Handbook of Thin Film Materials

Transcription

1 Handbook of Thin Film Materials Volume 1 Deposition and Processing of Thin Films Edited by Hari Singh Nalwa, M.Sc, Ph.D. Stanford Scientific Corporation Los Angeles, California, USA Formerly at Hitachi Research Laboratory Hitachi Ltd., Ibaraki, Japan ACADEMIC PRESS A Division of Harcourt, Inc. San Diego San Francisco New York Boston London Sydney Tokyo

2 Contents About the Editor List of Contributors Volume Listing xix xxi xxiii Chapter 1. METHODS OF DEPOSITION OF HYDROGENATED AMORPHOUS SILICON FOR DEVICE APPLICATIONS Wilfried G. J. H. M. van Sark 1. Introduction Historical Overview Material Aspects of Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon 3 2. Research and Industrial Equipment General Aspects Reactor Configurations Scale-Up to Systems of Industrial Size ASTER, a Research System Physics and Chemistry of PECVD General Introduction Plasma Physics Plasma Chemistry Plasma Modeling ID Fluid Discharge Model D Fluid Discharge Model Particle-in-Cell Discharge Models Plasma Analysis Optical Emission Electrostatic Probes Mass Spectrometry Ellipsometry Relation between Plasma Parameters and Material Properties External Parameters Internal Parameters Deposition Models Surface Adsorption Solubility of Hydrogen in Silicon Elimination of Hydrogen from a-si:h Dangling-Bond and Weak-Bond Density Modifications of PECVD VHF Chemical Annealing RF Modulation Hot Wire Chemical Vapor Deposition General Description Experimental Setup Material Properties and Deposition Conditions Deposition Model Expanding Thermal Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition General Description Experimental Setup Material Properties and Deposition Conditions 81 XI

3 xii CONTENTS Deposition Model Applications SolarCells Thin Film Transistors Light Sensors Chemical Sensors Other Applications Conclusion 91 Acknowledgments 92 References 92 Chapter 2. ATOMIC LAYER DEPOSITION Mikko Ritala, Магкки Leskelä 1. Introduction Alternative Names Basic Features of ALD ALD Cycle Benefits of ALD Limitations of ALD ALD Reactors Overview Flow-Type ALD Reactors with Inert Gas Valving Flow-Type ALD Reactors with Moving Substrates ALD Precursors Requirements for ALD Precursors Choice of Precursors Overview of Precursors and Their Combinations Used in ALD Film Materials and Applications Electroluminescent Display Phosphors Insulators Transparent Conductors Passivating and Protecting Layers Transition Metal Nitride Diffusion Barriers Metals Solar Cell Absorbers Optical Coatings Characterization of ALD Processes Film Growth Experiments Reaction Mechanism Studies Summary 152 References 153 Chapter 3. LASER APPLICATIONS IN TRANSPARENT CONDUCTING OXIDE THIN FILMS PROCESSING Frederick Ojo Adurodija 1. Introduction History of Transparent Conducting Films and Applications Indium Tin Oxide Thin Films Deposition Techniques General Remarks General Electrical Properties of TCO Films Conduction Mechanism Defect Models Excimer Lasers Principles of Excimer Lasers Principles of Excimer PLD Major Applications of Excimer Lasers Advantages and Disadvantages of PLD 166

4 CONTENTS хш 4. PLD Deposition Technique ITO Target Ablation and Modification Background Gas Growth Rate and Film Thickness Target to Substrate Distance Optimization of Deposition Conditions (Background Gas) Initial Growth of ITO Films Film Deposition and Characterization Properties of PLD Indium Oxide Films Electrical Properties Optical Properties Structural Properties Properties of PLD ITO Films Structural and Other Properties Electrical Properties of ITO Films Optical Properties Chemical States Analysis of ITO Films Laser Irradiation Excimer Laser Irradiation of Thin Films Laser Irradiation of ITO Films Film Preparation by Laser Irradiation Effect of Sn-Doping on the Electrical Properties of Laser-Irradiated ITO Films Effects of Oxygen Pressure on the Properties of Laser-Irradiated ITO Films Effect of Substrate Temperature on the Properties of Laser-Irradiated ITO Films Other TCO Materials Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Thin Films Applications of PLD ITO Films Conclusion 213 References 213 Chapter 4. COLD PLASMA PROCESSES IN SURFACE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Pierangelo Gröning 1. Introduction Plasma the Fourth State of Matter Cold Plasma Applications Carbon Thin Films Plasma Polymerization Surface Treatments Surface Termination by H2 Plasma Treatment Outlook 257 Acknowledgments 257 References 257 Chapter 5. ELECTROCHEMICAL FORMATION OF THIN FILMS OF BINARY HI-V COMPOUNDS L. Peraldo Bicelli, V. M. Kozlov 1. Introduction Group III-V Compounds Electrodeposition Codeposition: Basic Considerations Thermodynamic Aspects Kinetic Aspects Codeposition from Aqueous Solutions Pourbaix's Equilibrium Diagrams Parasitic Reactions Classification of Cathodic Codeposition Processes Codeposition from Molten Salts 275

5 XIV CONTENTS 7. Sequential Electrodeposition Electrodeposition of Group III-V Compounds Aluminum Compounds Gallium Phosphide Indium Phosphide Gallium Arsenide Indium Arsenide Gallium Antimonide Indium Antimonide Indium-Bismuth Compounds Diffusion Process and Formation of Group III-V Compounds, The Indium-Bismuth System The Indium-Antimony System Influence of the Substrate Structure and Morphology on the Diffusion Process The Indium-Antimony System The Gallium-Antimony System Amorphous Antimony Crystallization Conclusions 313 Acknowledgments 315 References 315 Chapter 6. FUNDAMENTALS FOR THE FORMATION AND STRUCTURE CONTROL OF THIN FILMS: NUCLEATION, GROWTH, SOLID-STATE TRANSFORMATIONS Hideya Kumomi, Frank G. Shi 1. Introduction Structures and Properties Structures and Formation Process Nucleation, Growth, and Solid-State Transformations Scope of This Chapter Theory of Nucleation and Growth Thermodynamics of Nucleation and Growth Kinetics of Nucleation and Growth Observables in Nucleation and Growth Measurement of Nucleation and Growth Dimensions Ratios Rates Characteristic Time Energy Barriers Control of Nucleation and Growth Grain Size Size Distribution of Grains Grain Locations 362 Acknowledgments 369 References 370 Chapter 7. ION IMPLANT DOPING AND ISOLATION OF GaN AND RELATED MATERIALS S. J. Pearton 1. Introduction Range Statistics Donor Implants (Si, O, S, Se, and Те) Acceptor Implants Damage Removal High Temperature Annealing Surface Protection Susceptors 387

6 CONTENTS xv 6.3. A1N Encapsulant NH 3 Annealing Diffusivity of Implanted Species p-n Junction Formation Isolation Devices 405 Acknowledgment 406 References 406 Chapter 8. PLASMA ETCHING OF GaN AND RELATED MATERIALS S. J. Pearton, R. J. Shut 1. Introduction Plasma Reactors Reactive Ion Etching High-Density Plasmas Chemically Assisted Ion Beam Etching Reactive Ion Beam Etching Low-Energy Electron-Enhanced Etching Plasma Chemistries Cl 2 -Based I 2 -and Br 2 -Based CH 4 /H 2 /Ar Etch Profile And Etched Surface Morphology Plasma-Induced Damage n-gan p-gan Schotfky Diodes p-n Junctions Device Processing Microdisk Lasers Ridge Waveguide Lasers Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors Field Effect Transistors UV Detectors 448 Acknowledgments 450 References 450 Chapter 9. RESIDUAL STRESSES IN PHYSICALLY VAPOR-DEPOSITED THIN FILMS Yves Pauleau 1. Introduction Microstructure and Morphology of PVD Thin Films Nucleation and Growth Modes of PVD Thin Films Effect of Energetic Particle Condensation and/or Bombardment on Nucleation and Early Stages of the Growth of Films Structure-Zone Models Major Physical Parameters Affecting the Microstructure of PVD Films Magnitude of Residual Stresses in PVD Thin Films Determination of Residual Stresses from the Radius of Curvature of Substrates Determination of Residual Stresses Using X-Ray Diffraction Techniques Magnitude of Residual Stresses in Multilayer Structures Mechanical Stability of PVD Thin Films Origin of Residual Stresses in PVD Thin Films Thermal Stresses Intrinsic Stresses Extrinsic Stresses Effect of Major Process Parameters on the Intrinsic Stress Pressure Effect 493

7 XVI CONTENTS 5.2. Substrate Bias Voltage Effect Substrate Temperature Effect Data on Residual Stresses in PVD Thin Films Residual Stresses in Silicon Dioxide Films Prepared by Thermal Evaporation Residual Stresses in Silicon Dioxide Films Produced by Ion-Assisted Deposition Residual Stresses in Silicon Oxynitride Films Produced by Dual Ion Beam Sputtering Amorphous Carbon Films Deposited by Conventional Magnetron Sputtering on Grounded Substrates Amorphous Carbon Films Deposited by Conventional and Unbalanced Magnetron Sputtering on Biased Substrates Summary and Conclusion 519 References 520 Chapter 10. LANGMUIR-BLODGETT FILMS OF BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES Victor Erokhin 1. Introduction Principles of the Langmuir-Blodgett Technique Monolayers at the Air-Water Interface Monolayer Transfer onto Solid Substrates Techniques for Studying Monolayers and LB Films Monolayers at the Air-Water Interface LB Films on Solid Supports Protein Films Protein Monolayers at the Air-Water Interface Monolayer Transfer Protein Layers on Solid Substrates Thermal Stability of Proteins in LB Films Conclusions 544 Acknowledgment 545 References 545 Chapter 11. STRUCTURE FORMATION DURING ELECTROCRYSTALLIZATION OF METAL FILMS V. M. Kozlov, L. Peraldo Bicelli 1. Introduction Classification of the Structural Defects in Electrodeposits Mechanism of Formation of Structural Defects during Noncoherent Nucleation Classical Theory of Noncoherent Nucleation Atomistic Analysis of Noncoherent Nucleation Factors Influencing the Structure of Electrodeposits (Theoretical and Experimental Results) Influence of the Crystallization Overvoltage on the Structure of Electrodeposits Influence of the Foreign Particle Adsorption on the Structure of Electrodeposits Influence of the Nature of Metals on the Formation of the Polycrystalline Structure of the Deposit during Electrocrystallization Mechanism of Multitwinning Conclusions 584 Acknowledgment 585 References 585 Chapter 12. EPITAXIAL THIN FILMS OF INTERMETALLIC COMPOUNDS Michael Huth 1. Introduction MBE Growth of Intermetallic Compounds Intermetallic Compounds: Definition of Terms Equipment 588

8 CONTENTS xvii 2.3. General Considerations in Compound Growth Phase Stabilization and Orientation Selection Epitaxial Strain Morphological Aspects Selected Applications in Basic and Applied Research Superconductivity in UPd2Al Magnetoelastic Coupling Effects in RFe Magnetization Reversal of Ultrathin Co-Pt Heterostructures Intermetallic Compounds for Magnetooptics Exchange Anisotropy with Metallic Antiferromagnets Antiferromagnetic Order Parameter Nucleation on a Thin Film Surface Order-Disorder Phenomena Outlook 623 Acknowledgments 623 References 624 Chapter 13. PULSED LASER DEPOSITION OF THIN FILMS: EXPECTATIONS AND REALITY Leonid R. Shaginyan 1. Introduction Composition of Pulsed Laser-Deposited Films Dependence of the Composition of PLD Films on Laser and Deposition Processing Parameters Dependence of the Composition of PLD Films on the Evaporating Material Experimental Details of Pilyankevich et al Formation of PLD Film Composition Conclusions Structure of PLD Films Factors Influencing the PLD Film Structure Role of Molecules and Larger Clusters Gas-Phase Clustering Crystallization Temperature as an Index of Film Structure "Perfection" Influence of Laser Parameters and Substrate Temperature on Epitaxial Growth of PLD Films Ways to Control the PLD Film Structure Conclusions Polymorphism in PLD Films Polymorphism of PLD Carbon Films Polymorphism of Boron Nitride Films Polymorphism of Silicon Carbide Films Conclusions Macrodefects in PLD Films Mechanisms of Splashing Elimination of Particulates Determination of Vapor Portion in Products of Laser-Ablated Metals Conclusions Influence of Target Properties on Some Features of PLD Compound Films Role of Target Thermal Conductivity in Compound Film Property Formation Powder Targets: Mechanisms of Particulate Generation Conclusions General Conclusions 670 Acknowledgments 671 References 671 Chapter 14. SINGLE-CRYSTAL ß'-ALUMINA FILMS Chu Кип Kuo, Patrick S. Nicholson 1. Introduction Review of the Literature on Large-Area Thin Films of ^'Iß-AliO^ 677

9 XVlll CONTENTS 3. Na-/S"-Al Single-Crystal Film Growth Sapphire Substrate Vaporization Source Alkali Vapor-Sapphire Substrate Reactions у8"-а1 2 Оз Film Growth Kinetics Single-Crystal Film Characterization X-Ray Diffraction Microscopy Structural Transformation from a-to ^"-А^Оз Na-/S"-Al Coated, a-al Single-Crystal Platelets The Growth of К-уб'-А^Оз Single-Crystal Films Ion Exchange Preparation of Other ^"-А^Оз Isomorphs in Single-Crystal Film Form Ion Exchange The Optical Refractivity of ^"-А^Оз Isomorphs Luminescence Investigation of Cu + -Doped, Single-Crystal ^"-АЬЮз Films Luminescence Luminescence Patterning of Single-Crystal ^"-А^Оз Films Summary Appendix ß"- and /S-A Isomorphs Optical Refractivity of ß" - and /S-A Luminescence of Activated ^"(^-А^Оз 697 Acknowledgment 697 References 697 Index 699