CHINESE ACADEMIC MIGRATION TO AUSTRALIA

Transcription

1 CHINESE ACADEMIC MIGRATION TO AUSTRALIA by Graeme Hugo Federation Fellow Professor of Geography and Director of the National Centre for Social Applications of GIS The University of Adelaide DRAFT Please do not quote without permission Paper prepared for People on the Move : The Transnational Flow of Chinese Human Capital Conference, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology October 25

2 INTRODUCTION One of the most striking changes in Australian migration in recent years has been the increased involvement of the China-born. The abolition of the final vestiges of the White Australia Policy in the early 197s saw an increase in migration from Asia to Australia but it has only been in the last decade or so that China has become a dominant element in this flow. As a result the China-born population increased only slowly between 1971 and 1981 (from 17,61 to 26,76). However it gathered pace growing by 191 percent in the 198s and 83 percent in the 199s. Between 21 and 24 it has grown by 15.9 percent so that in 24 there were 181,987 China-born persons in Australia, the fourth largest overseas-born group in the country. This rapid growth occurred at a time when Australian immigration policy became more focused on skill so that the China-born are a high skill, highly educated and high income group. The present paper focuses on an important and growing component of Chinese migration to Australia that of academics, scientists and researchers. The paper begins with a brief analysis of Chinese migration to Australia and shows how they have grown from being the fourteenth most important origin of settlers in the 198s to be currently the third largest origin of settlers. It is shown how the China-born have also become an important component in the massive increase in non-permanent migration to Australia which has occurred since the mid 199s. One of the key arguments is that there is a nexus between non-permanent migration and eventual permanent settlement in Australia. The focus is then shifted to the migration of academics and researchers from China to Australia. It is shown that the demand for university teachers in Australia has increased sharply in recent years and that Chinese scholars have become increasingly involved in this labour market. The process of this engagement is examined with a particular focus on the connection between study in Australia and eventual permanent residency. The linkages which Chinese academics maintain with colleagues and institutions in China are then examined and their implications traced. Some consideration is then given to likely future patterns of Chinese academics moving to Australia. It is shown that there will be an unprecedented increase in demand for academics in Australia over the next two decades due to a highly imbalanced age structure among Australian university staff and shown that the Chinese will be particularly well placed to compete in this market. Finally some observations are made of the implications of the study for migration theory from China and Australia. The paper draws upon a number of sources of data. Australia has some of the most comprehensive and accurate data on international migration in the world (Hugo 24) and these are drawn upon here. Firstly the Australian population census has a set of questions relating to international migration and these are drawn upon to show the changes in the China-

3 2 born population of Australia and the main features of Chinese university staff. All persons entering or leaving Australia are required to complete a card so there is excellent flow data on all arrivals and departures. These are divided into three categories Permanent Movements - Immigrants are persons arriving with the intention of settling permanently in Australia. - Emigrants are Australian residents (including former settlers) departing with the stated intention of staying abroad permanently. 1 Long Term Movements - Overseas arrivals of visitors with the intended or actual length of stay in Australia of 12 months or more. - Departures of Australian residents with intended or actual length of stay abroad of 12 months or more. Short Term Movements - Travellers whose intended or actual stay in Australia or abroad is less than 12 months. These data allow more analysis by age, birthplace, sex, occupation, origin and destination. The secondary data are augmented by a survey of Chinese academics in Australia and a number of in-depth interviews with Chinese members of the staff of Australian universities. The survey was modelled on a similar study undertaken of Chinese academics in universities in the United States (Zweig and Changgui 1995). Persons with names identifiable as being of mainland Chinese origin were identified from official university staff lists (Association of Commonwealth Universities 24). From this some 17 names were identified. It is apparent that this is only a partial sampling frame since the lists did not include many staff members (especially those involved only in research and not in teaching) who did not have permanent positions. Nevertheless it is considered that it provides an indicative picture of Chinese representation in Australian universities. A total of 73 responses was obtained providing a response rate of 43 percent. The survey was conducted on-line and it is apparent that some problems were experienced because the questionnaire was identified as spam so that some potential respondents did not get to see the letter asking for co-operation. The questionnaires that were returned were comprehensively completed and many respondents showed a high level of interest in the study. The questions asked included enquiries into 1 However, before 1974 former settlers were not classified as emigrants unless they had been in Australia for at least 12 months.

4 3 reasons for coming to Australia, academic background, experience in China and Australia, linkages maintained with China and future intentions. CHINESE MIGRATION TO AUSTRALIA Figure 1 shows the growth of Australia s China-born population. 2 There was significant Chinese migration to Australia in the nineteenth century associated with the discovery of gold (Lyng 1935; Choi 1975; Price 1974) but with the introduction of the White Australia Policy in the early twentieth century there was a halt to immigration and this together with significant return migration saw a decline in the China-born population from 38,142 in 1861 to 6,44 in This policy was dismantled gradually over the postwar years with its final dissolution in However, the increase in Asian immigration which followed was unlike earlier Asian migration in that it was not dominated by the Chinese. It was not until the opening up of China in the late 7s and early 8s that immigration to Australia picked up. The China-born was only the fourth largest Asian born group in 1981 behind the Malaysia, Philippines and Vietnam-born populations. However by 24 it had become the largest Asian born group in Australia numbering 181,987 or.9 percent of the total population. Figure 1: Australia: China-born Population, 1861 to 24 Source: Price et al. 1984; Australian Censuses and ABS 25 Number 2, 18, 16, 14, 12, 1, 8, 6, 4, 2, Note: 1861 to 21 data are Census counts, 24 data refer to the estimated resident population The Chinese population in this section are not all ethnic Chinese in Australia but those born in China. The ethnic Chinese population is considerably larger including substantial numbers born in Australia but also many from Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines.

5 4 What has been the contemporary pattern of migration between China and Australia? Considering firstly permanent settlement, Figure 2 shows the year by year numbers of permanent arrivals from China and the sharp increase in numbers in recent years is clearly in evidence. This has seen China-born immigrants move from being the tenth largest birthplace group among settlers in 1991 to third in 24. Australian immigration selection policy has become more focused on economic and workforce criteria since the mid 199s so that if New Zealand citizens 3 are excluded, the proportion that skilled migrants make up of the settler intake increased from 24.1 percent in to 55.5 percent in Although skilled migrants make up more than half of the China-born intake, Table 1 shows that while there are almost two skilled migrants to every family migrant in the total intake among Chinese migrants, there is only a small difference in numbers of the two types of migrants. Figure 2: Australia: Settler Arrivals from China, Source: DIMIA Australian Immigration: Consolidated Statistics and DIMIA unpublished data 1, 9, 8, 7, Number 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, Note: Prior to 196 comprises permanent and longterm arrivals and prior to 1983 includes Taiwan 24 3 New Zealand citizens can freely enter Australia under a special Trans Tasman agreement.

6 5 Table 1: Source: Australia: Visa Categories of Settler Arrivals from China and Total, 23-4 DIMIA unpublished data Settler Arrivals from China Total Settler Arrivals Migration Stream Migration Substream No. % No. % Family Migration Spouse 1, , Fiancée , Parents , Other Family Visas , Family Migration Total 3, , Skill Migration Australian Linked , Regional Linked , Employment Nomination , Business , Distinguished Talents Independent 2, , Skill Migration Total 4, , Special Eligibility Former Australian Residents Humanitarian Refugee 8.1 1, Non-Program Migration New Zealand Citizens , Other , Non-Program Migration Total , Total 7, ,59 1. Another major shift in Australian migration policy since the mid 199s is that there has been an introduction of a number of temporary residence visas to facilitate non-permanent migration of skilled workers (Hugo 1999). Hitherto Australia had eschewed such policies and focused on permanent settlement of migrants. The result has been a substantial increase in the number of temporary visaed migrants eligible to work as is evident in Figure 3. Of the main types of temporary movement there has been a significant involvement of the China-born in all but the Working Holiday Maker Program 4. Hence, Figure 4 and Figure 5 shows that there has been an increase in the short term and long term movements between China and Australia. 4 This is a programme open only to nationals of countries with which Australia has a special bilateral agreement.

7 Figure 3: Temporary Migration to Australia by Category, 1986 to 24 Source: DIMIA Population Flows: Immigration Aspects, various issues; Rizvi 24 6 Overseas Students 14, 12, 1, Number 8, 6, 4, 2, Working Holiday Makers Number 1, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, Temporary Business Entrants Number of Temporary Business Entry Visas Issued 4, 35, 3, 25, 2, 15, 1, 5, Total Number of Visas Granted/Issued 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1,

8 Figure 4: Short Term Movement to and From China, to 22-3 Source: DIMIA unpublished data 7 Number 2, 18, 16, 14, 12, 1, 8, Short Term Resident Return Short Term Resident Depart Short Term Visitors Arrive Short Term Visitor Depart 6, 4, 2, Note: Data not available for 21-2 and 23-4 Figure 5: Long Term Movement to and From China, to 23-4 Source: DIMIA unpublished data 35 Number LongTerm Arrivals Long Term Departures One movement of particular significance is that of fee paying students who have entered Australia to study in Australian educational institutions. Australia has become one of the major global destinations of students from South nations (Abella 25) and Figure 6

9 8 shows that there has been a sharp increase in the numbers of overseas student arrivals from China both in numerical terms and as a percentage of all student arrivals. This movement is of interest from a number of perspectives but one is the increasing evidence of a link between student migration and permanent settlement in Australia. This is an important part of an Figure 6: Australia: China-born Student Arrivals, to 23-4 Source: DIMIA unpublished data and Immigration Update, various issues 6, 5, 4, Number 3, 2, 1, Note: Refers to the number of actual movements rather than the number of people who travelled. Data not available for Percentage of all Student Arrivals Note: Refers to actual movements rather than people who travelled. Data not available for

10 9 increasingly significant nexus between temporary migration and permanent migration not only in Australia but also in other countries. In 23-4 some 37,294 or 25. percent of all settlers in Australia were on shore migrants in that they were persons already within Australia on temporary residence permits but who had successfully applied for permanent residency. In 24-5, 16,485 transferred from student visas to be permanent residents and the largest single group were those from China (3,258 persons). It is apparent that many overseas students are seeing their period of study in Australia as the first step in a process of eventual settlement in Australia. The Chinese are a significant part of the group who are seeking to transfer from temporary to permanent status. In 23-4 they were second only to the United Kingdom in the number of persons granted permanent residence on-shore accounting for 11.7 percent of the 36,69 grants. While data are not available on the numbers applying for a change of status, it is likely that the Chinese may be the largest group. In mid 24 they were the largest national group among people with bridging visas which include people waiting for an outcome on their application for permanent residence. China is not an important element among temporary business visitors as among students. They are the seventh largest national group among long term temporary business visitors with visas allowing them to stay for up to four years. They accounted for four percent of the total in On the other hand the Chinese were the largest group among short term temporary visitors accounting for 21 percent of the 298,839 business visas granted in This reflects the fact that there is very active interaction between China and Australia in trade. The high level of skill among permanent and long term migrants from China is apparent in Table 2. Some 78.1 percent of permanent arrivals and 79.5 precent of long term arrivals were drawn from the top three occupational categories. The focus here will be on one subgroup of this group university lecturers and tutors and researchers. The largest group of Chinese coming to Australia are on visitor visas who are predominantly tourists but also include short stay business people. In 23-4 some 185,79 visitors came to Australia from China the fifth largest source country.

11 1 Table 2: Source: Australia: Occupation of Permanent and Long Term Arrivals from China, to 23-4 DIMIA unpublished data Settler Arrival Long Term Arrival Major Occupation Group No. % No. % Managers/Admin 3, , Professionals 15, , Associate Professionals 2, , Tradespersons & Related Workers 1, Advanced Clerical & Service Workers Intermediate Clerical, Sales & Service Workers 2, , Intermediate Production & Transport Workers Elementary Clerical, Sales & Service Workers 1, ,2 6.4 Labourers & Related Workers Total 27, ,71 1. MIGRATION OF ACADEMICS AND RESEARCHERS FROM CHINA TO AUSTRALIA The focus will now turn to a discussion of the migration of one occupational sub-group from China to Australia that of university teachers and researchers. Although there is some difficulty in identifying this group in the data base, some indicative information can be obtained. Figure 7 and Figure 8 show the long term and permanent migration of academic Figure 7: Source: Australia: Permanent and Long Term Movement To and From China of University Lecturers and Tutors, to 23-4 DIMIA unpublished data 12 1 Settler Arrival LT Arrival Permanent Departure LT Departure 8 Number

12 11 Figure 8: Source: Australia: Permanent and Long Term Movement To and From China of Researchers, to 23-4 DIMIA unpublished data Settler Arrival LT Arrival Permanent Departure LT Departure Number teachers and researchers to and from China between and All told over this period there were 339 and 2,89 permanent arrivals of teaching university lecturers and tutors and researchers respectively while the numbers of long term arrivals were 551 and 686. Clearly there are significant numbers involved in this movement but a key issue is the fact that there is likely to be a substantial increase in the flow over the next decade. It is shown elsewhere (Hugo 25) that academics are one of the oldest occupational sub-groups in the Australian workforce. At the 21 census, some 19 percent of the university academic workforce were aged 55 years and over and 51.2 percent 45 years and over. This was due to a large influx of young academics in the 196s and 197s associated with a massive increase in student numbers due to the entry of postwar baby boomers into university going ages and increases in university participation rates. This was followed by a period of slow growth in academic staff numbers due to reduced student growth together with increasing student-staff ratios. Hence, there will be a high level of recruitment in Australian universities over the next two decades and it is unlikely that this demand will be met by the Australian labour market. Accordingly the opportunities for Chinese academics and researchers in Australia will increase. Figure 9 shows that the permanent and long term arrivals in these occupational categories are very young and there are more men than women. In the survey of academics 5 The occupation coding system in the DIMIA data was changed in 23-4.

13 12 Figure 9: Source: University Lecturers & Tutors, Permanent and Long Term Arrivals from China, Age Sex Structure, to 23-4 DIMIA unpublished data Permanent Arrivals 65+ Males Females Age Percent Long Term Arrivals 65+ Males Females Age Percent

14 13 there appears to be a stronger representation of men who were 72 percent of respondents. It seems the sampling frame used tended to miss recent, junior and non-permanent staff members since 82 percent were Australian citizens 93 percent were currently married 78 percent had continuing or tenured positions This is reflected in the fact that the age structure is also somewhat older than that depicted in Figure 9 with only 18.1 percent aged less than 4 and 59.7 percent being aged in their 4s. However, only 13.8 percent were at the professorial level and there were 31.9 percent at the Associate Professor level. It is apparent that the group going to work in universities are drawn from the full range of disciplines but the sample shows that there is a concentration in engineering and information technology as Table 3 shows. There are also significant representation in social sciences and accounting/economics. Table 3: Source: Chinese Academics Survey: Disciplines 25 Survey Discipline Area No. % Social Science Accounting/Economics Engineering Sciences Mathematics Information Technology Health Law THE DECISION TO MIGRATE In examining the migration process of Chinese academics to Australia, it is apparent that there is a strong linkage between studying in Australia and then proceeding to an academic position. Table 4 shows that more than two thirds of the sample received their highest academic qualification from an Australian university and slightly less got it from within China. The United Kingdom is also important. The fact that there is a linkage for the Chinese between studying in Australia and getting a job in a University is evident in the fact that 79.2 percent of the sample had been in Australia longer than 1 years. However, 68 percent of the sample had only obtained their current job in the last 5 years.

15 14 Table 4: Source: Australian Chinese Academic Study: Location of University Where Received Highest Degree 25 Survey Location of University No. % Australia United Kingdom China United States Japan The reasons given for coming to Australia are shown in Table 5 and there is an interesting spread between career advancement and lifestyle/family/adventure issues. The push factor from China was relatively minor with very few respondents giving some dissatisfaction with the political situation in China as a reason for coming to Australia. Table 5: Source: Australian Chinese Academic Study: Reasons for Coming to Australia 25 Survey Reasons No. % Career advancement Academic training Lifestyle/Environment Family/Children Adventure/Experience Situation in China Transfer Few respondents gave family reasons coming to Australia and most of these indicated that one of their motivations was to give their children a greater opportunity in life than they felt would be possible if they remained in China. In-depth interviews with Chinese staff in Australian universities however do indicate that networks are an important influence on the decision to migrate and the decision of where to migrate to. Some 4 percent of respondents said all of their family lived in Australia and another 19 percent had more than half of their family in Australia. These include both family who lived in Australia before they arrived and those who they assisted to follow them. Family migration has been more important among the Chinese than among other birthplace groups. Discussions with respondents indicated that networks with colleagues already in Australia are also an important influence. Only 17 of the respondents indicated that they did not have another colleague in their academic unit who was from China. The networks factor is also strongly evident in the interactions which

16 15 respondents have in Australia. All but one respondent socialise with other Mainland Chinese families although three quarters indicated that they socialise with other families as well. It is apparent that a similar pattern is developing in the China-Australia academic migration situation to that which has applied in North America for a longer period (Zweig and Changgui 1995). There are distinctive patterns in evidence with a nexus between initial temporary migration as a student and obtaining eventual permanent residency. In addition, networks of family and friends play an important role. It is interesting, however, that only 57 percent indicated that they intend to remain permanently in Australia although another 23.4 percent responded that they were undecided about where they will settle in the future. However a substantial number have definite plans of moving out of Australia at some stage. Moreover some 29.2 percent of respondents indicated that they would go back to China if they were offered a good position. Of those indicated they would not stay in Australia, half envisaged that they might move to another country, especially the United States or United Kingdom. LINKAGES WITH CHINA One of the clear findings from the survey was that Chinese academics in Australia maintain strong linkages with China. Nearly half of the sample (43.1 percent) have contact with China several times a week and 72.3 percent visit China at least once a year. In addition more than half of the respondents (51.4 percent) had active joint research projects with colleagues in China. Half of these projects receive at least some funding from China sources. Hence, there are strong professional linkages being maintained by Chinese academics in Australia. This is attested to by the fact that the majority of respondents (84.7 percent) indicated that they would like to have a joint position between Australia and China. Table 6 shows the main linkages which were maintained by respondents with their homeland. The most frequent linkage is visiting with family in China (85.7 percent) but there are also high proportions with collaborative research with Chinese colleagues (8.8 percent) and making regular visits to those colleagues in China (8.6 percent). Other important linkages relate to running courses/seminars in China, training Chinese students, giving academic papers and to a lesser extent editing-books with Chinese scholars and undertaking consulting work in China. Few however had commercial linkages with companies involved in China. Individual respondents have a range of special linkages with China with a few having adjunct positions in Chinese universities, others have set up joint China-Australia programmes and some serve as advisory committees to the Chinese government in Beijing.

17 16 Table 6: Source: Australian Chinese Academic Study: Linkages with Mainland China 25 Survey Link % Running Seminars and mini courses in China 75.8 Training Chinese students in Australia 66.6 Editing book with Chinese Scholar 25.5 Collaborative research with Chinese scholars 8.8 Give academic paper in China 75.8 Consultancy work in China 32.1 Have regular visits with colleagues in China 8.6 Have regular visits with family in China 85.7 Have commercial interests in China 2. Just over half of the respondents (54.2 percent) indicated that the Chinese Embassy in Canberra had facilitated these interactions and some 22.3 percent saw the Embassy s role as being important in the networks and activities they maintain with China. The respondents put considerable importance on their linkages with China. Several also indicated that their reasons for placing such importance on the linkages is not only for the enhancement of their own careers. More than half indicated that they were interested in facilitating technology transfer to China and almost all said that they had an interest in promoting quality research in China. Most also indicated that they have an interest in attracting good PhD students from China and several indicated that they wish to make a contribution to the development of China. DISCUSSION Australia s immigration has undergone parametric change in the last decade. The first sweeping shift was the transformation of the national Immigration Program from being one dominated by permanent settlement to one where each year several hundred thousand people are granted a visa to live and work on a temporary basis in Australia. The second was the increasing workforce/economic orientation of the program so that skill, education, Australian qualifications, ability to speak English and work experience became the dominant criteria in selecting both settlers and temporary migrants. A third and related element has been the increasing share of Australian settlement which has involved onshore migration whereby temporary residents are granted permanent residency. While these changes have occurred, China has become Australia s largest source country where the main language is not English (only the United Kingdom and New Zealand are more significant). Moreover there are a

18 17 number of reasons why China is to become an even more significant source of migrants in the near future Firstly Australia is currently expanding its immigration intake in response to a perceived shortage of skilled workers. The Chinese use the family reunion component of the immigration program more than most other birthplace groups. The China-born are now the largest Asia origin group in Australia and one of the most rapidly expanding so that the family and other social networks linking Australia and China are increasing as will movement along those linkages. The fact that China is now also the largest origin for full fee paying overseas students in Australia since the Australian government has increased the number of programs whereby foreigners with Australian qualifications get preferential treatment. For example, extra points in the Points Assessment Scheme are given if people have Australian qualifications. Recently too overseas students who study at regional Australian universities 6 have been given additional preference. Other linkages between China and Australia are expanding such as trade, business and tourism so that information flows are also increasing as well as population exchanges. There are some additional factors which are likely to see an even greater movement of Chinese academics and researchers to Australia. Firstly there has been an increasing focus in Australian universities on recruiting Chinese students. This together with increasing prosperity in China is likely to lead to a continuation of the upward trajectory in Figure 6 over the next few years. Moreover, over the last few years the Australian government has introduced a number of changes to its immigration regulations to facilitate overseas students obtaining permanent residence in Australia. A second factor is the ageing of the staff of Australian universities (Hugo 25). This will result in an increased demand for academics and researchers in Australian universities. This will be occurring at a time when the Australian labour market in this area has tightened. Australian higher degree graduates have shown a greater propensity than in the past to seek careers outside of the university sector and have increasingly sought positions outside Australia, especially the United States and the United Kingdom (Hugo, Rudd and Harris 23). Hence, there will be more opportunities for academics and scientists from countries like China and India. 6 The regional definition includes the cities of Adelaide and Hobart.

19 18 REFERENCES Abella, M.I., 25. Global Competition for Skilled Workers and their Consequences. Paper presented at the Conference on Competing for Global Talent, Singapore Management University, Singapore, January. Association of Commonwealth Universities, 24. Commonwealth Universities book 23/24, Association of Commonwealth Universities, Great Britain. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), 25. Migration Australia 23-4, Catalogue No , Canberra: ABS. Choi, C.Y., Chinese Migration and Settlement in Australia, Sydney University Press, Sydney. Department of Immigration, Multicultural and Ethnic Affairs (DIMIA). Australian Immigration: Consolidated Statistics, various issues, AGPS, Canberra. Department of Immigration, Multicultural and Ethnic Affairs (DIMIA). Immigration Update, various issues, AGPS, Canberra. Hugo, G.J., A New Paradigm of International Migration in Australia, New Zealand Population Review, 25, 1-2, pp Hugo, G.J., 24. Australia s Most Recent Immigrants 21. Australian Census Analytic Program, Catalogue Number 253., Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra. Hugo, G.J., 25. Some Emerging Demographic Issues on Australia s Teaching Academic Workforce, Special Issue of Higher Education Policy, 18, 3, pp Hugo, G.J., Rudd, D. and Harris, K., 23. Australia s Diaspora: Its Size, Nature and Policy Implications, CEDA Information Paper No. 8, CEDA, Melbourne. Lyng, J., Non-Britishers in Australia: Influence of Population Processes, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. Price, C.A., The Great White Walls Are Built ( ), Australian National University, Canberra. Price, C.A. et al., Birthplaces of Australian Population , Working Papers in Demography, No. 13, Australian National University, Canberra. Rizvi, A., 24. SOPEMI 25: Australia. Report by Australia s Correspondent to the OECD. Zweig, D. and Changgui, C., Chinese Brain Drain to the United States: View of Overseas Chinese Students and Scholars in the 199s, Berkeley: Institute of East Asia Studies.