics of this species (e.g., phenomenal fecundity and early maturation) makes them very prone to massive population fluctuations, but this does not explain when and where outbreaks actually occur. A variety of factors have been proposed to initiate outbreaks of A. planci, including high levels of terrestrial run-off, or temporary increases in sea surface temperatures, which could both lead to increases in the survival of larval sea stars. In addition, depletion of natural predators (such as large carnivorous reef fishes) by fishing may increase survivorship of juvenile seastars once they have settled on the reef. On the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), recent research has shown that there have been fewer outbreaks within area protected from fishing (Sweatman 2008). There is no definitive evidence that heavily exploited coral reef fishes, such as coral trout (Plectropomus spp.), are significant predators of crown-of-thorns seastars, but the proportion of reefs that had outbreaks of A. planci on the GBR were 3.75 times higher where fishing was permitted (Figure 3). 100

103 DRAFTVersion2 WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? If crown-of-thorns outbreaks are attributable to anthropogenic activities (e.g., Brodie et al. 2005), then there is definite need to try and manage effects of outbreaks on coral reef ecosystems. Even if outbreaks are largely a natural phenomenon, the threat of coral reef degradation to coastal fisheries, and food security provides appropriate incentive to manage and mitigate against all sources of coral mortality. Minimizing coral loss is also critical to maximizing the adaptive potential and resilience of coral reef ecosystems to future unknown disturbances, such as climate change. An important step in minimizing future effects of crown-of-thorns starfish within the coral triangle is to:- i) Urgently address low and declining water quality throughout the region. The primary steps to improve water quality are to ensure appropriate treatment of sewage and reducing the release of raw or poorly treated sewage into coastal ecosystems, as well as minimizing land runoff due to farming, coastal development and forest clearing, by building physical barriers to sediment displacement or minimizing clearing during periods of high rainfall. ii) Enhance protection of large carnivorous fishes, which are highly prone to over-fishing. Implementation of effective Marine Protected Areas to reduce fishing on large predatory fishes may reduce the likelihood of outbreaks of crown-of-thorns seastars by 73% (Figure 3). Figure 3. Occurrence of outbreaks ( ) in the mid-shelf region of the GBR where most outbreaks occur; number of reefs with outbreaks (black bars) and without outbreaks (white bars). Outbreaks are much more prevalent on reefs that are open to fishing versus reefs that are closed to fishing (no-take) by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) zoning. 101

104 DRAFTVersion2 Otheradaptations In many areas affected by outbreaks of A. planci (or during initial increases in seastar densities) there have been attempts to kill or remove individual sea stars to halt or minimize effects on coral communities. The most effective method of killing individual seastars is to inject them with sodium bisulphate, whereby 140 grams of sodium bisulphate is mixed with 1 litre of sea water and then injected into seastars using DuPont Velpar Spot Guns with long needles. Localized control efforts (through collection and injection of individual starfish) may be effective in reducing or delaying effects of outbreaks, but is not feasible and rarely effective over large reef areas. Because starfish can quickly move from one area to another, control of a specific area must be an ongoing effort with almost daily monitoring and controls. In at least two cases, the end of an outbreak of crown-of-thorns seastars has coincided with the appearance of several diseased individuals. The symptoms of this disease, which include numerous dermal lesions, collapsed spines, and a debilitated water vascular system (Figure 4), are suggestive of attack by a highly virulent Vibrio bacteria. Research is currently underway in the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies to better understand the role of pathogens in regulating population of A. planci (especially at very high densities), which may ultimately lead to the development of an appropriate biological control for outbreaks of A. planci. Figure 4. An infected crown-of-thorns sea star (left) exhibiting dermal lesions and collapsed spines, indicative of a disease. The adjacent starfish (right) is healthy. Relevantprojects The Wildlife Conservation Society in collaboration with Dr Andrew Baird has recently instigated a review on the recent and historical occurrence of A. planci outbreaks throughout Indonesia and PNG. 102

105 DRAFTVersion2 This project has revealed however, that while outbreaks of crown-of-thorns seastars are widespread, most outbreaks are not adequately reported. For example, it is not possible distinguish localized aggregations of A. planci from extensive regional outbreaks in current anecdotal reports. A central role of this project is therefore to instigate a centralized mechanism for reporting sudden increases in the abundance of A. planci and provide advice on studying outbreaks to establish likely causes. Critical information pertaining to the occurrence of outbreaks (including localized densities of seastars measure using prescribed sampling protocols, as well as maximum diameter measurements for a sample of individuals) is very simple to collect and will contribute greatly to increasing understanding of proximal causes for outbreaks. A definitive outcome of the Coral Triangle Initiative might be to expand this project to encompass the entire coral triangle and establish a necessary structure for reporting and responding to new reports of outbreaks throughout the region. Genetic sampling of outbreak populations is also required to establish the connectivity of populations of A. planci within the coral triangle and to better understand the dynamics and origin of outbreaks. Such studies are now viable, following the recent development of microsatellite markers for A. planci (Yasuda et al., 2006) and should be a research priority. Backgroundreading For information about of these publications, please contact Dr Morgan Pratchett ( [email protected]) Brodie J, Fabricius K, De Ath G, Okaji K (2005) Are increased nutrient inputs responsible for more outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish? An appraisal of the evidence. Marine Pollution Bulletin 51: Bruno JF, Selig ER (2007) Regional decline of coral cover in the Indo-Pacific: Timing, extent, and subregional comparisons. PLoS One 2(8): e711 Pratchett MS (2005) Dynamics of an outbreak population of Acanthaster planci at Lizard Island, northern Great Barrier Reef ( ). Coral Reefs 24: Sweatman HPA (2008) No-take reserves protect coral reefs from predatory starfish. Current Biology 18:

106 ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies James Cook University Townsville Queensland 4811 Australia Phone: Fax: [email protected] Australian Institute of Marine Science PMB 3, Townsville MC Townsville 4810, Queensland Australia Tel: (07) Fax: (07)