Where School Is Cool. Power Engineering Education in Three Fast-Growing South American Energy Markets

Transcription

1 Where School Is Cool Power Engineering Education in Three Fast-Growing South American Energy Markets STOCKBYTE & COMSTOCK By Hugh Rudnick, Rodrigo Palma-Behnke, Sandoval Carneiro, Jr., Tatiana M.L. Assis, Harold Salazar, and Jaime A. Valencia ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND POWER ENGINEERING are alive and well in Latin America. While IEEE and IEEE Power and Energy Society look for ways to entice high school students in the United States to go into engineering, the demand for engineering slots in Latin American universities grows every year, with the best students in those countries aiming for the profession. The challenge faced by the United States is that in a country of 309 million people, only 800 to 1,000 undergraduates interested in power engineering jobs graduate each year. Brazil, with a population of 192 million, graduates approximately 1,000 power engineers each year. Furthermore, U.S. enrollment in master s and doctoral programs in power engineering is around 550 per year for each, but roughly 60% of those graduates come from abroad and return to their countries after graduation. In contrast, Brazil trains 120 postgraduates in power engineering each year, and most stay in the country. Why do these differences exist? It is clearly not a matter of curricula or quality of institutions and education or infrastructure, where the United States may have clear advantages, but one of demand growth along with factors having to do with status and roles. Most Latin American countries are experiencing economic development, accompanied by Digital Object Identifi er /MPE july/august /10/$ IEEE IEEE power & energy magazine 61

2 rapid growth in basic infrastructure (roads, transport, energy, and other civil infrastructure). This must be supported by significant involvement on the part of engineering professionals. Engineers thus have leading roles in society, earn top salaries in relation to other professions, and enjoy high social status. The field attracts the best students. It is not surprising that in Chile, several presidents of the country have been engineers and that the incoming president has named six engineers (including one EE) to the 22-member cabinet, including the energy and foreign relations ministers. But this good news is coupled with an uneasiness in Latin American universities. Many worry that the engineering curricula are outdated and are in need of reform. Engineering students must go through programs lasting five or six years. In Chile, some students may need up to eight years to complete their programs. Efforts to reform engineering education in the United States and Europe around new definitions of competencies are having an impact in Latin America, and actions to change curricula and also reduce program lengths are being initiated in Chile and Colombia. Electricity Markets in Brazil, Chile, and Colombia Electricity markets in Latin America have higher rates of demand growth than those of Europe and North America. They require a significant investment in electrical infrastructure, one that needs to nearly double every ten years. Figure 1 shows demand patterns and rates of growth for Brazil, Chile, and Colombia since Growth rates have ranged up to 15% a year, with Chile s average annual growth standing at 7.2%. Despite the impact of the recent world economic crisis in the region on reducing rates of demand growth and the trend toward more effective energy-efficiency programs, it is clear that economic growth in these countries will dictate increased energy usage, particularly with respect to Growth Rate (%) Chile Brazil Colombia figure 1. Electricity demand growth rates. Year electricity. Figure 2 shows how economic development is directly coupled to electricity consumption. History of Engineering Education in Latin America Latin America s first universities were established by the Spanish crown under the direction of the Catholic Church. The University of Cordoba in Argentina, for example, was founded by the Jesuits in Independence from Spain in the early 19th century brought profound changes in the universities as part of a reaction against the colonial legacy that was aimed at transforming the old colonies into independent, modern states. The university models of France and Germany had a strong influence, the French École des Mines, for example, giving birth to a strong, Napoleonic model (nonconfessional public universities controlled by the state). European universities, professors, and researchers were to have a strong influence in these developments. Besides the Napoleonic character of these new universities, a central concept was developed: institutions of higher education closely linked with the professions, where the professional schools of law, medicine, and engineering were to dominate over liberal arts, humanities, and science. Higher university education became equivalent to professional education. Professional schools were created in the region in the last decades of 19th century. As an example, a civil engineering program was officially created by the government in Chile in 1853 at the Universidad de Chile, itself founded in 1842 (electrical engineering at the Universidad de Chile was only introduced in 1944). In Brazil, universities came into being much later than in the former Spanish colonies; the Universidade do Rio de Janeiro (now Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro) was founded in 1920 and Universidade de São Paulo in In time, given the growing economic and cultural interactions between the United States and Latin America, close relations began to develop among universities in both areas. Lecturers from Latin American universities went en masse for postgraduate degrees in the United States. U.S. influence grew so strong in Colombia that, for example, electrical engineering at the Universidad de los Andes in Bogota was introduced in 1948 with the requirement that the last year of the program had to be completed in a U.S. university The National Educational Model The educational model in Brazil, Chile, and Colombia is regulated 62 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2010

3 by the government through the countries respective ministries of education. The system is divided into two levels: basic education and higher education. Figure 3 shows the typical age of students in each stage in the usual trajectory in Brazil. An undergraduate engineering program normally has a five-year duration (the exception is Chile, where engineering programs last six years). Basic education comprises early child education (upbringing, at home or outside home in a day care center), fundamental school, and high school. The upbringing phase takes place during the years from birth to the age of 5 and establishes the foundation of human personality, intelligence, 40,000 35,000 30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000 GDP ppp (US$) Per Capita UK Italy Spain Japan USA Canada 10,000 Chile Colombia Brazil 5,000 China India Africa MWh Per Capita figure 2. Electric energy consumption versus GDP (source: IEA). emotional life, and socialization. The so-called fundamental school is the second stage of basic education and is directed to students aged 6 to 14. It is essential to the formation of the citizen, as its goals include the full mastery of reading, writing, and calculation. The fundamental school should provide the capacity to learn and to relate in the social and political environment. Its curriculum includes history, geography, science, and mathematics. The fundamental school is mandatory for everyone in the countries discussed. High school is the last stage of basic education and is directed to students aged 15 to 17. At this point, a student can decide to pursue a professional qualification and study to become a technician or study for the university entrance examinations. The curricula include history, geography, 28 Entrance Exams Self-Learning Communication 17 Physical Sciences 14 Mathematics Graduate Natural Sciences Writing Reading Socialization 5 Intelligence Personality 1 Upbringing Fundamental Basic Education Undergraduate High School B.Sc. M.Sc. D.Sc. Higher Education Age (Years) figure 3. Brazilian educational structure, regular trajectory (source: Do Coutto et al.). july/august 2010 IEEE power & energy magazine 63

4 In general, engineers enjoy a great deal of prestige in Latin America, and their contributions are recognized both in terms of salaries as well as societal status. mathematics, physics, Portuguese, Spanish, English, chemistry, and biology. In addition, the student is stimulated to develop the capacity for independent learning and to improve communication skills. Education is offered in both public and private schools. The public institutions in Brazil are completely supported by the various governments (federal, state, and municipal) and do not charge tuition. This is not the case in Chile and Colombia, where universities must charge fees since government support is not sufficient to fund public universities. Furthermore, in Brazil a generous government scholarship program attracts postgraduate students from all of Latin America and from Portuguese-speaking African countries. The duration of undergraduate courses depends on the study area. As noted above, obtaining the engineering degree (equivalent to but more demanding than the U.S. bachelor of science degree) requires about five years, with the exception of Chile, where it takes six years. Earning a degree in economics or architecture takes five years. Medical degrees take longer (six or more years). After the undergraduate degree, in all three countries one can continue to Civil Chemistry Computer Control and Automation Electrical Materials Mechanical Metallurgical Naval and Ocean Petroleum Power/Industry Electronics Telecommunications figure 4. Major engineering degrees in Brazil. study towards a master s degree and then a doctorate. The master s courses are normally completed within two years and doctorate courses in four years. Structure of the Engineering Degree There are many options for engineering courses in the countries analyzed. Besides the traditional civil, electrical, mechanical, and chemical courses, students can choose to study other curricula, such as computers, biotechnology, mechatronics, and so on. There are also interdisciplinary courses to choose from in areas such as petroleum, environmental, and ocean engineering. Figure 4 shows the major engineering fields in Brazil, where the electrical field can be divided into power, electronics, and telecommunications. In some institutions, the term electrical is exclusively associated with power engineering, while electronics refers to lowvoltage applications. In the case of Chile, control systems, computational intelligence, and robotics are also considered to be electrical degree specializations. Chile has universal entrance examinations for all engineering courses, and the basic classes (e.g., calculus and physics) are taken by all engineering students. After two years, the student selects a field of interest and completes the corresponding program. Brazil had a similar entrance exam system in the past, but nowadays in most institutions application is made directly for the specific course of study. Colombia, like Chile, uses universal entrance examinations, but students proceed directly into specific programs. The five-year regular engineering programs in Brazil and Colombia are divided into ten semesters. Chile s six-year program is divided into 12 semesters; some programs there confer an academic degree (licenciado) after four and a half years (roughly equivalent to the U.S. bachelor s degree), but all programs confer the professional degree of engineer once the six years of study have been completed. Traditionally, all the six-year engineering programs in Chile confer the degree of civil engineer. This is intended to denote having attained a certain level of expertise, in much the same way the word diploma is used in German engineering degrees. There are neither professional licensing agencies nor examinations other than those taken at the university. The six-year program length originated in a tradition of broad educational degrees that can be traced back to the French École des Mines; it provides a solid base of general mathematics and physics for all degrees in engineering. In a typical five-year engineering program, students have to take courses in math, physics, and chemistry in the first two 64 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2010

5 These societal perceptions and the opportunities engineers actually find in the labor market make engineering a very attractive alternative for the best students graduating from high school. years. The number of such classes depends on the engineering program. For instance, industrial engineering programs (it is called production engineering in Brazil), which are more business-oriented, include relatively less physics and chemistry; electrical power engineering programs, on the other hand, often include a strong emphasis on mathematics and physics. The third year usually covers topics in general engineering, such as circuit theory. The last two years are dedicated to courses directly related to the particular engineering program (e.g., electrical engineering) and specific branches within it (such as power). During the fifth year, a final project is required in order to integrate the student s knowledge. This can consist of research, an internship, or an activity related to the curriculum. Social and humanities studies can also be undertaken during the program and usually are not assigned to a particular semester. These courses are broad in scope and can include administration, history, law, economics, and so on. They are seen as a complement to the student s education; the particular program determines which subjects to emphasize. Power engineering is not necessarily a separate degree program. Often it is one particular set of optional courses within a general electrical engineering degree that a student chooses to follow, combined with a final project that focuses on this field. Some students choose a track focused on power systems, while others follow one related to industry applications, including control systems, power electronics, and machine drives. The optional courses usually vary substantially from institution to institution. In most cases, the decision to offer a given course depends on the availability of specialized lecturers. Table 1 gives an overview of the main courses that would be included in power engineering curricula in Brazil, Chile, and Colombia. Figure 5 shows the typical structure of a power engineering course in Brazil. In Electricity Markets in Power Engineering Education, we describe how power engineering curricula in Chile and Colombia have incorporated new courses or adapted existing course contents to include topics having to do with electricity markets. The Status of Engineers in Society and Entrance to the University In general, engineers enjoy a great deal of prestige in Latin America, and their contributions are recognized both in terms of salaries as well as societal status. This is confirmed by the fact that engineers occupy high managerial and technical positions in both industry and government. Engineering is seen as a modern career, focused on the development of products and infrastructure for the society. A recent Brazilian survey of public perceptions of engineers indicated that pursuing engineering is considered quite difficult, as it involves lots of mathematics and physics; the engineer is seen as someone of high intelligence. Moreover, receiving an engineering education is perceived as something that multiplies a person s professional possibilities, allowing one to work in several areas and even outside engineering, in situations where logical reasoning, creativity, and objectivity are important. It is not unusual to find big companies governed by engineers, and several Latin American national leaders have been engineers. These societal perceptions and the opportunities engineers actually find in the labor market make engineering a very attractive alternative for the best students graduating from high school. The factors that influence the process of choosing a career can be divided into aptitude, convenience, and image. Aptitude is related to natural talents that enable certain people to perform a given complex activity with greater ease than other people. Convenience involves economics (e.g., salaries), career status, and regional aspects (e.g., ease of access to university and jobs). And image is a factor highly correlated with the prospect of potential success. It includes the reputation of one s school and the admiration received for one s specific professional contributions to society. Figure 6 shows the minimum scores on the Chilean national admission test for students accepted into various programs in 2009 at Universidad Catolica de Chile and Universidad de Chile. The scores are calculated for a sample of 3,296 students. Although engineering admits a larger number of students than law and medicine, it requires a higher score. The lowest-scoring of the 90 students admitted to the medical school at Universidad Catolica de Chile would have been ranked 132nd if the student had applied to engineering. These preferences vary among the three countries analyzed, although medicine, law, and engineering continue to be among the careers preferred by students. What is clear is that there is no lack of interest in the region in engineering education, including electrical engineering. Figure 7 compares the number of registered students in various engineering areas in Brazil, where electrical engineering includes power, electronics, and telecommunications. Figure 8 shows the number of graduate degrees awarded in electrical engineering from 2004 to 2008; the blue line indicates the average number over the period. july/august 2010 IEEE power & energy magazine 65

6 Applied Algebra Differential and Integral Calculus Physics Programming/Computer Science Thermodynamics Electrical Materials Electrical Circuits DC and AC Electromagnetic Theory Electrical Measurements Material Science Applied Control to Power Systems Power Electronics Distribution Systems Transmission Systems Dynamic Phenomena Power Systems Reliability Wind Power Generation Solar Photovoltaic Systems Power System Planning Distribution System Management Maintenance Management Ecology Organization and Administration Globalization National History and Constitution table 1. Main courses in a power engineering program (B: Brazil, Ch: Chile, Co: Colombia). Basic Science B Ch Co B Ch Co B Ch Co Materials Resistance Fundamentals of Economy Numerical Methods Probability and Statistics Mechanics Introduction to Electrical Engineering Chemistry Transport Phenomena Optimization Professional-Engineering Science Electronics Energy Conversion Control Theory Electrical Machines Logic Circuits Three-phase Circuits Thermal Machines Low Voltage Systems Circuits Telecommunications Specific Engineering Transient Stability Power Flow Short-Circuit Theory Power Generation Power System Analysis Computer Applications in Power Systems Equipment and Substations Power Systems Protection Power Systems Operation Energy Conversion Lab Optional Engineering HVDC Systems Small-Signal Stability Voltage Stability Analysis of the Electrical Sector Power Markets Intelligent Systems Application High Voltage Industrial Systems Optimization Techniques Machinery in Mining Computational Intelligence Social and Humanities-Optional Law Basics Science Evolution Culture and Arts Sociology Humanities and Social Sciences Astronomy Course Included 66 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2010

7 The job market also demonstrates the high status engineers have in society. The highest salaries in Chile are paid to mining, industrial, and electrical engineers; medicine has also been a highly paid profession (see Figure 9). What about power engineering? A number of facts suggest there will be a high demand for power engineers in the region. Opportunities are increasing as economies are growing, correlated power systems and markets are mounting, and interconnections among different countries are in operation. In addition, new technologies are being incorporated as countries explore renewable energy sources with less environmental impact, and the free trade agreements made by countries in the region with the European Union and the United States require a new and more specialized labor force in order to increase the competitiveness of the power sector. Nevertheless, economic recessions have had an impact on engineering job opportunities in the past. In the 1980s, when Brazil was facing economic recession, there was little interest in careers related to infrastructure, such as those in civil construction and the energy sector. This led to a substantial decrease in the number of engineering graduates when compared with the other professions. In the last few years, however, economic activities have resumed a growth trend, and there is an urgent need for specialized personnel. Furthermore, many students who complete engineering programs are attracted to other areas such as administration and finance. The Brazilian federal government, aiming at a faster-growing economy, created a task force with members from government, academia, and industry to propose a program (INOVA Engenharia) whose goal is to increase from 30,000 to 100,000 the number of engineers graduated each year in Brazil. Postgraduate Power Engineering Programs Postgraduate programs in electrical engineering and in power engineering exist in Brazil, Chile, and Colombia. We describe the Brazilian postgraduate programs in Postgraduate Power Engineering Education in Brazil. Computer Applications 7 Energy Conversion 6 Circuits Numerical Methods 5 Programming 4 Physics Algebra 3 Calculus 2 1 Basis Learning Stability Short-Circuit Substations Operation Distribution 10 Power Flow Generation Transmission 9 Electrical Machines Electronics Control 8 Undergraduate (B.Sc.) Professional Learning Complementary Learning figure 5. The typical power engineering course structure in Brazil. Semesters In the 1960s, Chile had an electrical engineering postgraduate program supported by the Organization of American States at Universidad de Chile and another supported by the German government at Universidad Federico Santa Maria. Both faded over time, however, as postgraduates were simply not in demand. As conditions changed, Universidad Catolica de Chile took the lead and began a master s program in 1983 and a doctoral program in 1992; both included the electrical power concentration. Today, that graduate program has become the largest in Chile in the field of technology, with a cohort of more than 450 students. The government supports the doctoral program with scholarships via its National Science Foundation, but real competition to local programs has arisen recently Bach. Mathematics Agronomy U. Católica U. de Chile Odontology Psychology Engineering Law Architecture Medicine Score figure 6. Minimum admission scores for various university careers in Chile. july/august 2010 IEEE power & energy magazine 67

8 Students 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0 Civil Electrical Mechanical Chemistry Control and Automation with the institution of a very generous scholarship program for postgraduate studies abroad. First-class students prefer to go to North America and Europe for their postgraduate education. In Colombia, postgraduate programs in electrical engineering are of recent vintage; there are currently seven graduate programs. The first master s degree program in electrical engineering in Colombia was established at the Universidad Industrial de Santander in Doctoral programs were established beginning in 1991 and have Computer figure 7. Number of students in different engineering fields in Brazil in Graduations 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1, figure 8. Number of graduate degrees awarded in electrical engineering in Brazil, grown rapidly, but they need to be consolidated. The government has given economic incentives to various students via its National Science Foundation to obtain doctoral degrees abroad; they must make a commitment to return to the country, teach in a university (undergraduate and graduate programs), do research and facilitate the consolidation of doctoral programs. The commitment lasts five years on average. The number of engineers with doctorates teaching at Colombian universities, while still low with respect to other countries, has increased because of such incentives. Table 2 shows the typical course structure of the graduate-level power engineering programs in Chile and Colombia. The Need for Educational Reform Efforts to reform engineering education in the United States and Europe around new definitions of competencies have also reached Latin America, coupled with criticism of a rigid and inefficient university educational system characterized by the predominance of long programs with limited entry and exit points. As indicated, Chile has a six-year engineering program and Brazil and Colombia a five-year one, while in the United States the bachelor of science in engineering is a four-year degree. The Bologna Declaration, signed in 1999 by the ministers of 29 European countries, has been an important reference point in this discussion. Bologna aims at integrating higher education across Europe by means of a common framework of readable and comparable degrees; it foresees implementing a two-cycle system in series, based on three- to four-year bachelor of science and graduate Bach. Mathematics Agronomy Odontology Psychology Chemical Engineering Mechanics Engineering Industrial Engineering Mining Engineering Computational Engineering Management Engineering Civil Engineering Electrical Engineering Law Architecture Medicine figure 9. Comparison of expected salary levels for various professions in Chile. Expected Income for the Fifth Year Expected Income for the First Year Income 68 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2010

9 Electricity Markets in Power Engineering Education Power system deregulation and restructuring began in Latin and business administration. The program confers a professional degree in industrial engineering with a diploma in electrical America, with Chile and Colombia being two main reform drivers. These two countries restructured electricity energy markets in 1982 and 1994, respectively. The changes demanded that Figure S1, representing a total of 570 course credits. (One credit engineering. The program s main components are described in power engineers adapt to the new working environment, one in represents a workload of about one hour per week, either in which technical expertise had to be coupled with a strong background in economics. credits, and the normal course load is 40 to 50 credits or four to classes, study sessions, or homework. Most courses carry ten The various power engineering curricula in those two countries have therefore incorporated new courses or adapted exist- to a U.S. bachelor s degree) in engineering sciences is awarded five courses per semester.) A licenciatura (roughly equivalent ing course contents to include topics having to do with electricity markets. The impact of power restructuring on power These curriculum components include 170 credits (about when 420 credits are completed, after four and half years. education varies according to the program. Some programs are 1.8 years) of a combination of college-level mathematics and more focused on analyzing how the market affects system operation. Other programs are more business-oriented and include, 3.4 years) of engineering topics, consisting of engineering sci- basic science appropriate to the discipline; 320 credits (about for instance, courses in corporate finance and administration. ences and engineering design appropriate to the field of electrical engineering, including 90 credits (about 0.9 years) in Regardless of the approach, introductions to microeconomic theory and finance are needed, and they have been suggested engineering management; and 80 credits (about 0.8 years) of by practitioners as complements to the power engineering curriculum or as program content. In the short term, topics in elec- the curriculum. general education that complements the technical content of tric power restructuring have been gradually incorporated into The electrical engineering components of the curriculum deliver the scientific bases and applied knowledge de- most of the university power programs. Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile was in a privileged manded by the field. The specialized courses aim to provide position to act as a proactive leader in education in the field of students with fundamental and advanced knowledge in the power markets. It has a six-year undergraduate program that integrates both traditional electrical engineering with economics prepare them for later independent study and professional electrical engineering field and related areas and also to (Continued) Basic Sciences (170 Credits) Internship I (0 Credits) Writing Proficiency Examination (0 Credits) General Education (80 Credits) Engineering Sciences (40 Credits) Electrical Engineering (Licenciatura) (90 Credits) Core Engineering Management (Licenciatura) (40 Credits) Core Engineering Management (Professional Title) (50 Credits) Electrical Engineering (Professional Title) (50 Credits) English Proficiency Accreditation (0 Credits) Licenciatura Degree Examination (0 Credits) Internship II (0 Credits) Professional Title Examination/Project (0 Credits) Depth Electives (50 Credits) figure S1. Components of curricula for industrial engineering with a diploma in electrical engineering. july/august 2010 IEEE power & energy magazine 69

10 development throughout their careers. Students interested in power receive a thorough education in basic electricity but also choose electives in the area. These may include electrical generation, economic dispatch, electrical systems planning, distribution systems, electricity markets, electric traction, and power electronics. One element of the curriculum that is attractive to the power industry is that it also contains courses in management science aimed at delivering high-level training in operations research, economics, and finance and business management. These courses, coupled with the technical electrical material, provide tools that let students work in many different environments: they can work at power companies, in industry, as consultants, in regulatory bodies, and so on. In 1996, Universidad Catolica de Chile created a course dedicated entirely to electricity markets that was conceived as an optional course and has attracted from the start the highest number of registered students among all optional courses in electrical engineering. The course covers the technical, economic, and regulatory processes of deregulation and the introduction of market concepts in the electricity sector; it gives particular emphasis to the analysis of examples, electricity laws, and practical applications in specific Latin American contexts. The students are trained to analyze these processes and the relevant regulatory frameworks, mastering the important factors and the various technical and economic constraints. They are thus capable of participating in the analysis of markets, regulatory developments, and tariff studies. The course provides a basic microeconomic and industrial organization background; reviews different regulatory structures and tariff schemes; studies in detail the generation, transmission, and distribution segments; and reviews specific electricity laws and bylaws. Talks by power industry specialists are integrated. Students perform basic literature and Internet research in specific User Precio (mills) PT3 Oferta de Compra de Energia Internet Database Web Server Deep Edit Market Architecture Model PT2 PT1 Consumer Companies ET1 ET2 ET3 Energia (Mwh) Database (mdb) Precio (mills) PT3 Oferta de Venta de Energia Generating Companies PT2 PT1 ET1 ET2 ET3 Energia (Mwh) Servidor Clearing Market Process Market Operator Results Via Via Web Page FASE0/Resultados01_10_08.htm figure S2. Web-based platform for the PX simulator. degrees. The primary challenge of engineering education in Latin America is to figure out how to rethink the competencies of engineers in the region and in each country. Chile has begun taking steps to reform the structure and organization of university engineering curricula. These steps are aimed at defining more effective classroom lectures and procedures and reducing the excessive length of civil engineering programs, which stands in the way of young professionals entrance into to the work force and makes it harder for them to contemplate enrolling in specialist programs at the graduate level. Universidad Catolica de Chile was the first university in the country to convert its engineering program to a five-year duration. This decision was very much based on the university s long working relationship with ABET and the implementation of ABET s EC2000 criteria. By contrast, Universidad de Chile has decided to maintain its six-year electrical engineer degree, but it is introducing a completely new curriculum. Some institutions in Colombia are considering reducing the bachelor s program by one year, leaving the fifth year for optional postgraduate 70 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2010

11 been contributing to this effort. As a sample, we describe two initiatives developed at Universidad de Chile. figure S3. Deep-Edit s graphic user interface. subjects, with the goal of achieving a better understanding of electricity markets. Reports are published online (at puc.cl/power/publications/students.htm) and, surprisingly, are used by many people outside the university as a means of familiarizing themselves with the technical subjects covered. Finally, a computer simulation of the evolution of the Chilean market over the next ten years is required, with the goal of cultivating an understanding of the variables that condition prices in the wholesale market. Power Exchange Game Among Universities Based on a computational Web platform and a simulator of electricity markets, an experimental economics approach has been developed to build a tool to teach power markets ( The simulator is based on the Spanish wholesale electricity market (PX). Groups of students from different Chilean universities operate as market agents and have the freedom to create their own strategies for buying or selling energy in the day-ahead market, with the objective of maximizing their own profits. Figure S2 shows the Web-based platform. The system data are based on the market structure of the Chilean wholesale electricity market. This educational tool has been used for several years, with students participating from Universidad de Chile, Universidad Catolica de Chile, and Universidad de Santiago de Chile. Groups from the three universities use the tool in four consecutive phases. A simple, nonrestrictive phase begins the game. Then, with each four-day phase, the complexity of the bidding mechanism and system constraints is increased. Each day, the market operator posts the public results of (Continued) Interactive Tools for Education in Power Markets There is already a great variety of professional software focused on the technical study of power systems, i.e., power flow, protection, optimal power flow, contingencies, and stability. The challenge of recent years has been the creation of tools to simulate realistic electricity markets. Latin America universities have figure S4. Deep-Edit s market editor. work, but this proposal has faced strong opposition and is still being debated. Another problem faced in the higher educational systems in these Latin American countries has been the too lightly controlled proliferation of universities. The case of Colombia offers a good example. The Colombian government gave an incentive to public higher education in the 1970s by increasing the number of higher education programs and also provided inducements for the enrollment of students. Engineering programs were established at an accelerating rate, both in number and subspecialties. Power engineering programs were no exception. Each specialty was established as a separate engineering program. By 1990, Colombia had more engineering programs than many of the developed countries do. Such a proliferation of universities and unregulated programs created the need for an accreditation system within higher education. Another consequence has been that graduate engineers currently outnumber technicians. Similar developments took place in Chile in the 1990s. july/august 2010 IEEE power & energy magazine 71

12 This interactive tool has proven that games of this kind, with an experimental economics character, offer an adequate mechanism for explaining the observed phenomena in a real environment. Students have made positive evaluations of the contribution of this type of tool in their professional training process. Future development of the tool will focus on the integration of congestion management mechanisms in the bidding process and a more complex offer structure. figure S5. Deep-Edit s representation of spot prices. the clearing process and also the private commitments and incomes of each participant. Based on the performance of the students, characterizations of the strategic behavior of agents and their impact on the evolution of the market price are made and analyzed. In phase four, when transmission constraints are introduced, market power exercised by several groups in the game, may be identified. Usually market power may be performed by the largest generator companies modeled in the game. The learning curve and the rational behavior of the market agents are identified and modeled through the process and used in grading the work of each group. Simulation Framework for Technical and Market-Oriented Analysis The deregulation process of the power industry has implied the need to better integrate the analysis of the technical and economic elements of power systems. Educational tools also need to adapt to this new framework. An educational platform called Deep-Edit (see has been developed to articulately manage economic and technical issues. The system, used both in and out of the classroom, integrates a platform based on Java technology that constructs a system description through electric network, market, hydrographic, and geographic representations (see Figures S3 and S4). The educational package contains a library of power system analysis applications divided into technical and market-oriented tools. The technical tools comprise computations such as load flow, optimal power flow, sensitivity analysis, and parameters calculation. They are complemented by the market-oriented applications, which add pricing models (Figure S5 shows how spot prices are represented visually), transmission expansion planning, uni- and multinodal power exchange, hydrothermal coordination, and market power evaluation. As a result, it is possible, for example, to perform studies for the use of alternative transmission-pricing schemes in the Chilean hydrothermal market. The tool has been successfully used to improve research and educational activities in power markets. table 2. Typical structure of graduate power programs in Chile and Colombia. Core Courses Traditional Elective Courses Courses on Current Topics of Interest Power system analysis Power system planning Power systems economics Power system operation and control Power system reliability Power system markets and regulation Power system Power system Corporate finances optimization dynamics Power electronics Industrial organization Protection Application of intelligent systems Power system Renewable energy transients Distribution Electrical machines Accreditation schemes were ur - gently needed and were developed very quickly; some are still in the process of implementation. The National Accreditation System was created in Colombia as a quality control mechanism in the first half of the 1990s. The mechanism was proposed by the government and the ten most prestigious universities, and it is coordinated by the National Accreditation Council of Colombia s ministry of education. The model for assessing the quality of engineering programs is still 72 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2010

13 Postgraduate Power Engineering Education in Brazil Postgraduate programs in power engineering in Brazil have Ph.D. thesis and M.Sc. dissertations, relevant technical contributions, and so on. Some 800 peer review members are in- undergone a significant expansion in the last 20 years. While in 1990 only six institutions offered courses at the vited to conduct the evaluation in all areas of knowledge. Each doctoral level, doctoral programs are now available at 22 course is graded on a scale from 1 to 7. These grades are meant institutions. Figure S6 presents the evolution of the number to be interpreted as follows: 1 (poor), 2 (weak), 3 (acceptable), of graduate programs that offer doctoral-level courses with 4 (good), and 5 (very good). Grades 6 and 7 are reserved for research areas in power engineering. programs of excellence whose performance is considered by Table 1 lists the institutions that offer graduate courses the committees to be outstanding. In order to be accredited, (master s and doctoral degrees) with research areas in power engineering. The table shows the year in which master s case the degrees awarded will have national validity. The last a course must have received a grade of at least 3, in which (M.Sc.) and doctoral (D.Sc.) programs were offered for the column of Table S1 shows the grades from the last evaluation first time. exercise, in The Federal Agency for Evaluation and Support of Graduate Education (CAPES) conducts the evaluation of all gradu- successfully completed electrical engineering specialization From 2003 to 2008, an annual average of 1,129 students ate programs in the country. Every three years, the programs (M.Sc. or D.Sc.), as shown in Figure S7. Figure S8 shows the are evaluated in accordance with a number of criteria, such as degrees awarded in power engineering, with an annual average of 120 from 2003 to the academic qualifications of faculty members, publications, figure S6. Evolution of the number of graduate programs at doctoral level in power engineering. voluntary. That is, accreditation for engineering programs is not required. But in the early years of this century the government issued new decrees that established minimum standards of quality for engineering programs offered by any educational institution. The minimum quality standards are mandatory. These regulations and the accreditation process have improved the quality of higher education in Colombia. There are currently 11 engineering programs that have been accredited as highquality programs. july/august 2010 IEEE power & energy magazine 73

14 table S1. Power engineering graduate courses in Brazilian institutions. First Year Grade Institutions Acronym M.Sc. D.Sc. (CAPES 2007) 1. Federal University of Rio de Janeiro COPPE/UFRJ State University of Campinas UNICAMP Federal University of Campina Grande UFCG Federal University of Minas Gerais UFMG University of São Paulo USP Engineering School of São Carlos USP/SC Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro PUC-RJ Federal University of Santa Catarina UFSC Federal University of Pernambuco UFPE Federal University of Itajubá UNIFEI State University Júlio de Mesquita Filho UNESP/IS Federal University of Santa Maria UFSM Federal University of Pará UFPA Federal University of Ceará UFC Federal University of Maranhão UFMA Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte UFRN University of Brasília UnB Federal University of Juiz de Fora UFJF Federal University of Uberlândia UFU Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul UFRGS Federal University of Bahia UFBA Federal University of Espírito Santo UFES Number of Graduations 1,400 1,200 1, D.Sc. M.Sc. Number of Graduations D.Sc. M.Sc figure S7. Number of degrees awarded in electrical engineering (M.Sc. and D.Sc.). figure S8. Number of graduations in power engineering (M.Sc. and D.Sc.). For Further Reading M. B. Do Coutto Filho, A. M. Leite da Silva, and M. T. Schilling, Power engineering education in Brazil: Prospects and related issues, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 6, no. 3, pp , Aug G. Karady, G. T. Heydt, M. Michel, P. Crossley, H. Rudnick, and S. Iwamoto, Review of power engineering education worldwide, in Proc. IEEE Summer Power Meeting, Edmonton, AB, July 1999, vol. 2, pp S. Schwartzman, Policies for higher education in Latin America: The context, Higher Educ., vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 9 20, Jan Biographies Hugh Rudnick is with Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile. Rodrigo Palma-Behnke is with Universidad de Chile, Chile. Sandoval Carneiro, Jr. is with CAPES, Brazil. Tatiana M.L. Assis is with Universidade Federal Fluminense, Brazil. Harold Salazar is with Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira, Colombia. Jaime A. Valencia is with Universidad de Antioquía, Colombia. p&e 74 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2010