CHAPTER 2. LAGRANGIAN QUANTUM FIELD THEORY
|
|
- Christina Day
- 7 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 CHAPTER 2. LAGRANGIAN QUANTUM FIELD THEORY 2.1 GENERAL FORMALISM In quantum field theory we will consider systems with an infinite number of quantum mechanical dynamical variables. As a motivation and guide for the many definitions and procedures to be discussed, we will use concepts and techniques from classical field theory, the classical mechanics of infinitely many degress of freedom. The quantum fields will in addition become operators in Hilbert space and, as we will see, not every classical manipulation will make sense. We will have to discover the modifications to our theory needed to define a consistent quantum field theory in a sort of give and take process. We begin by recalling the basic tennants of classical field theory. In general we will consider a continuous system described by several classical fields φ r (x),r =1, 2,...N. (In general we will denote classical fields by lower case letters and quantum fields by the upper case of the same letters.) The index r can label the different components of the same function such as the components of the vector potential A(x) or the index can label two or more sets of completely independent fields like the components of the vector potential and the components of the gravitational field g µν (x). Also φ r (x) can be complex, in which case, φ r and φ r can be considered independent or the complex fields can be written in terms of real and imaginary parts which then can be treated as independent. The dynamical equations for the time evolution of the fields, the so called field equations or equations of motion, will be assumed to be derivable from Hamilton s variational principle for the action S(Ω) = d 4 xl(φ, µ φ r ) (2.1.1) Ω where Ω is an arbitrary volume in space-time and L is the Langrangian density which is assumed to depend on the fields and their first dervatives µ φ r. Hamilton s principle states that S is stationary under variations in the fields δs(ω) = 0 (2.1.2) φ r (x) φ r (x)+δφ r (x) =φ r(x) (2.1.3) 80
2 which vanish on the boundary Ω of the volume Ω, δφ r (x) =0 on Ω. (2.1.4) The physical field configuration in the space-time volume is such that the action S remains invariant under small variations in the fields for fixed boundary conditions. The calculation of the variation of the action yields the Euler- Lagrange equations of motion for the fields δs(ω) = d 4 xδl But = Ω Ω d 4 x ( φ r δφ r + δ µ φ r = µ φ r µφ r ). (2.1.5) δ µ φ r µ φ r = µ (φ r φ r )= µ δφ r. (2.1.6) Thus, performing an integration by parts we have ( ) δs(ω) = d 4 x µ δφ r Ω φ r µ φ r [ ] + ( µ δφ r )+ µ δφ r Ω µ φ r µ φ r [ ] = d 4 x µ δφ r + d 4 x µ [ δφ r ]. (2.1.7) Ω φ r µ φ r Ω µ φ r The last integral yields a surface integral over Ω by Gauss divergence theorem d 4 x µ F µ = d 3 σ µ F µ (2.1.8) but δφ r =0on Ω hence the integral is zero. So [ δs(ω) = d 4 x µ φ r µ φ r Ω Ω Ω ] δφ r =0 (2.1.9) by Hamilton s principle. Since δφ r is arbitrary inside Ω, the integrand vanishes µ =0 for r =1,..., N. (2.1.10) φ r µ φ r 81
3 These Euler-Lagrange equations are the equations of motion for the fields φ r. According to the canonical quantization procedure to be developed, we would like to deal with generalized coordinates and their canonically conjugate momenta so that we may impose the quantum mechanical commutation relations between them. Hence we would like to Legendre transform our Lagrangian system to a Hamiltonian formulation. We can see how to introduce the appropriate dynamical variables for this transformation by exhibiting the classical mechanical or particle analogue for our classical field theory. This can be done a few ways, in the introduction we introduced discrete conjugate variables by Fourier transforming the space dependence of the fields into momentum space then breaking momentum space into cells. We could also expand in terms of a complete set of momentum space functions to achieve the same result. Here let s be more direct and work in space-time. For each point in space the fields are considered independent dynamical variables with a given time dependence. We imagine approaching this continuum limit by first dividing up three-space into cells of volume δ x i, i =1, 2,. Then we approximate the values of the field in each cell by its average over the cell φ r ( x i,t)= 1 d 3 xφ r ( x, t ) φ r ( x i,t). (2.1.11) δ x i δ x i This is roughly the value of φ r (x, t) say at the center of the cell x = x i. Our field system is now is described by a discrete set of generalized coordinates, q ri (t) = φ r ( x i,t) φ r ( x i,t), (2.1.12) the field variables evaluated at the lattice sites, and their generalized velocities q ri (t) = φ r ( x i,t) φ r ( x i,t). (2.1.13) Since L depends on φ r also, we define this as the difference in the field values at neighboring sites. Thus, L( x, t ) in the i th cell, denoted by L i, is a function of q ri, q ri and q ri the coordinates of the nearest neighbors, L i = L i (q ri, q ri,q ri). (2.1.14) Hence, the Lagrangian is the spatial integral of the Langrangian density L(t) = d 3 xl = δ x i L i (q ri, q ri,q ri). (2.1.15) i 82
4 and we have a mechanical system with a countable infinity of generalized coordinates. We can now introduce in the usual way the momenta p ri canonically conjugate to the coordinates q ri p ri (t) = q ri (t) = j j (t) δ x j q ri (t) = δ x i (t) i q ri (t) (2.1.16) and the Legendre transformation to the Hamiltonian is H(q ri,p ri )=H = p ri q ri L = [ ] i (t). (2.1.17) δ x i q i ri (t) q ri(t) L i The Euler-Lagrange equations are now replaced by Hamilton s equations H q ri = ṗ ri, H p ri = q ri. (2.1.18) We define the momentum field canonically conjugate to the field coordinate by Then π r ( x i,t)= i(t) q ri (t) = p ri (t) =π r ( x i,t)δ x i i φ r ( x i,t). (2.1.19) H = i δ x i [π r ( x i,t) φ r ( x i,t) L i ]. (2.1.20) Going over to the continuum limit δ x i 0 the fields go over to the continuum values φ r ( x, t )and the conjugate momentum fields to theirs π r ( x, t ) (recall π r is a function of φ r, µ φ r ) and L i L. So that π r (x) = φ r (x). (2.1.21) The Hamiltonian corresponding to the Lagrangian L is H = d 3 xh (2.1.22) 83
5 with Hamiltonian density and Hamilton s equations are H = π r (x) φ r (x) L(φ r, µ φ r ) (2.1.23) δh δφ r (x) = i π r, δh δπ r (x) = φ r (x). (2.1.24) δ δφ r (x) and δ δπ r (x) where limit of, for example, denote functional derivatives defined by the continuum 1 δ x i H φ r ( x i,t) = δh δφ r (x). (2.1.25) In terms of the discrete coordinates and conjugate momenta we can now apply the quantization rules of Quantum Mechanics to obtain a quantum field theory. That is, we start with a Lagranian density in terms of products of quantum field operators (in what follows we will use capital letters to denote quantum field theoretic quantities as a reminder that they are quantum mechanical operators) L = L(Φ r, µ Φ r ). (2.1.26) (Even this first step is non-trivial, since products of fields are not always well defined due to their distributional nature. We will refine this step later, but for now we continue.) Since now Φ is a quantum operator we face our first problem in simply carrying over classical operations to the quantum case. Specifically it is no longer necessary that the variation in the fields, δφ, commute with the field operators and derivatives of the field operators. (If one assumes that the variations of both the fields and their conjugate momenta are independent then their CCR, to be given, imply that they commute.) Hence a priori it is not certain that the variation of the Lagrangian can be factorized into the Euler-Lagrange equations times δφ and an action principle obtained. For example, the variation of Φ 2 is δφφ + ΦδΦ, for arbitrary variation this is not necessarily 2ΦδΦ. Since the action principle was used to derive the Euler-Lagrange field equations which describe the dynamical space-time evolution of the fields we must hypothesize these instead. That is we will consider field theories for which the Euler-Lagrange equations of motion µ =0 (2.1.27) Φ r µ Φ r 84
6 are by fiat the field equations. Here the derivatives of L with respect to the quantum fields (and for quantum field derivatives in general) are defined just as a classical derivative where the fields in a product are kept in their original order as the chain rule is applied. For instance, Φ Φ4 =4Φ 3. On the other hand if we differentiate a product of fields like Φ ΦΦ with respect to Φ the operators must be kept in their original order, Φ Φ ΦΦ = ΦΦ + Φ Φ =2Φ Φ+[ Φ, Φ] 2Φ Φ. As we see the original term Φ ΦΦ = Φ 2 Φ +Φ[ Φ, Φ], hence ignoring the commutator in the derivative is like throwing away the linear Φ term in the original product. Hence we will view the Lagrangian as a short hand way of summarizing the dynamics of the fields, which is defined to be the Euler-Lagrange equations formally derived from the Lagrangian. The approach, as we will see when we discuss specific models, will be to define products of quantum fields, called normal products, with the property that operator ordering within the normal product is irrelevant and that the field equations are the normal product of the fields in the Euler-Lagrange equations. In general we will ignore these ordering questions at first and use the definition of operators and field equations suggested by the classical theory. So when a specific composite operator, like H or P µ, is defined we will keep the order fixed according to that definition and proceed to study the consequences. When necessary we will return to the classical definition and re-define the ordering of the composite operators in a quantum field theoretically consistent manner. This will be done in the framework of specific models. In fact some fields obey equations of motion which are not derivable from local Lagrangians, their field equations are said to have anomalous terms in them. The form of anomalies in QFT is an extremely important subject since it deals with purely quantum mechanical corrections to field equations. The discussion of such models will be taken up in the study of renormalization which is beyond the scope of these notes. The quantization rules for the operators Φ r are stated in terms of equal time commutation relations for the fields and the conjugate momentum fields, defined in an analogous procedure as followed in the classical case. We divide three-space into cells δ x i,i=1, 2, 3, and replace the quantum fields with their averages in 85
7 the cell Φ r ( x i,t)= 1 d 3 xφ r ( x, t ) Φ r ( x i,t). (2.1.28) δ x i δ x i These coordinate operators are denoted Q ri (t) Φ r ( x i,t) Φ r ( x i,t) (2.1.29) and the velocity operators Then again Q ri = Φ r ( x i,t). (2.1.30) L i = L i (Q ri, Q ri,q ri) (2.1.31) where we defined the spatial derivatives by their nearest neighbor differences, hence, the Q ri in L i. The Lagrangian is L(t) = d 3 xl = δ x i L(Q ri, Q ri,q ri). (2.1.32) i The conjugate momentum operators are defined similarly as P ri (t) (t) Q ri (t) = j j (t) δ x j Q ri (t) = δ x i i Q ri (t) Π r( x i,t)δ x i (2.1.33) and the Hamiltonian H(Q ri,p ri ) i = i = i P ri Q ri L δ x i [ i Q ri Q ri L i δ x i [ Π r ( x i,t) Φ r ( x i,t) L i ] ]. (2.1.34) (As in quantum mechanics questions of operator ordering may arise here. For example, if one has classically pq (=qp) in an expression, should this be replaced by PQ, QP or 1 2 (PQ + QP) in the quantum mechanical case? We will discuss operator ordering in more detail in the context of specific models later.) Going over to the continuum limit with Π r ( x i,t) Π r ( x, t ) we find Π r (x) = Φ r (x) (2.1.35) 86
8 and with the Hamiltonian density H = d 3 xh (2.1.36) H =Π r (x) Φ r (x) L(Φ r, µ Φ r ). (2.1.37) Since Q ri (t) and P ri (t) depend on time they are Heisenberg operators and we demand that they obey the usual quantum mechanical equal time commutation relations [Q ri (t),p sj (t)] = i hδ rs δ ij [Q ri (t),q sj (t)] = 0 = [P ri (t),p sj (t)]. (2.1.38) Furthermore, they obey the Heisenberg equations of motion (these are the quantum analogues of the classical Poisson bracket formulation of the Hamilton equations of motion), as can be explicitly verified in each case, [H, Q ri (t)] = i h Q ri t that is, [H, P ri (t)] = i h P ri t [Q ri (t), Π s ( x j,t)] = i hδ rs δ ij δ x j (2.1.39) [Q ri,q sj (t)] = 0 = [Π r ( x i,t), Π s ( x j,t)] (2.1.40) and [H, Q ri (t)] = i h Q ri(t) t [H, Π r ( x i,t)] = i h Π r( x i,t). (2.1.41) t Going over to the continuum limit we find that δ ij δ x j = δ 3 ( x y ) (2.1.42) 87
9 where x δ x i and y δ x j since d 3 yδ 3 ( x y )f( y )=f( x ) = j δ ij δ x j f( x j ), (2.1.43) δ x j so that the quantum fields obey the ETCR = f( x i )=f( x ) [Φ r ( x, t ), Π s ( y, t )] = i hδ rs δ 3 ( x y ) [Φ r ( x, t ), Φ s ( y, t )] = 0 = [Π r ( x, t ), Π s ( y, t )] (2.1.44) and the Heisenberg equations of motion [H, Φ r (x)] = i h Φ r(x) t [H, Π r (x)] = i h Π r(x). (2.1.45) t Note that the discretized version of the QFT yields the mechanical interpretation of QFT as an infinite collection of quantum mechanical generalized coordinates. Before proceeding further let s consider an example with which we are already familiar, the noninteracting, Hermitian, scalar (spin zero) field with mass m. The Lagrangian is given by L = 1 2 µφ µ Φ m 2 Φ 2. (2.1.46) The Euler-Lagrange equations describing the time evolution of the field are Φ µ µ Φ =0= ( 2 + m 2 )Φ. (2.1.47) The quantization rules are based on the Hamiltonian approach so we introduce the momentum field canonically conjugate to Φ by Π(x). (2.1.48) Φ(x) Now L = 1 2 Φ Φ 1 2 Φ Φ 1 2 m2 Φ 2 (2.1.49) 88
10 hence Π(x) = Φ(x). (2.1.50) The Hamiltonian density is H Π(x) Φ(x) L(x) = Φ Φ 1 2 Φ Φ+ 1 2 Φ Φ+ 1 2 m2 Φ 2 The canonical quantization rules are = 1 2 Φ Φ+ 1 2 Φ Φ+ 1 2 m2 Φ 2. (2.1.51) [Π( x, t ), Φ( y, t )] = i hδ 3 ( x y ) (2.1.52) which yield the ETCR [ ] Φ( x, t ), Φ( y, t ) = i hδ 3 ( x y ) (2.1.53) or, with the help of an equal time delta function, we write this as [ ] δ(x 0 y 0 ) Φ(x), Φ(y) = i hδ 4 (x y) (2.1.54) and [ ] δ(x 0 y 0 ) [Φ(x), Φ(y)]=0=δ(x 0 y 0 ) Φ(x), Φ(y). (2.1.55) The Heisenberg equations of motion are [H, Φ(x)] = i h Φ; [ ] H, Φ(x) = i h Φ(x). (2.1.56) Using the canonical commutation relations we can calculate [ δ(x 0 y 0 ) H(y), Φ(x) ] = δ(x 0 y 0 ) 1 2 [ y Φ(y). y Φ(y), Φ(x) ] +δ(x 0 y 0 ) 1 [ y Φ(y), Φ(x)]. 2 y Φ(y) { 1 [ +δ(x 0 y 0 ) 2 m2 Φ(y) Φ(y), Φ(x) ] + 1 [ 2 m2 Φ(y), Φ(x) ] } Φ(y) { = δ(x 0 y 0 )(+i h) y Φ(y). } y δ 3 ( x y )+m 2 Φ(y)δ( x y ). (2.1.57) 89
11 Now H = d 3 yh(y) (2.1.58) so that δ(x 0 y 0 ) [ H, Φ(x) ] = i hδ(x 0 y 0 ) { 2 Φ(x)+m 2 Φ(x) }. (2.1.59) Furthermore, there is no explicit time dependence in our theory so H is a constant [H, H] =Ḣ = 0. So we can integrate over y 0 to obtain for Heisenberg s equation of motion [ ] H, Φ(x) = i h [ 2 Φ(x)+m 2 Φ(x) ]. (2.1.60) = i h Φ This implies Φ 2 Φ+m 2 Φ(x) =0 (2.1.61) or ( 2 + m 2 )Φ = 0 (2.1.62) and we obtain the Euler-Lagrange equation of motion as we should. Before Fourier transforming to momentum space to recapture the particle interpretation as discussed in the introduction, let us consider symmetries in quantum field theory. In particular we would like to relate the time translation operator P 0 discussed in the quantum mechanics review to H above. Further since Φ and Π are dynamical degrees of freedom we would like a method for constructing all symmetry generators in terms of them. Specifically we would like to construct P µ and M µν the generators of the Poincare transformations since a subset of these operators will form a CSCO whose eigenstates will be the particle states of the theory. The Lagrangian formulation of field theory will be particularly useful for this procedure. However, first recall, from the Hamiltonian point of view symmetry transformations are related to operators that commute with the Hamiltonian, that is, are constants in time since the Heisenberg equation of motion for an operator Q(t) is i h Q(t) =[H, Q(t)]. (2.1.63) t If Q = 0 this implies [H, Q] = 0 and Q describes an invariance of H. In general symmetries are divided into two types space-time symmetries and internal symmetries. Space-time symmetries are transformations of the coordinate system while 90
12 internal symmetries do not involve the coordinate system only the fields. In both cases the invariance of the system under such symmetry transformations will lead to conservation laws. Recall for symmetry transformations of our system which are represented by unitary or antiunitary operators we have a one-to-one correspondence among the states of our Hilbert space given by that preserves transition probabilities ψ >= U ψ > (2.1.64) <ψ φ > 2 = <ψ φ > 2. (2.1.65) Furthermore, operator matrix elements transform as finite dimensional matrix representations of the symmetry group <ψ A r (x ) φ >= S rs <ψ A s (x) φ > (2.1.66) that is, U A r (x )U = S rs A s (x). (2.1.67) In particular if these transformations belong to some continuous group G with elements g(α) depending on the group parameters α i, i =1, 2,,A, and A = dimg, then for g 1 g 2 = g we have that U(g 1 )U(g 2 )=U(g) (2.1.68) where in general we can take the phase equal to one which we will assume here. Consequently, U (g 2 )U (g 1 )A r (x )U(g 1 )U(g 2 )=U (g)a r (x )U(g) (2.1.69) which implies that is S rs (g 1 )S st (g 2 )A t (x) =S rt (g)a t (x) (2.1.70) S(g 1 )S(g 2 )=S(g). (2.1.71) 91
13 S(g) is a finite dimensional matrix representation of the group multiplication law. For transformations continuously connected to the identity we have that U(g(α)) = e iα iq i. (2.1.72) Since implies we have U 1 = U, (2.1.73) e iα iq i = e iαi Q i, (2.1.74) Q i = Q i, (2.1.75) Q i is Hermitian and is known as the charge or generator of the transformations. If U corresponds to an invariance of the system (the eigenstates are the same) then H = U HU, (2.1.76) the Hamiltonian is invariant. This implies that the transition probability of state φ(t 0 ) > to evolve into state ψ(t) > at time t is unchanged for φ (t 0 ) > to evolve into ψ (t) > (in the Schrödinger picture) <ψ(t) U(t, t 0 ) φ(t 0 ) > 2 = <ψ (t) U(t, t 0 ) φ (t 0 ) > 2 (2.1.77) implies U (g)u(t, t 0 )U(g) =U(t, t 0 ) (2.1.78) but U(t, t 0 )=e ih(t t 0) so [U(t, t 0 ),U(g)] = 0. Conversely, if the equation of motion is invariant, [U(t, t 0 ),U(g)] = 0, then the Hamiltonian is invariant since U(t 0 + δt,t 0 ) 1 ihδt (2.1.79) so that [H, U(g)] = 0. (2.1.80) So the invariance of the law of motion implies a symmetry of the Hamiltonian and a symmetry of the Hamiltonian implies an invariance of the law of motion. For U(g(α)) = e iα iq i and α i small we find that U HU H + δh (2.1.81) 92
14 with δh the variation of H. But U HU = H iα i [ Q i,h ] (2.1.82) thus δh = iα i [Q i,h] (2.1.83) if H is invariant then U HU = H, that is δh = 0, so [Q i,h] = 0. Heisenberg equation of motion By the i h Q i = [ Q i,h ] (2.1.84) so Q i = 0 is a constant of motion, Q i is a conserved quantity. The Lagrangian formulation of QFT allows for a straightfoward construction of the charges Q associated with symmetries of L (and hence H). This procedure is incorporated in Noether s Theorem. Rather than review Noether s Theorem in classical field theory and then repeat the process with appropriate changes in the quantum field theoretic case we will proceed directly to the quantum case. As always we are using the classical theory as a guide and we should expect some changes when the fields become operators. Especially we will need to clarify questions of operator ordering. Here our give and take approach will be used. We will construct currents and charges that do the job we want based on the classical manipulations. When we use the definitions in our specfic spin 0, 1 2,1 free field theories we will find that we must come back with a finer definition for some quantities so that the operator nature of the fields is taken into account consistently. As usual we start with a Lagrangian L = L(Φ r, µ Φ r ) (2.1.85) and ask for L to be invariant under transformations belonging to the group G L(x) =U (g)l(x )U(g) L+ δl. (2.1.86) The middle term is evaluated at x if G is a space- time symmetry group. Note this implies that the equations of motion in the transformed system are the same as in the original system since L is the same. Also S = d 4 x U (g)l(x )U(g) 93
15 = d 4 x x x U (g)l(x )U(g) (2.1.87) we consider the Poincare transformations only, so x x = 1 and if U L(x )U = L(x) (2.1.88) we have S = d 4 xl(x) =S (2.1.89) that the action is invariant. Now under these transformations the fields vary or for infinitesimal variations U (g)φ r (x )U(g) =S rs (g)φ s (x) (2.1.90) U(g) =e iα iq i 1+iα i Q i (2.1.91) while S rs (g) = ( e α id i) rs 1 α i D i rs (2.1.92) where D i rsis a matrix. So inverting, U(g)Φ r (x)u (g) =S 1 rs (g)φ s(x ) (2.1.93) implies that Φ r (x)+iα i [ Q i, Φ r (x) ] =Φ r (x )+α i D i rsφ s (x). (2.1.94) Letting x µ = x µ + α i δ i x µ, we obtain the intrinsic variation of Φ r iα i δi Φ r (x) i ( U(g)Φ r (x)u (g) Φ r (x) ) [ = α i Q i, Φ r (x) ] [ = iα i δ i x µ µ Φ r (x)+drs i Φ s(x) ]. (2.1.95) So we are now in a position to calculate the intrinsic variation of the Lagrangian U [ (g)l(x)u(g) =L(x) iα i Q i, L(x) ] 94
16 L(x) α i δi L(x). (2.1.96) Since L is a function of Φ r and µ Φ r, its intrinsic variation is just given by the chain rule operation ( δ i L = δ i Φ r Φ r ) ( L + δ i µ Φ r µ Φ r ) L (2.1.97) where it is understood that the variations times the derivatives act as units as they are brought inside L to the field upon which they act. Here, as in what immediately follows, we will proceed formally as though δ i Φ r commutes with Φ r and µ Φ r. We may then use the manipulations of classical field theory. Eventually we will define the composite operators making up L by means of normal products of fields so that the fields within a product commute. Hence we can factor out the field variations in δ i L to yield But we have that δ i L = Φ r δi Φ r + δ i x µφ r (x) =U(g) x µφ r (x)u x µφ r (x) µ Φ r δi µ Φ r. (2.1.98) = x µ[uφ r (x)u Φ r (x)] = µ δi Φ r (2.1.99) so that differentiating by parts implies ( δ i L(x) = µ Φ r µ Φ r ) δ i Φ r (x) [ ] + µ µ Φ δi Φ r. ( ) r But the Euler-Lagrange equations of motion require that µ =0, ( ) Φ r µ Φ r hence [ ] δ i L(x) = µ µ Φ δi Φ r. ( ) r 95
17 It follows that U (g)l(x)u(g) =L(x) α i δi L(x) ( ) or at x and consequently, U (g)l(x )U(g) =L(x ) α i δi L(x) = L(x)+α i [ δ i x µ µ L δ i L ] ( ) δl(x) =U (g)l(x )U(g) L(x) = α [ δi i L δ i x µ µ L ]. ( ) By letting α i δi δ and +α i δ i x µ δx µ we have δl(x) = δl + δx µ µ L(x). ( ) However, equation ( ) gave ( ) δl = µ δφr µ Φ r ( ) so that equation ( ) becomes [ ] δl = µ δφr + δx µ µ L(x) µ Φ r [ ] = µ δφr + δx µ L ( µ δx µ ) L(x). ( ) µ Φ r Recall that for the Poincare group x µ = x µ + ω µν x ν + ɛ µ ω µν = ω νµ ( ) which implies that µ δx µ = ω µν g µν =0. ( ) Thus, we obtain Noether s Theorem: δl = µ J µ 96
18 [ ] J µ δφr + δx µ L µ Φ r ( ) where J µ is the current. If the Lagrangian is invariant δl =0=U L(x )U L(x) ( ) the current is conserved µ J µ =0. ( ) The charge Q i is a time independent operator given by Q i d 3 xj i0 (x) ( ) which generates symmetry transformations. PROOF: Q i = d 3 x 0 J i0 ( ) but µ J µ =0= 0 J 0 J ( ) which implies Q i = d 3 x J = ds J =0 ( ) S since the fields tend to zero as the x. Thus, the charge, Q i, is a conserved quantity. The charge density is J 0 = Φ r δφr + δx 0 L, ( ) but so that Φ r =Π r (x) ( ) J 0 =Π r δφr + δx 0 L ( ) and Q = d 3 xπ r δφr + d 3 xδx 0 L. ( ) 97
19 Recall that and L = H +Π r Φr ( ) δx µ = ɛ ν g νµ + ω νλ x λ g νµ ( ) for Poincare transformations. Presently, it is simpler to consider internal symmetries and space-time symmetries separately. 1)Internal Symmetries δx µ =0 δφ r (x) = α i δi Φ r (x) = α i D i rs Φ s(x) ( ) δl = δl = µ J µ ( ) with so that we have J µ = [ ] ( ) αi D i µ Φ rsφ s α i J µ i ( ) r J µ i = µ Φ r D i rsφ s. ( ) If δl = 0 this implies µ J µ i = 0 and Q i = d 3 xji 0 (x) = d 3 xπ r D i rsφ s. ( ) Already Q i = 0, so [Q i, Φ r (x)] = d 3 y [ Π t (y)d i tsφ s (y), Φ r (x) ]. ( ) Since Q i is time independent its integrand can be taken at y 0 = x 0 so that the equal time commutator yields [Q i, Φ r (x)] = d 3 y iδ tr δ 3 ( y x )DtsΦ i s (y) = idrsφ i s (x), ( ) which agrees with our previously derived result (2.1.95) and ( ). So indeed this is Q i. 2)Translations δx µ = g µν ɛ ν 98
20 δφ r (x) = α i δi Φ r = δx µ µ Φ r = ɛ ν g µν µ Φ ν, ( ) since D rs = 0 for translations i.e. S rs = δ rs only. We have that δl = δl + δx µ µ L = µ J µ ( ) with [ ] J µ = ( ɛ ν g µν µ Φ r )+g µν ɛ ν L µ Φ r [ ] = ɛ ν ν Φ r g µν L µ Φ r = ɛ ν T µν (x) ( ) where the current T µν is given by T µν (x) µ Φ r ν Φ r g µν L ( ) and is called the energy-momentum tensor. If δl = 0, i.e. L is translationally invariant, then we have that µ T µν =0. ( ) Furthermore, the charge Q ν P ν d 3 xt 0ν ( ) is called the energy-momentum operator or translation operator. Now, [P ν, Φ r (x)] = d 3 y [ T 0ν (y), Φ r (x) ] = d 3 y [( Π r ν Φ r g 0ν L ) (y), Φ r (x) ] ( ) So for ν =0wehave P 0 = d 3 xt 00 = = ( ) d 3 x Π r Φr L d 3 xh ( ) = H 99
21 and [P 0, Φ r (x)] = [H, Φ r (x)] = i Φ r (x), which agrees with (2.1.95). For µ = 1, 2, 3 we have P = d 3 xt 0i = d 3 xπ r Φr ( ) so that [ P, Φr (x)] = d 3 y [Π s (y), Φ r (x)] Φ s (y). ( ) = i Φ r (x) Hence which is in agreement with equation (2.1.95). [P µ, Φ r (x)] = i µ Φ r (x) ( ) 3) Lorentz Transformations δx µ = g µν ω νλ x λ = ω µν x ν δφ r = δx µ µ Φ r ω µν 2 Dµν rs Φ s = ω µν x ν µ Φ r ω µν 2 Dµν rs Φ s = ω µν 2 [(xµ ν x ν µ )Φ r D µν rs Φ s ] ( ) where the D rs µν are the tensor or spinor representations of the Lorentz group studied earlier. So δl = µ J µ ( ) with J µ = [ ] ω νρ µ Φ r 2 [(xν ρ x ρ ν )Φ r Drs νρ Φ s]+g µν ω νρ x ρ L ω νρ 2 M µνρ (x), ( ) where M µνρ is called the angular momentum tensor. We can write it as ω νρ 2 M µνρ = ω ( ) νρ 2 xν ρ Φ r g µρ L µ Φ r ω ( ) νρ 2 xρ ν Φ r g µν L µ Φ r D νµ ω νρ rs Φ s µ Φ r 2 + ω νρ 2 (xν g µρ L x ρ g µν L +2x ρ g µν L) 100
22 = ω ( νρ x ν T µρ x ρ T µν 2 ) Drs νρ µ Φ Φ s + ω νρ r 2 (xν g µρ L + x ρ g µν L). ( ) Since the second term in brackets on the right hand side is ν ρ symmetric it vanishes when multiplied by ω νρ. The first term in brackets is ν ρ anti-symmetric hence we have that Note that we have simply M µνρ = x ν T µρ x ρ T µν µ Φ r D νρ rs Φ s = M µρν. ( ) µ M µνρ = T νρ T ρν µ (Π µ r Dνρ rs Φ s) ( ) where Π µ r. ( ) µ Φ r From ( ) we know this must be zero, but let s check it T νρ =Π ν r ρ Φ r g νρ L ( ) hence T νρ T ρν =Π ν r ρ Φ r Π ρ r ν Φ r, ( ) while Now the variation yields µ (Φ µ r D νρ rs Φ s )= Φ r D νρ rs Φ s Π µ r µ D νρ rs Φ s. ( ) δl = δl + δx µ µ L Performing the necessary algebra this becomes = Φ r δφr +Π µ r µ δφr + δx µ µ L. ( ) δ νρ L = Φ r [(x ν ρ x ρ ν )Φ r D νρ rs Φ s] 101
23 +Π µ r µ [(x ν ρ x ρ ν )Φ r Drs νρ Φ s ] (x ν ρ x ρ ν ) L = Drs νρ Φ s + x ν ρ Φ r x ρ ν Φ r Φ r Φ r Φ r Π µ r µ D νρ rs Φ s +Φ ν r ρ Φ r Π ρ r ν Φ r +x ν ρ µ Φ r x ρ ν µ Φ r µ Φ r µ Φ r x ν ρ L + x ρ ν L = Φ r D νρ rs Φ s Φ µ r µd νρ rs Φ s +Φ ν r ρ Φ r Π ρ r ν Φ r Hence we have checked explicitly that +x ν ρ L x ρ ν L x ν ρ L + x ρ ν L. ( ) δ νρ L = T νρ T ρν µ (Π µ r D νρ rs Φ s ), ( ) so µ M µνρ = δ νρ L =0 ( ) as proved before in general. So if L is Lorentz invariant we have T νρ T ρν = µ (Π µ r D νρ rs Φ s ). ( ) We can always construct a symmetric energy momentum tensor that leads to the same P µ and is conserved as shown by F. J. Belinfante (Purdue professor). Let H ρµν Π ρ rd µν rs Φ s = H ρνµ, ( ) then T µν T νµ = ρ H ρµν. ( ) Then we can always define a symmetric energy-momentum tensor (the Belinfante tensor, the construction process being called the Belinfante improvement proceedure) by Θ µν T µν ρ G ρµν ( ) 102
24 where 1) First we have PROOF: but So and Thus, G ρµν 1 2 [Hρµν + H µνρ + H νµρ ]. ( ) µ Θ µν = µ T µν. ( ) µ Θ µν µ T µν = µ ρ G ρµν ( ) G µρν = 1 2 [Hµρν + H ρνµ + H νρµ ] = 1. 2 [ Hµνρ H ρµν H νµρ ] ( ) G ρµν = 1 2 [Hρµν + H µνρ + H νµρ ] ( ) G ρµν = G µρν. ( ) µ ρ G ρµν 0. ( ) 2) Secondly Θ µν is to be symmetric Θ µν =Θ νµ, ( ) so T µν T νµ = 1 2 ρ [H ρνµ + H νµρ + H µνρ H ρµν H µνρ H νµρ ] =+ ρ H ρµν ( ) as required. Hence we also have 2 ) ν Θ µν =0. ( ) 3) Thirdly the charge is unchanged P ν = d 3 xθ 0ν = = d 3 xt 0ν d 3 xt 0ν d 3 x ρ G ρ0ν d 3 x 0 G 00ν ( ) 103
25 but G 00ν =0 ( ) hence P ν = d 3 xθ 0ν = d 3 xt 0ν. ( ) Similarly we can Belinfante improve the angular momentum tensor, denote the improved tensor by M µνρ B, so that M µνρ B x ν Θ µρ x ρ Θ µν. ( ) First note that So we have M µνρ B µ M µνρ B =Θ νρ Θ ρν =0. ( ) = M µνρ + H µνρ x ν λ G λµρ + x ρ λ G λµν = M µνρ + H µνρ + λ [ x ρ G λµν x ν G λµρ] + H µνρ [Hνµρ + H µρν + H ρµν H ρµν H µνρ H νµρ ]. ( ) This is just a Belinfante improvement to M µνρ given by M µνρ B = M µνρ + λ [ x ρ G λµν x ν G λµρ]. ( ) Hence the charge is also unchanged d 3 xm 0νρ B = d 3 xm 0νρ + d 3 x 0 [ x ρ G 00ν x ν G 00ρ] = d 3 xm 0νρ = M νρ ( ) yielding the generator of the Lorentz transformations. Also [M νρ, Φ r (x)] = i δ νρ Φ r (x) = i [(x ν ρ x ρ ν )Φ r (x) D νρ rs Φ s (x)], ( ) 104
26 which can be checked explicitly as in the P µ case. In general, any current can be Belinfante improved J µ B J µ + ρ G ρµ ( ) if there exist tensors G ρµ so that G ρµ = G µρ, ( ) then ρ µ G ρµ 0 ( ) and Q = d 3 xjb 0 = d 3 xj 0. ( ) We now turn our attention to the specific Lagrangians describing spin 0, 1 2, and 1 particles that are non-interacting. 105
Second Rank Tensor Field Theory
Physics 411 Lecture 25 Second Rank Tensor Field Theory Lecture 25 Physics 411 Classical Mechanics II October 31st, 2007 We have done the warm-up: E&M. The first rank tensor field theory we developed last
More informationChapter 22 The Hamiltonian and Lagrangian densities. from my book: Understanding Relativistic Quantum Field Theory. Hans de Vries
Chapter 22 The Hamiltonian and Lagrangian densities from my book: Understanding Relativistic Quantum Field Theory Hans de Vries January 2, 2009 2 Chapter Contents 22 The Hamiltonian and Lagrangian densities
More informationState of Stress at Point
State of Stress at Point Einstein Notation The basic idea of Einstein notation is that a covector and a vector can form a scalar: This is typically written as an explicit sum: According to this convention,
More informationQuantum Mechanics and Representation Theory
Quantum Mechanics and Representation Theory Peter Woit Columbia University Texas Tech, November 21 2013 Peter Woit (Columbia University) Quantum Mechanics and Representation Theory November 2013 1 / 30
More informationParticle Physics. Michaelmas Term 2011 Prof Mark Thomson. Handout 7 : Symmetries and the Quark Model. Introduction/Aims
Particle Physics Michaelmas Term 2011 Prof Mark Thomson Handout 7 : Symmetries and the Quark Model Prof. M.A. Thomson Michaelmas 2011 206 Introduction/Aims Symmetries play a central role in particle physics;
More informationThe career of a young theoretical physicist consists of treating the harmonic oscillator in ever-increasing levels of abstraction.
2. Free Fields The career of a young theoretical physicist consists of treating the harmonic oscillator in ever-increasing levels of abstraction. Sidney Coleman 2.1 Canonical Quantization In quantum mechanics,
More informationThree Pictures of Quantum Mechanics. Thomas R. Shafer April 17, 2009
Three Pictures of Quantum Mechanics Thomas R. Shafer April 17, 2009 Outline of the Talk Brief review of (or introduction to) quantum mechanics. 3 different viewpoints on calculation. Schrödinger, Heisenberg,
More informationIntroduction to SME and Scattering Theory. Don Colladay. New College of Florida Sarasota, FL, 34243, U.S.A.
June 2012 Introduction to SME and Scattering Theory Don Colladay New College of Florida Sarasota, FL, 34243, U.S.A. This lecture was given at the IUCSS summer school during June of 2012. It contains a
More information3. Derive the partition function for the ideal monoatomic gas. Use Boltzmann statistics, and a quantum mechanical model for the gas.
Tentamen i Statistisk Fysik I den tjugosjunde februari 2009, under tiden 9.00-15.00. Lärare: Ingemar Bengtsson. Hjälpmedel: Penna, suddgummi och linjal. Bedömning: 3 poäng/uppgift. Betyg: 0-3 = F, 4-6
More informationContinuous Groups, Lie Groups, and Lie Algebras
Chapter 7 Continuous Groups, Lie Groups, and Lie Algebras Zeno was concerned with three problems... These are the problem of the infinitesimal, the infinite, and continuity... Bertrand Russell The groups
More informationThe derivation of the balance equations
Chapter 3 The derivation of the balance equations In this chapter we present the derivation of the balance equations for an arbitrary physical quantity which starts from the Liouville equation. We follow,
More informationRate of convergence towards Hartree dynamics
Rate of convergence towards Hartree dynamics Benjamin Schlein, LMU München and University of Cambridge Universitá di Milano Bicocca, October 22, 2007 Joint work with I. Rodnianski 1. Introduction boson
More informationMASTER OF SCIENCE IN PHYSICS MASTER OF SCIENCES IN PHYSICS (MS PHYS) (LIST OF COURSES BY SEMESTER, THESIS OPTION)
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PHYSICS Admission Requirements 1. Possession of a BS degree from a reputable institution or, for non-physics majors, a GPA of 2.5 or better in at least 15 units in the following advanced
More informationElasticity Theory Basics
G22.3033-002: Topics in Computer Graphics: Lecture #7 Geometric Modeling New York University Elasticity Theory Basics Lecture #7: 20 October 2003 Lecturer: Denis Zorin Scribe: Adrian Secord, Yotam Gingold
More informationUniversity of Cambridge Part III Mathematical Tripos
Preprint typeset in JHEP style - HYPER VERSION Michaelmas Term, 2006 and 2007 Quantum Field Theory University of Cambridge Part III Mathematical Tripos Dr David Tong Department of Applied Mathematics and
More information(Most of the material presented in this chapter is taken from Thornton and Marion, Chap. 7)
Chapter 4. Lagrangian Dynamics (Most of the material presented in this chapter is taken from Thornton and Marion, Chap. 7 4.1 Important Notes on Notation In this chapter, unless otherwise stated, the following
More informationThe Quantum Harmonic Oscillator Stephen Webb
The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator Stephen Webb The Importance of the Harmonic Oscillator The quantum harmonic oscillator holds a unique importance in quantum mechanics, as it is both one of the few problems
More information1 Lecture 3: Operators in Quantum Mechanics
1 Lecture 3: Operators in Quantum Mechanics 1.1 Basic notions of operator algebra. In the previous lectures we have met operators: ˆx and ˆp = i h they are called fundamental operators. Many operators
More informationCBE 6333, R. Levicky 1 Differential Balance Equations
CBE 6333, R. Levicky 1 Differential Balance Equations We have previously derived integral balances for mass, momentum, and energy for a control volume. The control volume was assumed to be some large object,
More informationTime Ordered Perturbation Theory
Michael Dine Department of Physics University of California, Santa Cruz October 2013 Quantization of the Free Electromagnetic Field We have so far quantized the free scalar field and the free Dirac field.
More informationQuantum Time: Formalism and Applications
Quantum Time: Formalism and Applications Submitted in partial fulfillment of honors requirements for the Department of Physics and Astronomy, Franklin and Marshall College, by Yuan Gao Professor Calvin
More informationChapter 9 Unitary Groups and SU(N)
Chapter 9 Unitary Groups and SU(N) The irreducible representations of SO(3) are appropriate for describing the degeneracies of states of quantum mechanical systems which have rotational symmetry in three
More informationNotes on Quantum Mechanics
Notes on Quantum Mechanics K. Schulten Department of Physics and Beckman Institute University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign 405 N. Mathews Street, Urbana, IL 680 USA April 8, 000 Preface i Preface The
More information5.61 Physical Chemistry 25 Helium Atom page 1 HELIUM ATOM
5.6 Physical Chemistry 5 Helium Atom page HELIUM ATOM Now that we have treated the Hydrogen like atoms in some detail, we now proceed to discuss the next simplest system: the Helium atom. In this situation,
More informationMathematics Course 111: Algebra I Part IV: Vector Spaces
Mathematics Course 111: Algebra I Part IV: Vector Spaces D. R. Wilkins Academic Year 1996-7 9 Vector Spaces A vector space over some field K is an algebraic structure consisting of a set V on which are
More informationOrbits of the Lennard-Jones Potential
Orbits of the Lennard-Jones Potential Prashanth S. Venkataram July 28, 2012 1 Introduction The Lennard-Jones potential describes weak interactions between neutral atoms and molecules. Unlike the potentials
More informationLecture L3 - Vectors, Matrices and Coordinate Transformations
S. Widnall 16.07 Dynamics Fall 2009 Lecture notes based on J. Peraire Version 2.0 Lecture L3 - Vectors, Matrices and Coordinate Transformations By using vectors and defining appropriate operations between
More informationDifferential Relations for Fluid Flow. Acceleration field of a fluid. The differential equation of mass conservation
Differential Relations for Fluid Flow In this approach, we apply our four basic conservation laws to an infinitesimally small control volume. The differential approach provides point by point details of
More informationSpecial Theory of Relativity
June 1, 2010 1 1 J.D.Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd Edition, Chapter 11 Introduction Einstein s theory of special relativity is based on the assumption (which might be a deep-rooted superstition
More informationNOTES ON LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS
NOTES ON LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS Definition 1. Let V and W be vector spaces. A function T : V W is a linear transformation from V to W if the following two properties hold. i T v + v = T v + T v for all
More informationLQG with all the degrees of freedom
LQG with all the degrees of freedom Marcin Domagała, Kristina Giesel, Wojciech Kamiński, Jerzy Lewandowski arxiv:1009.2445 LQG with all the degrees of freedom p.1 Quantum gravity within reach The recent
More informationMATRIX ALGEBRA AND SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS
MATRIX ALGEBRA AND SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS Systems of Equations and Matrices Representation of a linear system The general system of m equations in n unknowns can be written a x + a 2 x 2 + + a n x n b a
More informationLecture 2: Homogeneous Coordinates, Lines and Conics
Lecture 2: Homogeneous Coordinates, Lines and Conics 1 Homogeneous Coordinates In Lecture 1 we derived the camera equations λx = P X, (1) where x = (x 1, x 2, 1), X = (X 1, X 2, X 3, 1) and P is a 3 4
More informationFUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS LECTURE NOTES: QUOTIENT SPACES
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS LECTURE NOTES: QUOTIENT SPACES CHRISTOPHER HEIL 1. Cosets and the Quotient Space Any vector space is an abelian group under the operation of vector addition. So, if you are have studied
More informationSeminar 4: CHARGED PARTICLE IN ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. q j
Seminar 4: CHARGED PARTICLE IN ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD Introduction Let take Lagrange s equations in the form that follows from D Alembert s principle, ) d T T = Q j, 1) dt q j q j suppose that the generalized
More informationTime dependence in quantum mechanics Notes on Quantum Mechanics
Time dependence in quantum mechanics Notes on Quantum Mechanics http://quantum.bu.edu/notes/quantummechanics/timedependence.pdf Last updated Thursday, November 20, 2003 13:22:37-05:00 Copyright 2003 Dan
More informationMATH10212 Linear Algebra. Systems of Linear Equations. Definition. An n-dimensional vector is a row or a column of n numbers (or letters): a 1.
MATH10212 Linear Algebra Textbook: D. Poole, Linear Algebra: A Modern Introduction. Thompson, 2006. ISBN 0-534-40596-7. Systems of Linear Equations Definition. An n-dimensional vector is a row or a column
More informationHow To Understand The Dynamics Of A Multibody System
4 Dynamic Analysis. Mass Matrices and External Forces The formulation of the inertia and external forces appearing at any of the elements of a multibody system, in terms of the dependent coordinates that
More informationLecture 5 Motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field
Lecture 5 Motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field Charged particle in a magnetic field: Outline 1 Canonical quantization: lessons from classical dynamics 2 Quantum mechanics of a particle in a
More informationLecture 1: Schur s Unitary Triangularization Theorem
Lecture 1: Schur s Unitary Triangularization Theorem This lecture introduces the notion of unitary equivalence and presents Schur s theorem and some of its consequences It roughly corresponds to Sections
More informationFinite dimensional topological vector spaces
Chapter 3 Finite dimensional topological vector spaces 3.1 Finite dimensional Hausdorff t.v.s. Let X be a vector space over the field K of real or complex numbers. We know from linear algebra that the
More informationLecture 11. 3.3.2 Cost functional
Lecture 11 3.3.2 Cost functional Consider functions L(t, x, u) and K(t, x). Here L : R R n R m R, K : R R n R sufficiently regular. (To be consistent with calculus of variations we would have to take L(t,
More informationby the matrix A results in a vector which is a reflection of the given
Eigenvalues & Eigenvectors Example Suppose Then So, geometrically, multiplying a vector in by the matrix A results in a vector which is a reflection of the given vector about the y-axis We observe that
More informationarxiv:1603.01211v1 [quant-ph] 3 Mar 2016
Classical and Quantum Mechanical Motion in Magnetic Fields J. Franklin and K. Cole Newton Department of Physics, Reed College, Portland, Oregon 970, USA Abstract We study the motion of a particle in a
More informationLet s first see how precession works in quantitative detail. The system is illustrated below: ...
lecture 20 Topics: Precession of tops Nutation Vectors in the body frame The free symmetric top in the body frame Euler s equations The free symmetric top ala Euler s The tennis racket theorem As you know,
More informationORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS GABRIEL NAGY Mathematics Department, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824. SEPTEMBER 4, 25 Summary. This is an introduction to ordinary differential equations.
More informationA Primer on Index Notation
A Primer on John Crimaldi August 28, 2006 1. Index versus Index notation (a.k.a. Cartesian notation) is a powerful tool for manipulating multidimensional equations. However, there are times when the more
More informationA linear combination is a sum of scalars times quantities. Such expressions arise quite frequently and have the form
Section 1.3 Matrix Products A linear combination is a sum of scalars times quantities. Such expressions arise quite frequently and have the form (scalar #1)(quantity #1) + (scalar #2)(quantity #2) +...
More informationOverview of Violations of the Basic Assumptions in the Classical Normal Linear Regression Model
Overview of Violations of the Basic Assumptions in the Classical Normal Linear Regression Model 1 September 004 A. Introduction and assumptions The classical normal linear regression model can be written
More informationAssessment Plan for Learning Outcomes for BA/BS in Physics
Department of Physics and Astronomy Goals and Learning Outcomes 1. Students know basic physics principles [BS, BA, MS] 1.1 Students can demonstrate an understanding of Newton s laws 1.2 Students can demonstrate
More informationUnified Lecture # 4 Vectors
Fall 2005 Unified Lecture # 4 Vectors These notes were written by J. Peraire as a review of vectors for Dynamics 16.07. They have been adapted for Unified Engineering by R. Radovitzky. References [1] Feynmann,
More informationThe Ideal Class Group
Chapter 5 The Ideal Class Group We will use Minkowski theory, which belongs to the general area of geometry of numbers, to gain insight into the ideal class group of a number field. We have already mentioned
More informationMATH 304 Linear Algebra Lecture 9: Subspaces of vector spaces (continued). Span. Spanning set.
MATH 304 Linear Algebra Lecture 9: Subspaces of vector spaces (continued). Span. Spanning set. Vector space A vector space is a set V equipped with two operations, addition V V (x,y) x + y V and scalar
More informationHøgskolen i Narvik Sivilingeniørutdanningen STE6237 ELEMENTMETODER. Oppgaver
Høgskolen i Narvik Sivilingeniørutdanningen STE637 ELEMENTMETODER Oppgaver Klasse: 4.ID, 4.IT Ekstern Professor: Gregory A. Chechkin e-mail: chechkin@mech.math.msu.su Narvik 6 PART I Task. Consider two-point
More informationThe Matrix Elements of a 3 3 Orthogonal Matrix Revisited
Physics 116A Winter 2011 The Matrix Elements of a 3 3 Orthogonal Matrix Revisited 1. Introduction In a class handout entitled, Three-Dimensional Proper and Improper Rotation Matrices, I provided a derivation
More informationCHAPTER 2. Eigenvalue Problems (EVP s) for ODE s
A SERIES OF CLASS NOTES FOR 005-006 TO INTRODUCE LINEAR AND NONLINEAR PROBLEMS TO ENGINEERS, SCIENTISTS, AND APPLIED MATHEMATICIANS DE CLASS NOTES 4 A COLLECTION OF HANDOUTS ON PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
More informationMath 4310 Handout - Quotient Vector Spaces
Math 4310 Handout - Quotient Vector Spaces Dan Collins The textbook defines a subspace of a vector space in Chapter 4, but it avoids ever discussing the notion of a quotient space. This is understandable
More informationDynamics. Basilio Bona. DAUIN-Politecnico di Torino. Basilio Bona (DAUIN-Politecnico di Torino) Dynamics 2009 1 / 30
Dynamics Basilio Bona DAUIN-Politecnico di Torino 2009 Basilio Bona (DAUIN-Politecnico di Torino) Dynamics 2009 1 / 30 Dynamics - Introduction In order to determine the dynamics of a manipulator, it is
More informationQuantum Mechanics: Postulates
Quantum Mechanics: Postulates 5th April 2010 I. Physical meaning of the Wavefunction Postulate 1: The wavefunction attempts to describe a quantum mechanical entity (photon, electron, x-ray, etc.) through
More informationElements of Abstract Group Theory
Chapter 2 Elements of Abstract Group Theory Mathematics is a game played according to certain simple rules with meaningless marks on paper. David Hilbert The importance of symmetry in physics, and for
More informationT ( a i x i ) = a i T (x i ).
Chapter 2 Defn 1. (p. 65) Let V and W be vector spaces (over F ). We call a function T : V W a linear transformation form V to W if, for all x, y V and c F, we have (a) T (x + y) = T (x) + T (y) and (b)
More informationLinear Algebra Notes for Marsden and Tromba Vector Calculus
Linear Algebra Notes for Marsden and Tromba Vector Calculus n-dimensional Euclidean Space and Matrices Definition of n space As was learned in Math b, a point in Euclidean three space can be thought of
More informationOperator methods in quantum mechanics
Chapter 3 Operator methods in quantum mechanics While the wave mechanical formulation has proved successful in describing the quantum mechanics of bound and unbound particles, some properties can not be
More informationTheory of electrons and positrons
P AUL A. M. DIRAC Theory of electrons and positrons Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1933 Matter has been found by experimental physicists to be made up of small particles of various kinds, the particles of
More informationStatistical Physics, Part 2 by E. M. Lifshitz and L. P. Pitaevskii (volume 9 of Landau and Lifshitz, Course of Theoretical Physics).
Fermi liquids The electric properties of most metals can be well understood from treating the electrons as non-interacting. This free electron model describes the electrons in the outermost shell of the
More informationMechanics 1: Conservation of Energy and Momentum
Mechanics : Conservation of Energy and Momentum If a certain quantity associated with a system does not change in time. We say that it is conserved, and the system possesses a conservation law. Conservation
More informationMATRIX ALGEBRA AND SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS. + + x 2. x n. a 11 a 12 a 1n b 1 a 21 a 22 a 2n b 2 a 31 a 32 a 3n b 3. a m1 a m2 a mn b m
MATRIX ALGEBRA AND SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS 1. SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS AND MATRICES 1.1. Representation of a linear system. The general system of m equations in n unknowns can be written a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 +
More informationIntroduction to Matrix Algebra
Psychology 7291: Multivariate Statistics (Carey) 8/27/98 Matrix Algebra - 1 Introduction to Matrix Algebra Definitions: A matrix is a collection of numbers ordered by rows and columns. It is customary
More information5 Homogeneous systems
5 Homogeneous systems Definition: A homogeneous (ho-mo-jeen -i-us) system of linear algebraic equations is one in which all the numbers on the right hand side are equal to : a x +... + a n x n =.. a m
More informationMatrix Representations of Linear Transformations and Changes of Coordinates
Matrix Representations of Linear Transformations and Changes of Coordinates 01 Subspaces and Bases 011 Definitions A subspace V of R n is a subset of R n that contains the zero element and is closed under
More informationArkansas Tech University MATH 4033: Elementary Modern Algebra Dr. Marcel B. Finan
Arkansas Tech University MATH 4033: Elementary Modern Algebra Dr. Marcel B. Finan 3 Binary Operations We are used to addition and multiplication of real numbers. These operations combine two real numbers
More informationIntroduction to Algebraic Geometry. Bézout s Theorem and Inflection Points
Introduction to Algebraic Geometry Bézout s Theorem and Inflection Points 1. The resultant. Let K be a field. Then the polynomial ring K[x] is a unique factorisation domain (UFD). Another example of a
More informationPHY4604 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics Fall 2004 Practice Test 3 November 22, 2004
PHY464 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics Fall 4 Practice Test 3 November, 4 These problems are similar but not identical to the actual test. One or two parts will actually show up.. Short answer. (a) Recall
More informationMetric Spaces. Chapter 7. 7.1. Metrics
Chapter 7 Metric Spaces A metric space is a set X that has a notion of the distance d(x, y) between every pair of points x, y X. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce metric spaces and give some
More informationSolving Systems of Linear Equations
LECTURE 5 Solving Systems of Linear Equations Recall that we introduced the notion of matrices as a way of standardizing the expression of systems of linear equations In today s lecture I shall show how
More informationEffective actions for fluids from holography
Effective actions for fluids from holography Based on: arxiv:1405.4243 and arxiv:1504.07616 with Michal Heller and Natalia Pinzani Fokeeva Jan de Boer, Amsterdam Benasque, July 21, 2015 (see also arxiv:1504.07611
More information4.5 Linear Dependence and Linear Independence
4.5 Linear Dependence and Linear Independence 267 32. {v 1, v 2 }, where v 1, v 2 are collinear vectors in R 3. 33. Prove that if S and S are subsets of a vector space V such that S is a subset of S, then
More informationLecture 3 Fluid Dynamics and Balance Equa6ons for Reac6ng Flows
Lecture 3 Fluid Dynamics and Balance Equa6ons for Reac6ng Flows 3.- 1 Basics: equations of continuum mechanics - balance equations for mass and momentum - balance equations for the energy and the chemical
More informationa 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + + a 1n x n = b 1 a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + + a 2n x n = b 2.
Chapter 1 LINEAR EQUATIONS 1.1 Introduction to linear equations A linear equation in n unknowns x 1, x,, x n is an equation of the form a 1 x 1 + a x + + a n x n = b, where a 1, a,..., a n, b are given
More information2 Session Two - Complex Numbers and Vectors
PH2011 Physics 2A Maths Revision - Session 2: Complex Numbers and Vectors 1 2 Session Two - Complex Numbers and Vectors 2.1 What is a Complex Number? The material on complex numbers should be familiar
More informationLS.6 Solution Matrices
LS.6 Solution Matrices In the literature, solutions to linear systems often are expressed using square matrices rather than vectors. You need to get used to the terminology. As before, we state the definitions
More informationSection 6.1 - Inner Products and Norms
Section 6.1 - Inner Products and Norms Definition. Let V be a vector space over F {R, C}. An inner product on V is a function that assigns, to every ordered pair of vectors x and y in V, a scalar in F,
More informationSpace-Time Approach to Non-Relativistic Quantum Mechanics
R. P. Feynman, Rev. of Mod. Phys., 20, 367 1948 Space-Time Approach to Non-Relativistic Quantum Mechanics R.P. Feynman Cornell University, Ithaca, New York Reprinted in Quantum Electrodynamics, edited
More informationChapter 4, Arithmetic in F [x] Polynomial arithmetic and the division algorithm.
Chapter 4, Arithmetic in F [x] Polynomial arithmetic and the division algorithm. We begin by defining the ring of polynomials with coefficients in a ring R. After some preliminary results, we specialize
More information8 Divisibility and prime numbers
8 Divisibility and prime numbers 8.1 Divisibility In this short section we extend the concept of a multiple from the natural numbers to the integers. We also summarize several other terms that express
More informationIRREDUCIBLE OPERATOR SEMIGROUPS SUCH THAT AB AND BA ARE PROPORTIONAL. 1. Introduction
IRREDUCIBLE OPERATOR SEMIGROUPS SUCH THAT AB AND BA ARE PROPORTIONAL R. DRNOVŠEK, T. KOŠIR Dedicated to Prof. Heydar Radjavi on the occasion of his seventieth birthday. Abstract. Let S be an irreducible
More informationQuantum Mathematics. 1. Introduction... 3
Quantum Mathematics Table of Contents by Peter J. Olver University of Minnesota 1. Introduction.................... 3 2. Hamiltonian Mechanics............... 3 Hamiltonian Systems................ 3 Poisson
More informationPS 320 Classical Mechanics Embry-Riddle University Spring 2010
PS 320 Classical Mechanics Embry-Riddle University Spring 2010 Instructor: M. Anthony Reynolds email: reynodb2@erau.edu web: http://faculty.erau.edu/reynolds/ps320 (or Blackboard) phone: (386) 226-7752
More informationInner Product Spaces
Math 571 Inner Product Spaces 1. Preliminaries An inner product space is a vector space V along with a function, called an inner product which associates each pair of vectors u, v with a scalar u, v, and
More informationContinued Fractions and the Euclidean Algorithm
Continued Fractions and the Euclidean Algorithm Lecture notes prepared for MATH 326, Spring 997 Department of Mathematics and Statistics University at Albany William F Hammond Table of Contents Introduction
More informationThe integrating factor method (Sect. 2.1).
The integrating factor method (Sect. 2.1). Overview of differential equations. Linear Ordinary Differential Equations. The integrating factor method. Constant coefficients. The Initial Value Problem. Variable
More informationLinear Maps. Isaiah Lankham, Bruno Nachtergaele, Anne Schilling (February 5, 2007)
MAT067 University of California, Davis Winter 2007 Linear Maps Isaiah Lankham, Bruno Nachtergaele, Anne Schilling (February 5, 2007) As we have discussed in the lecture on What is Linear Algebra? one of
More information1 Variational calculation of a 1D bound state
TEORETISK FYSIK, KTH TENTAMEN I KVANTMEKANIK FÖRDJUPNINGSKURS EXAMINATION IN ADVANCED QUANTUM MECHAN- ICS Kvantmekanik fördjupningskurs SI38 för F4 Thursday December, 7, 8. 13. Write on each page: Name,
More informationIncreasing for all. Convex for all. ( ) Increasing for all (remember that the log function is only defined for ). ( ) Concave for all.
1. Differentiation The first derivative of a function measures by how much changes in reaction to an infinitesimal shift in its argument. The largest the derivative (in absolute value), the faster is evolving.
More informationRotation Matrices and Homogeneous Transformations
Rotation Matrices and Homogeneous Transformations A coordinate frame in an n-dimensional space is defined by n mutually orthogonal unit vectors. In particular, for a two-dimensional (2D) space, i.e., n
More informationSystems with Persistent Memory: the Observation Inequality Problems and Solutions
Chapter 6 Systems with Persistent Memory: the Observation Inequality Problems and Solutions Facts that are recalled in the problems wt) = ut) + 1 c A 1 s ] R c t s)) hws) + Ks r)wr)dr ds. 6.1) w = w +
More informationCONTROLLABILITY. Chapter 2. 2.1 Reachable Set and Controllability. Suppose we have a linear system described by the state equation
Chapter 2 CONTROLLABILITY 2 Reachable Set and Controllability Suppose we have a linear system described by the state equation ẋ Ax + Bu (2) x() x Consider the following problem For a given vector x in
More informationHow Gravitational Forces arise from Curvature
How Gravitational Forces arise from Curvature 1. Introduction: Extremal ging and the Equivalence Principle These notes supplement Chapter 3 of EBH (Exploring Black Holes by Taylor and Wheeler). They elaborate
More informationDiscrete mechanics, optimal control and formation flying spacecraft
Discrete mechanics, optimal control and formation flying spacecraft Oliver Junge Center for Mathematics Munich University of Technology joint work with Jerrold E. Marsden and Sina Ober-Blöbaum partially
More informationN 1. (q k+1 q k ) 2 + α 3. k=0
Teoretisk Fysik Hand-in problem B, SI1142, Spring 2010 In 1955 Fermi, Pasta and Ulam 1 numerically studied a simple model for a one dimensional chain of non-linear oscillators to see how the energy distribution
More information