Lion-human: an ivory representation of a lion-headed man dated c. 30,000-26,000 BCE. May represent a god or a worshipper/priest wearing a mask.
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1 ART 201: HANDOUT 1, PALAEOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC ART Cave Painting: representations of animals deep in caves, painted between c. 20,000 and c. 10,000 BCE., most notably at Lascaux in France and at Altamira in Spain. These expressionistic images often were painted atop each other and may represent either totemistic identification with the animals or hunting magic. Only one scene in Lascaux may picture a story-it shows a disemboweled bison, a rhinoceros, and a man who appears to be wounded. Lion-human: an ivory representation of a lion-headed man dated c. 30,000-26,000 BCE. May represent a god or a worshipper/priest wearing a mask. "Venus" of Willendorf: a small stone statuette found in Austria which probably represents an Earth Mother pregnant to symbolize fertility (c. 20,000 BCE). The "Neolithic" Revolution: the earliest farming and herding of domesticated animals began c. 9,000 BCE in the Near East. The Neolithic spread to Egypt by around 6000 BCE, to India by 7000 BCE.. By c. 3,500 BCE farming and herding had spread throughout Europe. Cultures in East Asia and the Americas appear to have developed agriculture separately in the same general centuries. Jericho: One of the world s earliest towns, in Palestine, was fortified between BCE. Ain Ghazal: Another of the world's first cities, flourished c. 7,000-5,000 BCE in modern Jordan. Notable for its plaster figures, usually around 3 1 /2 tall, possibly representing ancestor "portraits." Catal Huyuk: a town in southeastern Anatolia (modern Turkey) which flourished c. 6,000 BCE. Interestingly, had no doors-the houses were entered from the roofs! Had many shrines with painted decoration, some relating to the worship of an Earth Mother, others depicting hunting, and even the volcano near Catal. Dolmens: giant upright stones (megaliths) erected inside mounds (cairns) by Neolithic people in western Europe to form monumental tombs (Newgrange, Ireland, c BCE). Passage graves have an entry passage of dolmens leading to a burial chamber made of the same. Cromlechs: circles of megaliths arranged for ritual purposes; the most famous is Stonehenge in western England (c BCE). This circle of stones is 106 feet in diameter and seems to have been a sanctuary for sun worship, since its heelstone is aligned directly when looking from the altarstone when the sun rises at the summer solstice (the longest day of the year-june 21 st ).
2 ART 201: Handout 2, Ancient Near Eastern Art Mesopotamia: the "land between the rivers", the rivers being the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in modern Iraq. Sumeria: a mysterious people who occupied southern Mesopotamia and developed a notable civilization between c and 2000 B.C. Sumerian cities were each ruled by their god, who had a human steward to take care of mundane matters. The gods were worshipped at altars atop man-made mountains called Ziggurats (the "White" temple at Uruk, c BCE). A marble head found at Uruk of c probably depicts a goddess (Inanna, Goddess of fertility?), and would have been placed on a carved wooden body-she likely had a real wig on her head. A remarkable sculptural group of worshippers (and deities?) found at Eshnunna and dated c BCE show the typical Sumerian love of abstract cylindrical forms and expressive heads with great staring eyes. The portrait statue of Gudea, ruler of Lagash c BCE further show the rounded, geometric qualities and religious content typical of Sumerian sculpture-the text on his lap explains that he was building the temple which he has a plan of on his lap. The stone vase with relief scenes of the worship of the fertility goddess Inanna shows the Sumerian style of relief sculpture (c BCE). Ur: city in Sumeria that Abraham in the Bible is said to be from. It is notable for its Sumerian art, such as the harp found in a royal tomb of c BCE that shows animals doing cultic activities (probably related to the afterlife) in inlays on its frontal panel. The Standard of Ur from a tomb c BCE is two wood panels inlaid (it probably was a box) with scenes of soldiers and a battle (the War side) and processions of agricultural products (the Peace side). There are three registers on each panel. The Ziggurat at Ur is quite late in its present form, c BCE, but well-preserved. It was the temple of the moon god Nanna. Akkadians: a Semitic civilization which flourished in central and northern Mesopotamia c BCE. Their art was based on Sumerian precedent, but frequently glorified their kings (Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, c BCE) and also shows an interest in decorative pattern to enliven the surface of sculpture (Head of a Ruler, c BCE). The votive disk of Enheduanna (c BCE) shows the daughter of King Sargon acting as priestess of the moon god Nanna at Ur. Babylon: famous city in Mesopotamia, capital of a notable kingdom ca BCE. The Code of Hammurabi (c BCE), the world's first written laws, has a relief depiction of King Hammurabi talking to the enthroned sun-god Shamash; both are shown in the combination frontal/profile pose commonly used by ancient Near Eastern and Egyptian art. Much later, around 575 BCE, the Ishtar Gate was built at Babylon. It is faced with ceramic tiles depicting lions, bulls and dragons in relief against a blue ground. Assyrians: a warlike Semitic people who lived in northern Mesopotamia and dominated the Near East c BCE. The gates of their great fortress-palaces (Citadel of Sargon II, c. 870 BCE) were guarded by enormous human-headed bulls (Lamassu). The palaces were decorated with stone reliefs of military campaigns (Assyrian archers pursue enemies, c. 650 BCE) and ritual lion hunts (Ashurbanipal hunts lions, c. 640 BCE), which expressively depict the machismo of the kings. Persians: an Indo-European people, originally nomadic, who conquered the Near East and ruled it from 539 to 331 B.C. Persian art shows a typically nomadic interest in expressively abstracted animal forms (Bull Capital, Persepolis, c. 500 B.C.E.). Their palaces and reliefs were heavily influenced by Greek sculpture and Egyptian architecture (Palace of Darius, Persepolis c. 500 BCE). The relief friezes in the palace show Near Eastern figures, but were sculpted by Greek artists. Sassanians: a Persian dynasty that conquered present Iraq and Iran in 229, and which re-erected the Persian Empire until overthrown by the Arabs in 632. The Sassanians came into conflict with Rome, and captured the Emperor Valerian in 260, creating a relief in Iran depicting that victory.
3 Their palace at Ctesiphon is notable for its huge vaulted audience hall (c. 250), which was a model later mosques.
4 ART 201: HANDOUT 3, EGYPTIAN ART Palette of Narmer: dated c BCE, this stone relief slab depicts on multiple levels and in multiple registers the ritual triumph of the god-king Narmer over his enemies, and specifically the conquest of Lower Egypt (the area down the river or closer to the Mediterranean sea). On the back, Narmer wearing the crown of Upper Egypt kills his rival, the King of Lower Egypt, while Horus watches. On the front are three registers, the top showing Narmer wearing the unified crown ritually observing his dead enemies, in the middle two beasts with intertwined necks symbolizing the two parts of Egypt, at the bottom a bull (Narmer) gores a man and breaks into a walled city. Already shows the conventions of Egyptian art, notably the depiction of figures in simultaneous frontal and profile views. The Old Kingdom: The period c BCE, when Egypt was ruled by Kings (Pharoahs) who were considered gods on earth. A period of great stability and tranquillity in Egyptian history, the Old Kingdom ended in domestic discord and civil strife. Mastabas: combination chapels and tombs of nobles in the Old Kingdom, generally decorated with painted reliefs showing standard activities of the year. These were designed to insure that the deceased continued to experience the world's pleasures after death. A good example of a mastaba's decoration is the Tomb of Ti at Saqqara (c BCE). One of the painted reliefs there shows Ti supervising a hippo hunt, and activity that was seen as preserving cosmic order. Other scenes in the tomb include scenes of planting, and of cattle fording a stream. These form a calendar of desirable activities during the year that the dead person hoped would continue in the afterlife. Step Pyramid of Djoser, Saqqara: the first pyramid, actually a mastaba with a stepped pyramid built over it. It is surrounded by a precinct of 37 acres with false palaces and chapels, its architect, Imhotep, was later honored by the Egyptians as a god. Constructed c BCE, it has the world s first stone columns and capitals. Giza: site of the three great pyramids of Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. These date between 2550 and 2475 BCE, and are enormous tombs connected to funerary temples (a mortuary temple by the pyramid, and a valley temple by the Nile a quarter of a mile away) for offerings to the ka (soul) of the deceased. They take the form of squares.with the pyramids symbolizing the sun s rays on which the Pharoah ascended to heaven after his earthly death to live with the other gods. The funerary temple of Khafre is guarded by the Great Sphinx (a man-headed lion), and contained a monumental seated statue for his ka to take refuge in if the mummy was destroyed. A similar standing image was found of Menkaure and his Wife in their funerary temple. Like all Egyptian statues they are very blocky and, if made of stone, the images remain attached at the back to the block from which they are carved. They are type portraits, that is, not accurate images of the deceased. Scribe statues: the literate were highly honored in Egypt, because writing was used only by the nobles and the priests. Starting around 2500 BCE. scribes were depicted seated cross-legged as if writing in order to indicate their status. If carved of limestone they were painted to seem more realistic portraits. The Middle Kingdom: the period c BCE, when Egypt was ruled by a series of strong rulers whose portraits (Senusret III, c BCE) reflect their strength. The nobles tombs were often rock-cut chambers, and contained wall-paintings (usually of the calender type found in the Tomb of Ti). At the end of the Middle Kingdom, Egypt was invaded by the Hyksos, a Semitic people who occupied Egypt's Delta from c BCE. The story of Joseph and the later Exodus from Egypt under Moses' leadership in the Bible may recall this period in Egypt's history. The New Kingdom: the peak of Egyptian political power (c BCE), when Egypt had a large empire in the Near East. During the New Kingdom the cult of the sun-god Amun-Ra became very important and great temple complexes were built in his honor (Temple at Karnak). The great columnar halls ( hypostyle halls ) of these temples influenced Persian palace architecture, and may have influenced Greek temple architecture.
5 ART 201: HANDOUT 2, EGYPTIAN ART-page 2 Funerary Temple of Hatshepsut: a great axially laid-out complex on three levels built by Egypt's queen of c BCE at Deir el-bahari near Luxor. Included a statue of Hatshepsut (as a male Pharoah) offering jars to a god. Temple of Rhamses II at Abu Simbel: located at the first cataract (waterfalls) way up the Nile, this temple of around 1250 BCE features four colossal (65 tall) rock-cut statues of Rhamses seated with small images of his wife and son by each. The interior has 32 tall standing statues of the Pharoah as the god Osiris (god of the dead). Akhenaten: Pharoah BCE who rejected Amun-Ra for the sun-disk Aten. He moved the capital to a new palace at Tell el-amarna, and his rule is called the "Amarna Period." Amarna art is more expressionistic and less convention-ridden than other Egyptian art of the New Kingdom, and includes such notable works as the bust of Queen Nefertiti and the relief of the family of Akhenaten at play. The images of the royal family (Akehenaten from Karnak) have odd bulbous proportions and elongated faces. Tutankhamon: successor of Akhenaten who returned to the worship of Amun-Ra. His tomb was the only Egyptian royal burial found unplundered, and contained an incredible wealth of materials (gold coffin, c BCE). Tut s funerary mask illustrates the Egyptian use of precious materials, since it is made of gold, enamel and inlaid gems. The furniture found in the tomb includes a marvelous chest with images of Tut warring and hunting. "Books of the Dead": beginning with the New Kingdom, scrolls with magical texts and pictures were place with noble mummies to ensure their safe passage to the afterlife. These often show the judging of the dead by Osiris, god of the dead (Judgement of Osiris, c BCE). The pictures have the stiff conventionality and flat two-dimensionality of developed Egyptian style, but are fascinating records of the Egyptian cult of death: Last Mudgement of Hu-Nefer, c BCE.
6 ART 201: Handout 4, Aegean Art of the Bronze Age Minoan Crete: called after Minos, the king of Crete in Greek mythology, the Minoans were a mysterious people who built large and sprawling palace complexes (Palace of Minos, Knossos, c BCE) and worshipped female deities (Snake Goddess from Knossos, c BCE). The palace were painted with frescoes ( La Parisienne, woman or goddess, c BCE) which interpret the natural world in a lively and impressionistic style; the same style appears in better preserved form in the paintings at a Minoan colony on the island of Thera which was buried by a volcanic eruption around 1600 BCE (Spring Fresco). Other frescoes show rituals involving bull vaulting; it appears that the bull was quite important in Minoan religion (Bull Vaulting or Toreador fresco from Knossos, c BCE). Minoan sculpture was small, but often used precious materials (Snake Goddess made of faience, c BCE, Chryselephantine or gold and ivory man, c BCE), and usually was small. The charming, impressionistic style of Minoan art was used also on painted pottery and often features sea creatures (Kamares jar, ca BCE; Octopus jug, c BCE).The same style is found also on ritual stone vases (Harvester vase, c BCE). The Minoan palaces except for Knossos seem to have been destroyed by invaders c BCE, Knossos around 1380 BCE, and the civilization declined swiftly after that date. Mycenean Greece: called after Mycenae, its leading city in southern Greece, this civilization flourished from c to c BCE and was ruled from axially laidout palaces grouped around a central throne room in the form of a megaron. (Tiryns citadel), and featured massive fortifications (Tiryns galleries, c BCE, Lion Gate at Mycenae, c BCE). The Mycenaean citadels and the royal tombs show a typically Greek interest in order and monumentality (Lion Gate, Mycenae, c BCE; Treasury of Atreus, Mycenae, c BCE) which distinguishes them from the Minoans. Mycenean art was early heavily influenced by the art of Minoan Crete, but shows an interest in more masculine and warlike themes (Niello Dagger with lion hunting) which continued to the end of Mycenaean civilization (Warrior Vase, c BCE). While Mycenenaean art generally follows Minoan precedent, its later works, such as the female (goddess ) head from Mycenae or the Warrior vase show a less sophisticated style that, nevertheless, creates a powerful visual impression.
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