Vol. 20, nr 51 INDEX COPERNICUS

Transcription

1 Vol. 20, nr 51 INDEX COPERNICUS CRACOW WROCLAW 2010

2 ISSN COMMITTEE FOR REHABILITATION, PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIEN CES INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SPORT KINETICS IASK AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA Vol. 20, nr 51 INDEX COPERNICUS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION CRACOW, POLAND UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN WROCLAW, POLAND CRACOW WROCLAW 2010

3 KOMITET REHABILITACJI, KULTURY FIZYCZNEJ I INTEGRACJI SPOŁECZNEJ PAN ISSN MIĘDZYNARODOWE STOWARZYSZENIE MOTORYKI SPOR TO WEJ IASK AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA Vol. 20, nr 51 INDEX COPERNICUS AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FI ZYCZ NE GO IM. BRO NI SŁA WA CZECHA W KRA KO WIE AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FI ZYCZ NE GO WE WROCŁAWIU KRAKÓW WROCŁAW 2010

4 ANTROPOMOTORYKA ISSN COMMITTEE FOR REHABILITATION, PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SPORT KINETICS IASK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, CRACOW, POLAND UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN WROCLAW, POLAND VOL. 20, NR 51 CRACOW WROCLAW 2010 EDITORIAL COMMITTEE CHAIRMAN Edward Mleczko V-CHAIRMAN Zofia Ignasiak MEMBERS Jan Chmura, Jerzy Januszewski, Andrzej Klimek, Tadeusz Koszczyc, Lesław Kulmatycki, Wiesław Osiński, Joachim Raczek, Teresa Sławińska-Ochla, Włodzimierz Starosta EDITORIAL BOARD Michal Belej (Slovakia), Peter Blaser (Germany), Tadeusz Bober, Janusz Czerwiński, Sławomir Drozdowski, Józef Drabik, Joanna Gradek, Peter Hirtz (Germany), Josif Moisiejewicz Fejgenberg (Israel), Adam Haleczko, Andrzej Jopkiewicz, Han C.G. Kemper (Holland), Krzysztof Klukowski, Vladimir Lyakh (Russia), Robert M. Malina (USA), Wacław Petryński, Ryszard Przewęda, Igor Ryguła, Stanisław Sterkowicz, Stanisław Żak EDITOR S OFFICE al. Jana Pawła II Kraków Poland Indexed in INDEX COPERNICUS Linguistic proofreading and copy editing: Barbara Przybyło Copyright by University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland Design and DTP: University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland Print: Drukarnia Cyfrowa KSERKOP, Kraków, ul. Mazowiecka 60

5 ANTROPOMOTORYKA ISSN KOMITET REHABILITACJI, KULTURY FI ZYCZ NEJ I INTEGRACJI SPOŁECZNEJ PAN MIĘ DZY NA RO DO WE STO WA RZY SZE NIE MOTORYKI SPORTOWEJ IASK AKADEMIA WY CHO WA NIA FI ZYCZ NE GO IM. BRONISŁAWA CZE CHA W KRA KO WIE AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FIZYCZNEGO WE WROCŁAWIU VOL. 20, NR 51 KRAKÓW WROCŁAW 2010 REDAKCJA Redaktor Naczelny Edward Mleczko Z-ca Redaktora Na czel ne go Zofia Ignasiak Komitet Redakcyjny Jan Chmura, Jerzy Januszewski, Andrzej Klimek, Tadeusz Koszczyc, Lesław Kulmatycki, Wiesław Osiński, Joachim Raczek, Teresa Sławińska-Ochla, Włodzimierz Starosta RADA REDAKCYJNA Michal Belej (Słowacja), Peter Blaser (Niemcy), Tadeusz Bober, Janusz Czerwiński, Sławomir Drozdowski, Józef Drabik, Joanna Gradek, Peter Hirtz (Niemcy), Josif Moisiejewicz Fejgenberg (Izrael), Adam Haleczko, Andrzej Jopkiewicz, Han C.G. Kemper (Holandia), Krzysztof Klukowski, Vladimir Lyakh (Rosja), Robert M. Malina (USA), Wacław Petryński, Ryszard Przewęda, Igor Ryguła, Stanisław Sterkowicz, Stanisław Żak ADRES REDAKCJI al. Jana Pawła II Kraków Poland Czasopismo ANTROPOMOTORYKA jest umieszczone na liście rankingowej INDEX COPERNICUS Korekta językowa: Barbara Przybyło Copyright by University School of Physical Education in Cracow Opracowanie gra ficz ne i łamanie: Sekcja Koordynacji Projektów Wydawniczych AWF Kraków Druk: Drukarnia Cyfrowa KSERKOP, Kraków, ul. Mazowiecka 60

6 NR 51 AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA 2010 CONTENTS From Editors: 51st issue of Antropomotoryka-Kinesiology, English version 7 Information for the Authors 9 DISSERTATIONS AND ARTICLES Zbigniew Borysiuk, Wacław Petryński, Wojciech J. Cynarski Reaction time, movement time and EMG signals as indicators of anticipation processes in elite fencers 15 Adam Kawczyński, Dariusz Mroczek, Jan Chmura Movement time of elite volleyball players during the game 25 Edward Mleczko, Jerzy Januszewski The relation between the training load and the results in the 10 and 20 km sport walks of Polish race walkers 31 Anna Tyka, Tomasz Pałka, Aleksander Tyka, Tomasz Cisoń, Szczepan Wiecha, Aleksandra Stawiarska, Agata Cebula Anaerobic threshold determination based on changes in rms-emg curve and respiratory parameters 41 Igor Stirn Assessment of some morphological characteristics and specific motor abilities in young water polo players in three different age groups 45 Andrzej Soroka The rank of one-on-one duels based on Women s European Football Championship England Wanda Pilch, Marta Szarek, Dorota Gryka-Nowaczyk, Michał Kaczmarek, Wacław Mirek The influence of physical effort in warm conditions on changing the white blood cells number in training and non-training men 61 Jadwiga Szymura, Marcin Maciejczyk, Joanna Gradek, Magdalena Więcek, Jerzy Cempla, Marek Bawelski The physiological cost of walking in overfat girls 69 Jan Ślężyński, Ilona Ślężyńska, Marzena Ślężyńska Physical fitness progression in women with obesity under the influence of regular physical activity 79 Vytė Kontautienė, Audronius Vilkas Ability to self-control in the context of physical activity in schoolchildren at the age of REVIEW PAPERS Larysa Genrichovna Shakhlina, Teresa Socha Puberty phase in girls key questions in connection with sport mastery 97 ANNOUNCEMENTS Waldemar Makuła My review on the 6 th World Ageing & Generations Congres, St. Gallen, August

7 NR 51 AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA 2010 SPIS TREŚCI Od Redakcji: 51. numer czasopisma Antropomotoryka-Kinesiology edycja w języku angielskim 7 Informacje dla Autorów 11 ROZPRAWY I ARTYKUŁY Zbigniew Borysiuk, Wacław Petryński, Wojciech J. Cynarski Czas reakcji, czas ruchu i sygnały EMG jako wskaźniki procesów przewidywania u szermierzy wyczynowych 15 Adam Kawczyński, Dariusz Mroczek, Jan Chmura Czas wykonania ruchu podczas meczu u siatkarzy reprezentujących najwyższy poziom mistrzostwa sportowego 25 Edward Mleczko, Jerzy Januszewski Związki między obciążeniem treningowym a wynikami w chodzie sportowym na 10 i 20 km polskich chodziarzy 31 Anna Tyka, Tomasz Pałka, Aleksander Tyka, Tomasz Cisoń, Szczepan Wiecha, Aleksandra Stawiarska, Agata Cebula Wyznaczanie progu anaerobowego u sportowców metodą oddechową I elektromiograficzną 41 Igor Stirn Ocena wybranych cech morfologicznych I sprawności specjalnej młodych zawodników uprawiających piłkę wodną w trzech okresach ontogenezy 45 Andrzej Soroka Ranga pojedynków 1 1 na przykładzie Mistrzostw Europy w Piłce Nożnej Kobiet Anglia Wanda Pilch, Marta Szarek, Dorota Gryka-Nowaczyk, Michał Kaczmarek, Wacław Mirek Wpływ wysiłku fizycznego w podwyższonej temperaturze otoczenia na zmiany w obrazie białokrwinkowym u trenujących i nietrenujących mężczyzn 61 Jadwiga Szymura, Marcin Maciejczyk, Joanna Gradek, Magdalena Więcek, Jerzy Cempla, Marek Bawelski Koszt fizjologiczny wysiłków marszowych u dziewcząt o nadmiernym stopniu otłuszczenia ciała 69 Jan Ślężyński, Ilona Ślężyńska, Marzena Ślężyńska Poprawa sprawności fizycznej kobiet z otyłością pod wpływem regularnej aktywności ruchowej 79 Vytė Kontautienė, Audronius Vilkas Zdolność do samokontroli w kontekście aktywności fizycznej u uczniów w wieku lat 87 PRACE PRZEGLĄDOWE Larysa Genrichovna Shakhlina, Teresa Socha Zagadnienie fazy pokwitania dziewcząt w problematyce szkolenia sportowego kobiet 97 INFORMACJE Waldemar Makuła Moja ocena obrad 6. Światowego Kongresu Starzenia się Pokoleń, St. Gallen, sierpnia

8 NR 51 AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA 2010 FROM EDITORS OD REDAKCJI 51st ISSUE OF ANTROPOMOTORYKA-KINESIOLOGY, ENGLISH VERSION 51. NUMER CZASOPISMA ANTROPOMOTORYKA- -KINESIOLOGY EDYCJA W JĘZYKU ANGIELSKIM Dear readers and co-workers, We would like to present the newest English issue of our quarterly released thanks to two sponsors: University School of Physical Education in Cracow and University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw. This is the second number of our quarterly issued in English this year. Hopefully, we have proved that we have all potential to publish Antropomotoryka-Kinesiology alternately in two semiannual versions: Polish and English. Publications written in English, exported worldwide, are the best example of familiarizing a large international audience with the works and achievements of Polish and foreign scientists. Our magazine, the character of which is changing into international, gets stronger and becomes more popular. In this issue we present works of Polish, Lithuanian, Slovenian and Ukrainian authors, divided into sections: empirical work, survey and review. I believe that we have managed to meet the readers needs, and select worth reading texts by Polish and foreign scientists, who have penetrated a wide area of human activity, noticed from the sport, therapeutic, recreational and habitual viewpoints on different stages of ontogenesis. In the section devoted to empirical works, the audience can find ten articles in the majority exploring the topics of professional improvement in connection with various sports effects. In the publication dedicated to Reaction time, movement time and EMG signals as indicators of anticipation processes in elite fencers the authors concentrates on estimation the meaning of predicting fencer s movement activity. According to them: Anticipation is predicting an occurrence, using perceptions, experience and imagining of a situation and/or the aim of an action. Anticipation makes it possible to program appropriate movements in advance, or adjust them to a foreseen situation before any interference. The study sample consisted of 12 advanced active epee fencers. Two were applied: temporal anticipation test and spatial anticipation test, preceded by a simple reaction control test. The tests were carried out with the aid of surface electromyography (EMG). The results of the study showed that anticipation (time and spatial) exerts a significant impact on the reduction of time of sensorimotor responses, particularly in RT (simple reaction time). The following work: Movement time of elite volleyball players during the game is concluded that the physiological load and the increased stimulation of central nervous system in volleyball players allow them to maintain the time of a movement on a relatively constant level during the entire duration of the match effort. In the publication: The relation between the training load and the results in the 10 and 20 km race walks of Polish race walkers chosen aspects of Polish race walkers training concerning the elite of youngest contestants at various stages of their athletic mastery were presented. A team of Cracow representatives in their study: Anaerobic threshold determination based on changes in rms-emg curve and respiratory parameters compare two methods of anaerobic threshold (AT) determination respiratory parameters analysis and changes in rms-emg curve. The rms-emg curve analyses provide the results of the same accuracy but faster and in more 7

9 From Editors convenient way, in comparison to other methods of AT determination. The aim of the Slovenian researcher from the Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, is to ascertain which of the special skill tests contribute most to the differentiation of three different age groups of water polo players. In his article (Assessment of some morphological characteristics and specific motor abilities in young water polo players in three different age groups) it turns out to be that the best were differentiated by ball handling tests. This might be the cause of a well-known principle of motor learning considered in a training process simpler motor skills without a ball are developed first and are later upgraded to more demanding ball handling skills. The author of The rank of one-on-one duels based on Women s European Football Championship England 2005 claims that the effectiveness of oneon-one game in defence formation has reached the highest value, whereas among the players of attack line this game element has appeared least effective. Within analyzed technical elements, the biggest influence on the victory had efficiently performed one-on- -one duels in defensive and offensive actions. Lesser but also equally essential influence on the success, had accurate ball passes and the effectiveness of enforcing the execution of dead-ball situations. Cracovian scientists present the results of their work on The influence of physical effort in warm conditions on changing the white blood cells number in training and non-training men. The study involved two groups of ten healthy men. The first group consisted of ten mediumand long-distance runners who had similar aerobic working capacity as well as similar length of training. This study showed that the physical effort in warm and humid conditions results in decrease of body mass and the plasma volume contraction in both groups. Before and after the test both the body weight and the core temperature of the subjects were measured and monitored during the exercise. In the blood samples collected before and after the test the total protein level and hematological indexes were determined. Moreover, the work done by the athletes who caused the increase in the core temperature by 1.2 ºC was significantly harder. The article: The physiological cost of walking in overfat girls is aimed at determining physiological cost of locomotion effort of girls aged about 10 years with excessive body fat pracising treadmill walking at various speeds. Higher values of VO 2, %VO 2 max, %V E max and %HRmax during locomotion effort of overfat girls at the same intensity of test exertion indicate a higher cost of physical exercise incurred by overfat girls. The objective of the text Physical fitness progression in women with obesity under the influence of regular physical activity is to prove that regular physical activity combined with rational lifestyle exerts positive influence on physical fitness improvement, fat reduction and weight loss in obese women. The researchers show that these nine months of regular physical activity played a significant role in physical fitness improvement and the reduction of adipose tissue in tested women. Lithuanian scientists present the results of their research on Ability to self-control in the context of physical activity of schoolchildren at the age of The research proves that pupils aged show a limited capacity for self-testing of physical fitness, lack of self- -control habits, physical fitness, tracking and correction of pulse rate and breathing IR. The survey work of Puberty phase in girls key questions in connection with sport mastery by the Ukrainian-Polish team of authors, Larysa G. Shakhlina and Teresa Socha, presents and analyses several aspects of key questions important for girls puberty phases, focusing on its significance to sport selection and training loads. I strongly recommend a very interesting report My review on the Sixth World Ageing & Generations Congress, St. Gallen: August 2010 written from the attendant s viewpoint. I believe that this issue of our magazine will provide our readers just what they need a good portion of knowledge concentrated on human kinetics in different stages of ontogenesis and possibilities of practical use of it. With the hope you will enjoy the reading, I would like to send you greetings from the Royal City of Cracow. Edward Mleczko Editor-in-Chief of Antropomotoryka-Kinesiology 8

10 NR 51 AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA 2010 INFORMATION FOR THE AUTHORS 1. Kinesiology ( Antropomotoryka ) is an official scientific quarterly of the International Association of Sport Kinetics IASK, pub lished at the University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland under the auspices of the Committee Rehabilitation, Physical Education and Social Integration the Polish Acad emy of Sciences. The magazine presents the results of original re search work and experiments in the field of human mo to r icity and re lated sciences. It also publishes review ar ticles, opinion ar ticles and discussion of scientists evalu ating the current situation and perspectives of sci en tific de vel opment of human motoricity. 2. Materials for publication (one copy of computer printouts) should be sent together with the compact disc at the following address: Redakcja Antropomotoryki, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego, al. Jana Pawła II 78, Kraków, tel , tel/fax or at the address: [email protected]. 3. General conditions: Upon submitting a paper to be published the Author (Authors) trans fers copyright to the Publishing House of the Antropomotoryka. The works qualified for pub li cation become therefore the prop erty of the Publishing House of the Antro po mo to ryka and cannot be published in extenso or in fragments in other pe ri odi cals or other media without the written per mission of the Publisher. The work submitted for publication in the Antro po mo to ryka cannot be submitted for pub li cation ear lier on or simultaneously in any other pe ri odical. The Author is required to make a written statement to this effect. If the work in cludes any figures, tables, etc. which have al ready been published elsewhere, the Author is obliged to obtain a written per mission for re printing. Antropomotoryka accepts demonstrative, origi nal, experimental, and historical papers, in for mation about conferences, reports from con gresses and con ferences on human motoricity, short summa ries of works published in foreign pe ri odi cals and book re views on human motoricity. Origi nal works are accepted in En glish. The works of particular sci en tific value sub mitted and accepted for pub li cation earlier on in a for eign sci entific periodical can also be submitted for publication in the Antro po mo to ryka, however, on condition that the Author ob tains a permission from the publisher of the pe ri odical. All papers should be no longer than 22 pages with 1800 letters per page (i.e. 30 lines 60 points each). They should be in double-spaced or 1,5 spaced typewriting on one side of the paper only. 4. Rules of constructing the work: The accompanying letter should contain both home and office addresses and the information at which address to send the correspondence. Empirical works should contain the following in for mation: title, name(s) of the author(s), key words in Polish and in English, brief summary in Polish, summary in English (as mentioned above), in tro duction, ma terial, methods, results and dis cussion, con clusions and bib li og ra phy. The number of key words should be from 3 to 15. The summary has to contain: the purpose of the work, material, methods, results and con clusions. The fi rst page should contain the information in the following order: title, name(s) of the author(s), scientific degree(s) of the author(s) and the pro fessional affiliation, including the address, key words, brief summary in Polish and in English. The summary should not contain less than 200 and no more than 250 words. The reference materials should be listed on a sepa rate sheet of paper. Only the aterials the Author refers to in the text may be included. They should be num bered using Arabic numerals and placed in the order they are quoted in the work (not in the alphabetic order). Each item of the reference materials should be written in a new verse. The surname(s) of the author(s) of the quoted work should be followed by the initials of their first name(s), then the original title of the maga zine where the work was published should be given. The abbre viation of the title of a magazine should be taken from the Index Medicus (or In ter na tional Committee of Medical Journal Editors: Uni form Re quirements for manu scripts submitted in bio medical jour nals. N Engl J Med 1997; 336, ). 9

11 Information for the Authors Examples: a) works printed in magazines: Casella R, Bubendorf L, Sauter G, Moch H, Michatsch MJ, Gasser TC: Focal neuroendocrine differentiation lacks prognostics sig nifi cance in prostate core needle biopsies. J Urol, 1998; 160: b) monographs: Matthews DE, Farewell VT: Using and Un derstanding Medical Statistics, ed 3, re vised. Basel, Karger, c) chapters in textbooks: Parren PWHI, Burton DR: Antibodies against HIV-1 from phage display libraries; Mapping of an immune response and progress towards antiviral immunotherapy; in Capra JD (ed.): An ti body Engineering, Chem. Immunol. Basel, Karger, 1997, 65: Kokot F: Fizjologia nerek; w. Zieliński J, Leńko J (eds): Urologia, War sza wa, PZWL, 1992, 1: All the illustrations have to be of high quality. Graphic material should be submitted on white sheets of pa per. Copies of photographs and pho to graphs should be submitted on glossy paper. The con secutive num ber of the photograph should be written with a soft pencil on the back side of each photograph as well as an arrow marking its top edge. Only black and white pictures are printed. Scales and pictures should be placed on separate pages and numbered with Arabic numerals. The headings, descriptions and suscriptions under the pictures and above the scales should be written in Polish and English. Example in Polish: Tabela 1., Ryc. 1., Objaśnienia, Chłopcy Example in English: Table 1., Fig. 1., Commentary, Boys Please, use round pa ren the ses. Physical or chemical for mu lae should be written clearly. This re fers par ticu larly to indices and exponents. The article can be written using the editor of MS Word 6.0 to 2007 or Open Office, preferably DOC or RTF format. Illustrations and tables should be packed in sepa rate files and, on the printouts, the place where they are to be included should be marked in pencil. The graphs made in black. It is permissible to use gray tints with various shades of intensity and texture. While typing the descriptions uniform char ac ter we kindly ask used due to esthetic reasons, e.g., arial. Bold print, italics, etc., should be limited to the nec essary mini mum. While scanning the illus trations, the dis tri bution should be at least 300 dpi. Black and white illustrations (line art) should be sent in TIFF for mat and pictures (gray) in TIFF or JPEG format (at the low degree of com pression, up to 10%). All the files should be packed using RAR or ZIP. After copying them on CD it is necessary to check if all the files are copied. The reference materials should be given in the order of quotation. [1] Żekoński Z, Wolański N: Warunki społeczno-bytowe jako czynniki rozwoju człowieka w Wo lański N (red.): Czynniki rozwoju człowieka. War sza wa, PWN, 1987, [2] Malarecki I: Zarys fizjologii wysiłku i treningu spor to wego. Warszawa, Sport i Turystyka, [3] Bouchard C, Malina RM: Genetics of physiological fit ness and motor performance. Exerc. Sport. Sc. Rev. 1983; 11: [4] Szopa J: W poszukiwaniu struktury mo to rycz no ści: ana li za czynnikowa cech somatycznych, funk cjo nalnych i prób spraw no ści fizycznej u dziewcząt i chłopców w wie ku 8 19 lat. Wyd. Monograficzne, Kraków, AWF, 1983; 35. While quoting the reference materials in the text, only square parentheses with the number of the quoted item in Arabic numerals should be given. When qu oting two or more works the square parentheses sho uld con ta in the chronological order of their publication. 5. Editors remarks All the materials are evaluated and anonymously reviewed. The reviewers opinion is passed on to the Author by the editor. The proof copy of the article will be ed to the Author as a PDF file. When the necessary corrections are made and the article is approved of by the Author, it should be ed back within 10 days to the editorial board of Antropomotoryka Kinesiology. A delay in sending back the article may postpone its printing till the next issue of the magazine. The Publisher of Antropomotoryka Kinesiology reserves the right to do stylistic revisions as well as the possible right to correct nomenclature and to shorten texts. The article (with a written statement see: General conditions) should be sent with a cover letter signed by a senior reasercher, who is responsible for the content of the of the article. The Author gets a free copy of Antropomotoryka Kinesiology in PDF format. The magazine in book form can be ordered on condition of payment at the address: [email protected] when the corrected proof copy is returned. Current copies of Antropomotoryka and those from the files can be ordered on condition of payment from Kra kowska Księgarnia Kultury Fizycznej, al. Jana Pawła II 78, Kraków, tel/fax (012) Summaries in Polish and English can be found at the following Internet addresses: link: wydawnictwa, czasopisma, antropomotoryka, and www. journals.indexcopernicus.com. 10

12 NR 51 AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA 2010 INFORMACJE DLA AUTORÓW 1. Antropomotoryka ( Kinesiology ) jest ofi cjal nym, recenzowanym kwartalnikiem na uko wym Międ z yn ar od ow eg o S t o w a r z y s z e n i a M ot or yk i S p o rt ow e j I A S K, w yd aw an y m w Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie pod patrona tem Ko mi te tu Rehabilitacji, Kultury Fizycznej i Integracji Społecznej PAN. W cza so piśmie przed sta wia ne są wyniki ory gi nal nych ba dań i do świad czeń w dzie dzi nie mo to rycz ności czło wie ka oraz dziedzin po krew nych. Za miesz cza ne są również pra ce prze glądowe, poglądy oraz dys ku sje oceniające obec ny stan i per spek ty wy rozwoju do rob ku ba daw cze go sze ro ko po jęt e j a nt r op om ot or yk i. 2. Materiały przeznaczone do druku (jeden egzemplarz wydruku komputerowego) należy przesłać łącznie z płytą CD na adres: Redakcja Antropomotoryki, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego, al. Jana Pawła II 78, Kraków, tel , tel./fax lub na adres poczty elektronicznej [email protected]. 3. Warunki ogólne Zgłoszenie pracy do druku jest jed no znacz ne z przekazaniem przez au to ra (au to rów) prawa do własności R e d a k c j i A nt r op om ot or yk i. P r a c e z ak w al fik i ow an e d o w yd r uk ow an i a s t a ją się zatem wy łącz ną własnością Redak cji i nie można ich pu bli ko wać w całości lub w części w in nych cza so pi smach lub mediach cyfrowych bez pi sem nej zgo dy Wydawcy. Praca złożona do druku w Antropomotoryce nie może być także wcześniej ani równocześnie złożona w in nym cza so pi śmie, co stwierdza autor w pisemnym oświad cze niu. W razie umieszczenia w pracy rycin lub ta bel itp., pochodzących z opra co wań o p ub l ik ow an y c h w i n n y c h c z as op is m a c h autor ma obo wią zek uzy ska nia zgody na przedruk. Redakcja Antropomotoryki przyjmuje do dru ku pra ce poglądowe, oryginalne, doświ a d c z a l n e, o p r ac ow an i a h is t or y c zn e, k o m u n i k a t y k o nf er e nc y jn e, s p r aw o zd an i a ze zjaz dów i konferencji o tema ty ce an tro po mo to rycz nej oraz krót kie stresz cze nia prac wy dru ko wa nych w czasopi smach za gra nicz nych i recenzje książek z za kre su t e o r i i m ot or y c zn ości czło wie ka. Pra ce przeglądowe i ory gi nal ne będą z r ed ag ow an e w jęz yk u p o l s k i m. A rt y - kuły mogą być pu bli ko wa ne w ję zy ku angielskim. Prace przed sta wia ją ce dużą war tość na ukową, za kwali fik ow an e w c z eśniej do wy dru ko wa nia w cza so pi śmie za gra nicz nym, mogą być rów nież zgło szo ne do druku w An tro po mo to ry ce, jed nak pod wa run kiem uzyskania przez autora pi sem nej zgo dy Wy daw cy cza so pi sma, w któ rym teksty zostały lub zo staną opu bli ko wa ne. Objętość artykułu nie powinna przekraczać 22 stron wydruku komputerowego, na których zamieszczono po 1800 znaków (np.: 30 wierszy po 60 znaków). Praca musi być napisana jednostronnie z podwójną lub 1,5 interlinią. 4. Zasady konstrukcji pracy W liście towarzyszącym prosimy podać do kład ne ad re sy (zarówno prywatny, jak i miejsca pra cy) z zaznaczeniem, gdzie należy przesyłać k or es p o nd e nc ję. Prace empiryczne powinny mieć następujący układ: ty tuł, imię (imiona) i nazwisko autora (ów), słowa klu czo we w języku polskim i angielskim, zwięzłe stresz cze nie w języku polskim i an giel skim, wstęp, materiał i metody, wyniki ba dań, dys ku sja, wnioski oraz wy kaz piśmiennictwa. Słowa kluczowe powinny liczyć od 3 do 15 wy ra zów. Streszczenie musi zawierać: cel pracy, materiał, me to dy lub materiał i metody, wyniki, wnioski. Na pierwszej stronie opracowania należy za mie ścić w ko lej ności: tytuł pracy w języku polskim i an giel skim, imię i na zwi sko autora(ów), stopień n au k ow y a ut or a (ó w ), miejsce za kła du pra cy, sło wa kluczowe oraz zwięzłe stresz cze nie po pol sku i an giel sku. Jego objętość nie może być mniejsza niż 200 i nie większa niż 250 słów. Spis piśmiennictwa należy wydrukować na osob nej stronie. Prosimy wymienić w nim jedynie po zy cje, na które autor powołuje się w tekście. Po win ny być one numerowane cyframi arabskimi i uszeregowane w ko - lejności cytowania ich w pra cy (a nie w kolejności al fa betycz nej). Każdą po zy cję piśmiennictwa należy zapisywać od no we go wiersza. Po nazwisku autora (lub wszyst kich au to rów) cytowanej pracy należy po dać pierw sze li te ry imion, a następnie tytuł pracy w brzmie niu ory gi nal nym oraz nazwę czasopisma, z któ re go praca pochodzi. Skrót tytułu czasopisma należy podać zgodnie z jego brzmie niem w Index Medicus (patrz rów nież: International Com mit tee of Medical Journal Editors: Uniform requirements for manu- 11

13 Informacje dla Autorów scripts submitted to biomedical journals. N Engl J Med 1997; 336; ). Przykłady: a) prace wydrukowane w cza so pi smach: Casella R, Bubendorf L, Sauter G, Moch H, Michatsch MJ, Gasser TC: Focal neuroendocrine dif fe ren tia tion lacks pro gno stic si gni fi cian ce in pro sta te core needle biopsies. J Urol, 1998; 160: b) monografie: Matthews DE, Farewell VT: Using and Un derstanding Medical Statistics, ed 3, re vi sed. Ba sel, Karger, c) rozdziały w książkach: Parren PWHI, Burton DR: Antibodies aga inst HIV-1 from phage display libraries; Map ping of an im mu ne response and progress towards antiviral immunotherapy; in Ca pra JD (ed.): Antibody Engineering. Chem Immunol. Ba sel, Kar ger, 1997, 65: Kokot F: Fizjologia nerek; w Zieliński J, Leń ko J (red.): Urologia, Warszawa, PZWL, 1992, 1: Materiał ilustracyjny musi mieć bardzo dobrą ja kość. Powinien być wykonany na białych kartkach. Reprodukcje zdjęć oraz fotografie należy przygotować na błyszczącym papierze fo to gra ficz nym. Na od wro cie fo to gra fii trzeba napisać miękkim ołów kiem jej kolejny numer oraz zaznaczyć strzałką, gdzie znaj du je się jej górny brzeg. Redakcja drukuje jedynie zdjęcia czarno-białe. Tabele i ryciny należy zamieszczać na oddzielnych stronach i nu me ro wać cyframi arabskimi. Ich nagłówki, ob ja śnie nia oraz podpisy pod rycinami i nad tabelami powinny być w języku polskim i angielskim. Przy kład: Tabela 1., Ryc. 1., Objaśnienia, Chłopcy Table 1., Fig. 1., Commentary, Boys Prosimy używać nawiasów okrągłych. Wzory mu szą być napisane czytelnie, szcze gól nie wskaźni ki i wykładniki potęg. Artykuł może być napisany na edytorze od Word 6.0 do 2007, Open Office, w for ma cie DOC lub RTF. Ilu stra cje, tabele i wykresy powinny być zamieszczone w osobnych plikach, a na wydrukach oraz na mar gi ne sie za zna czo ne ołów kiem ich miej sce w tekście. Wykresy na le ży wykonać w kolorze czar nym. Można stosować tin ty szare o różnym natęże niu lub tek stu ry. W opisach, ze względów estetycznych, prosimy stosować czcionkę jednoelementową (np. arial). Nie należy nad używać wyróżnień (bold, ita lic). Przy skanowanych ilustracjach rozdzielczość musi wy no sić co najmniej 300 dpi. Ilustracje czar no-białe (line art.) po win ny być w formacie TIFF, a zdjęcia (grey) w for ma cie TIFF lub JPEG (w ni skim stopniu kompresji, do 10%). Wszystkie pli ki mogą być spa ko wa ne RAR-em lub ZIP-em. Po sko pio wa niu na CD należy spraw dzić, czy wszyst kie pliki się kopiują. Spis piśmiennictwa powinien być sporządzony we dług kolejno ści cytowania: [1] Żekoński Z, Wolański N: Warunki społeczno-bytowe jako czynniki rozwoju człowieka; w Wo lań ski N (red.): Czynniki rozwoju człowieka. Warszawa, PWN, 1987; [2] Malarecki I: Zarys fizjologii wysiłku i treningu spor towego. Warszawa, Sport i Turystyka, [3] Bouchard C, Malina RM: Genetics of physiological fit ness and motor performance. Exerc Sport Sc Rev, 1983; 11: [4] Szopa J: W poszukiwaniu struktury mo to rycz no ści: ana li za czynnikowa cech somatycznych, funk cjo nalnych i prób spraw no ści fizycznej u dziewcząt i chłopców w wie ku 8 19 lat. Wyd. Monograficzne, Kra ków, AWF, 1988; 35. Powołując się w tekście na daną pozycję pi śmiennictwa należy podać w nawiasie kwadratowym tylko cy frę arab ską. Przytaczając dwie lub większą ich licz bę należy podawać w nawiasie kwadratowym kolejność chronologiczną ich wydania. 5. Uwagi Redakcji Wszystkie prace podlegają ocenie i są anonimowo recenzowane. Redakcja zapoznaje autora z uwagami re cen zen tów. Odbitka szczotkowa pracy jest wysyłana do Autora pocztą elektroniczną jako plik PDF. Po niezbędnej korekcie i akceptacji pracy do druku należy ją odesłać w terminie do 10 dni na adres Redakcji Antropomotoryki. Przetrzymywanie korekty może spowodować przesunięcie artykułu do następnego numeru. Redakcja Antropomotoryki zastrzega sobie prawo adiustacji, dokonywania poprawek w zakresie ujednolicania nazewnictwa i ewentualnego skracania tekstów. Przysyłane do druku artykuły (wraz z oświadczeniem patrz: Warunki ogólne) powinny być kierowane do Redakcji pismem przewodnim podpisanym przez samodzielnego pracownika nauki, równocześnie odpowiadającego za merytoryczną stronę opracowania. Autor otrzymuje bezpłatnie plik PDF z zawartością numeru Antropomotoryki, w którym zamieszczono jego pracę. Czasopismo w formie książkowej można zamówić odpłatnie przy zwrocie korekty autorskiej pod adresem: [email protected]. Pełne numery bieżące i archiwalne An tro po mo to ry ki można zamówić odpłatnie w Krakowskiej Księgarni Kultury Fizycznej, al. Jana Pawła II 78, Kra ków, tel/fax (012) Streszczenia w języku polskim i angielskim są zamieszczone na stronie internetowej: link: wydawnictwa, czasopisma, antropomotoryka oraz www. journals.indexcopernicus.com. 12

14 DISSERTATIONS AND ARTICLES ROZPRAWY I ARTYKUŁY

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16 NR AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA REACTION TIME, MOVEMENT TIME AND EMG SIGNALS AS INDICATORS OF ANTICIPATION PROCESSES IN ELITE FENCERS CZAS REAKCJI, CZAS RUCHU I SYGNAŁY EMG JAKO WSKAŹNIKI PROCESÓW PRZEWIDYWANIA U SZERMIERZY WYCZYNOWYCH Zbigniew Borysiuk*, Wacław Petryński**, Wojciech J. Cynarski*** *** Dr. habil., Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Opole University of Technology, Opole, Poland *** PhD, Faculty of Tourism, Katowice School of Economics, Katowice, Poland *** Dr. habil., Faculty of Physical Education, University of Rzeszów, Poland Source of support: The work was carried out in relation with statutory activities the Faculty of Physical Education URWWF/S/09 Rzeszow University financed by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education Key words: surface electromyography, temporal anticipation, fencing Słowa kluczowe: elektromiografia powierzchniowa, przewidywanie czasowe, szermierka SUMMARY STRESZCZENIE Anticipation is predicting an occurrence, using perceptions, experience and imagining of a situation and/or the aim of an action. Anticipation makes it possible to program appropriate movements in advance, or adjust them to a foreseen situation before any interferences. The study sample consisted of 12 advanced active epee fencers (average age 22.1 years). Their average training experience was 8.3 years. Two simple reaction tests were applied: temporal anticipation test and spatial anticipation test, preceded by a simple reaction control test. The tests were carried out with the aid of surface electromyography (EMG). In the control test the subjects mean reaction time (RT) amounted to 161 ms. Due to temporal anticipation the RT was reduced to 117 ms, and due to spatial anticipation to 120 ms. No significant effects of anticipation on movement time (MT) was observed. A significant change was noted, however, in the EMG signal, especially in terms of temporal anticipation. The results of the study showed that anticipation (time and spatial) exerts a significant impact on the reduction of time of sensorimotor responses, particularly in RT. Also in the temporal anticipation test a significant reduction of movement time (MT) (p < 0, 00) was noticed. The mean EMG signal values constituted a linear trend up to 235µV for the control test, and up to 917µV for the time anticipation test. Przewidywanie polega na odgadnięciu przyszłego wydarzenia z wykorzystaniem postrzegania, doświadczenia i wyobrażenia jakiejś sytuacji i/lub celu działania. Przewidywanie umożliwia zaprogramowanie z wyprzedzeniem odpowiednich ruchów lub dostosowanie ich do przewidywanej sytuacji. Grupa badawcza składała się z 12 doświadczonych, czynnych szpadzistów (przeciętny wiek: 22,1 lat). Ich przeciętny staż zawodniczy wynosił 8,3 roku. Zastosowano dwie próby reakcji prostej: próbę przewidywania czasowego i próbę przewidywania przestrzennego. Poprzedzono je kontrolną próbą reakcji prostej. W badaniach zastosowano metodę elektromiografii powierzchniowej (semg). W próbie kontrolnej przeciętny czas reakcji (RT) badanych wynosił 161 ms. Wskutek 15

17 Zbigniew Borysiuk, Wacław Petryński, Wojciech J. Cynarski przewidywania czasowego RT obniżył się do 117 ms, a wskutek przewidywania przestrzennego do 120 ms. Nie stwierdzono znaczącego wpływu przewidywania na czas ruchu (MT). Zaobserwowano natomiast istotną zmianę sygnału EMG, zwłaszcza w odniesieniu do przewidywania czasowego. W wyniku badań wykazano, że przewidywania (czasowe i przestrzenne) wywierają znaczny wpływ na obniżenie czasu odpowiedzi czuciowo-ruchowej, w szczególności na czas reakcji RT. W próbach przewidywania czasowego zaobserwowano również znaczące (p < 0, 00) zmniejszenie czasu ruchu (MT). W próbie kontrolnej średnie wartości EMG wykazały liniowy wzrost do 235 µv, natomiast w próbie przewidywania czasowego do 917 µv. Introduction Figure 1 presents a modified Schmidt s model of sensorimotor response to a stimulus (external or internal) [1, 2]. In a number of actions containing cyclic components, the effectiveness of their execution is achieved not through a response to an appearing stimulus, but through proper use of anticipation. In Figure 1 anticipation is marked with A preparation. and sport action. This coincidence is known as timing, which was defined by Hotz [6] as temporal punctuality in reference to a point in space, and as a functional ability to find oneself at the right time, in the right place with an optimal speed. Anticipatory responses 1 are strictly related to the decision-making stage (choice of reactions) of information processing. Reduction of the information processing time at this stage is possible thanks to anticipation. Attention Stimulus Start of movement End of movement A Preparation B Reaction C Execution EMG Premotor RT Motor RT Reaction time (RT) Movement time (MT) Motor response Figure 1. Structure of sensorimotor response according to Schmidt and Lee, modified (Petryński, 2002) It can be stated that the efficiency of motor responses in everyday life, e.g. driving a car, and in sport is strictly linked to the programming of sensorimotor responses with anticipation. According to Poulton [3] and others [4, 5] anticipation is mental prediction of an occurrence using perception and imagination of a future situation and/or the aim of action. Anticipation enables programming effective motor actions, appropriate to expected situations with the aid of open-loop (non-feedback) controller. No time is then spent on identification and processing information, and the speed and efficiency of execution of a given action is significantly increased. According to Poulton [3] such motor actions can be performed in a predictable environment. Anticipatory skills include the ability of coincidence, consisting of spatial, temporal and dynamic parameters and the aim of motor According to some authors, a significant decrease in the reaction time (RT) results from the so-called bypass phenomenon (Fig. 2), i.e. bypassing the stage of reaction choice and proceeding directly to the stage of movement programming [7]. Rosenbaum s model is partially incoherent. The event commencing the sequence of events is identification of an external stimulus, whereas the term anticipatory reaction refers to the very anticipation of the stimulus, before its physical appearance. In fact, the bypass includes not only the response choice stage but also the stimulus identification stage replaced by identification of an internal stimulus, which is generated 1 Understood not as reactions to an external stimulus but to internal anticipation. 16

18 Reaction time, movement time and EMG signals as indicators of anticipation process in elite fencers Without anticipatory information Stimulus identification Response choice Response programming With anticipatory information Stimulus identification Response choice Response programming Figure 2. Processing information with anticipation bypass phenomenon (Rosenbaum, 1989) in the central nervous system on the basis of earlier experience, and is linked to a specific motor response. A significant factor was also mentioned by Feigenberg, who using Bernstein s desire theory [8, 9] developed the probability anticipation theory [10, 11, 12] and examined its impact on the speed of reaction. These studies greatly contributed to the theoretical explanation of processes of programming and execution of an intended movement. The classic model developed by Schmidt [1] is based on the division of a sensorimotor response into the reaction time (RT) and movement time (MT) phases. Schmidt then divides reaction time into two stages: premotor reaction time (PRT), i.e. the time between the appearance of the stimulus and the first EMG changes; and motor reaction time (MRT), i.e. the time between the appearance of first EMG changes and the start of movement. The PRT and MRT constitute the reaction time (RT). The movement time (MT) is defined as the time between the commencement of movement and its completion, e.g. pressing the button on the control panel. In the opinion of many authors the MT is the time between the start of bioelectrical activity of a muscle and the completion of a specific motor action. According to Schmidt [1, 13] this interpretation lacks precision as the mere stimulation of neuromuscular junctions, which lasts up to several ms, does not evoke a mechanical movement (Fig. 2). Both phases (RT and MT) constitute the sensorimotor response. Latash s model [14], which corresponds to the model in Figure 1, shows that RT is a measurable outcome of merely partially observed physiological phenomena. The RT comprises the following phases: stimulation of sense organs, flow of nervous impulses via afferent nerves, identifying and processing information in the central nervous system, generation of motor stimulation and its transfer via efferent nerves to the muscle. In order to assess the anticipatory effect correctly, one must be certain beyond doubt that the process of anticipation takes place during the reaction time (RT) phase, and not during movement time (MT). This can be achieved with the aid of surface electromyography (semg), which can register RT and MT separately. A semg test will be successful providing a control test is run: during particular trials subjects should respond to stimuli emitted at random, which cannot be predicted in any way. It should be emphasized that, according to its precise definition, simple reaction is a response to a stimulus which is impossible to anticipate, and thus only a random test can yield reference values. A number of sports studies [15, 16] using EMG and video-recording showed that the anticipatory reactions were primarily effectively used by advanced athletes with long training experience. Such athletes apply anticipatory strategies, focusing their attention on initial signals, often imperceptible to novices, thanks to which they can prepare appropriate responses before hand. The anticipation processes involves spatial and temporal parameters. The former refer to the place of the anticipated occur- 17

19 Zbigniew Borysiuk, Wacław Petryński, Wojciech J. Cynarski rence; the latter to its time. In combat sports these two types of cannot be separated. A karate fighter, while commencing a series of hits and kicks, simultaneously anticipates the precise timing of the opponent s attack and prepares a block to immediately proceed to counterattack. A fencer who anticipates the intentions of his opponent who is performing a feinted lunge attack on the torso, increases the distance making a step backward, takes an appropriate parry and ripostes with a thrust to an uncovered part of the target area. In the case of simultaneous, spatial and temporal anticipation, the motor response is primarily affected by the latter, which has been confirmed by a number of experts in such sports as taekwondo, karate or fencing [17, 18]. When an attacking fencer uses a wide variety of offensive techniques, it is very difficult for the defending fencer to recognize a specific attack correctly. However, the latter can in all likelihood predict the timing of the attack. Combat sports are based on a kind of play or exchange of anticipatory actions and counteractions. It is commonly assessed that proper anticipation can shorten the response time for 40 to 150 ms. This is enough time for a karate fighter to execute two hits, or a saber fencer to make two cuts [19]. The effectiveness of anticipatory reactions can derive from versatile training and perfecting of time and spatial anticipation skills. In the present study the following research questions were formulated: 1. To what extent does anticipatory information reduce the reaction time (RT) and movement time (MT) in a sensorimotor response? 2. Which of the two types of anticipation is characterized by faster information processing? 3. Does the anticipation type affect the EMG signal value? The research hypothesis assumed that the reaction and movement times of sensorimotor responses were seriously reduced in anticipatory reaction tests, and that the EMG signal was significantly altered. Moreover, it was assumed that anticipation had a more significant influence on the temporal rather than spatial para meters of a specific movement. Material Twelve advanced and active epee fencers (average age of 22.1 years) took part in the experiment. Their average training experience was 8.3 years, and they were at their specialist training stage. The study was carried out in 2005/2006 and it was preceded with numerous pilot trials aimed at selection of the most appropriate assessment tools. All measurements were taken in the Chair of Physical Education and Sport of the Technical University of Opole. The range and methodology of the study were approved by the Research Bioethics Committee of the Opole Physicians Chamber. The testing station with peripheral devices The testing station consisted of a PC and an electromyograph connected to two pairs of electrodes and the reference electrode through binary outlets (Picture 1). Picture 1. A subject awaiting a visual signal (red light) is anticipating a movement pressing the red button on the control panel The electrodes were attached to the subject s skin on the flexor carpi radialis. The electromyograph was connected to the control panel, constituting a complex information processing testing system. Methods Figure 3 shows the registered EMG curve with the values of muscle bioelectrical activity (µv) on the y-axis. MRT (motor reaction time) and MT (movement time) values for each trial are presented. The red rectangles on the x-axis correspond to the random emission of red lights by the computer. The gaps between them are irregular: the figure illustrates the results of the spatial anticipation test and regular gaps, e.g. every 2 seconds, would distort the effect of temporal anticipation. Spatial and temporal anticipation. Two simple reaction tests were used in the experiment: temporal an- 18

20 Reaction time, movement time and EMG signals as indicators of anticipation process in elite fencers Figure 3. The semg curve with RT and MT values and red rectangles on the x-axis illustrating the program of stimuli emission in the spatial anticipation test ticipation test and spatial anticipation test. Testing foreseen reactions consists of providing the subject with anticipatory information before a specific movement. This is why each trial should be preceded with a control test with signals emitted at random. The control test in the study was a simple reaction test to a visual stimulus. To make the entire procedure reliable the control test should be carried out 10 min before the real test, with the gap between the lights set at random from 1 to 5 seconds to eliminate the effect of temporal anticipation. The subjects wore a pair of chloride electrodes on the dominant forearm. During the temporal anticipation test each subject received 45 light signals in one color, at 2-sec. intervals. Earlier pilot tests proved the 2-sec. gaps to be optimal to reach the effect of temporal anticipation. The subjects were to press a panel button in the corresponding color. The reaction time (RT), movement time (MT) and semg signal values were registered. The spatial anticipation test used a set of 45 signals emitted at random to eliminate the effect of time anticipation. During the test the subjects could observe the current EMG curve at the top of the screen as well as the x-axis rectangles in colors corresponding to these of the signals, which served as anticipatory information about the appearing stimuli. While watching the EMG curve the subjects made anticipatory decisions about pressing different panel buttons. If the response was too early, i.e. before the appearance of the visual signal, the computer registered it as an error. RT, MT and semg values were registered. The software registered all test results and fed averaged values of particular parameters into the data base. The entered data could be instantly compared with earlier test results. The following statistical para meters were measured: mean rank, total of ranks, mean and standard deviation. To compare the inner structure of the variables t-test for dependent variables was used. The obtained statistical results were presented in diagrams with the mean and median values. Results The testing procedure of anticipatory reactions involved control test indexes referring to the two types of anticipatory simple reactions: temporal and spatial. The following indexes were used: RPRT reaction time in a simple reaction test (control test) RPMT movement time in a simple reaction test (control test), RPEMG EMG signal value in a simple reaction test (control test), RACRT temporal anticipation reaction time, RACMT temporal anticipation movement time, RACEMG temporal anticipation EMG signal, RAPRT spatial anticipation reaction time, RAPMT spatial anticipation movement time, RAPEMG spatial anticipation EMG signal. Table 1 and Figures 4a and 4b show that the advanced fencers obtained the time of ms in the control test (RPRT), ms in the temporal anticipation test (RACRT), and ms in the spatial anticipation test (RAPRT). These results point to a reduction of the reaction time due to anticipation. In the case of MT similar correlations were not noted. In the temporal anticipation test (RACMT) the subjects achieved the MT of ms, i.e. significantly reduced in comparison with the control test results (69.00 ms); however, 19

21 Zbigniew Borysiuk, Wacław Petryński, Wojciech J. Cynarski Wykres ramka-w sy Mediana 25%-75% Min.-Maks Wykres ramka-w sy rednia rednia±b d std rednia±odch.std [ms] [ms] RPRT RPMT RACRT RACMT RA PRT RAPMT 20 RPRT RPMT RACRT RACMT RAPRT RAPMT median value mean value Figures 4a, 4b. Median and mean values of reaction time and movement time indexes in the simple reaction test and temporal and spatial anticipation tests in the spatial anticipation test (RAPMT), the movement time (MT) amounted to ms. The diagrams (Fig. 4a, 4b) for the median and mean values confirm the expected increase in information processing in the latency phase due to anticipatory stimuli. Table 2 shows that the mean EMG signal value in the control test (RPEMG) amounted to µv; µv in the temporal anticipation test (RACEMG); and µv in the spatial anticipation test (RAPEMG). Despite the fact that the control test was carried out following the regular standards for simple reactions and that the random emission of signals made the subject concentrate their attention, the muscle bioelectric activity was significantly different between the control test and the anticipation tests. The median and mean values in Figures 5a and 5b show that the fencers generated the highest bioelectric tension in muscles during the temporal anticipation test, which forces the subject to anticipate specific time gaps. The widest span of results can be observed in the spatial anticipation test, which can be an indication of the high difficulty level of this test to the subjects. The observed differences were also related to the risk of making errors, i.e. false starts which were not registered by the computer. The results of the t-test for dependent variables (Tab. 3) reveal statistical differences between the control test and anticipation test results at p < There were no statistically significant differences between the reaction times in the temporal and spatial anticipation tests (p < 0.718). It shows that the effects of anticipation are equally important for the spatial and temporal stimuli. The data from Table 4 reveals a statistically significant difference (p < 0.00) between both tests (RACEMG and RAPEMG) as well as between the EMG signal in the control test (RPEMG) and the temporal and spatial Table 1. Variability of indexes of temporal and spatial anticipation and parameters of reaction time and movement time in the control test Variable Mean rank Total of ranks Mean Standard deviation RPRT RPMT RACRT RACMT RAPRT RAPMT

22 Reaction time, movement time and EMG signals as indicators of anticipation process in elite fencers Table 2. The variability of the EMG signal in the control test and temporal and spatial anticipation tests Variable Mean rank Total of ranks Mean Standard deviation RPEMG RACEMG RAPEMG W y kres ramka-w s y 1100 W y kres ramka-w s y [mikr ovolty] R PEMG R AC EMG R AP EM G Mediana 25%-75% Min.-Maks R PEMG R AC EMG R APEMG rednia rednia±b d std rednia±odch.std median value mean value Figures 5a, 5b. Median and mean values of the EMG signal in the control test and temporal and spatial anticipation tests Table 3. Differences between RT and MT in temporal and spatial anticipation and simple reaction tests Variable Mean Standard deviation N Difference Standard deviation difference t df p RPRT RACRT RPRT RAPRT RPMT RACMT RAPRT RACRT RAPMT RPMT RAPMT RACMT

23 Zbigniew Borysiuk, Wacław Petryński, Wojciech J. Cynarski Table 4. Differences between the EMG signal values in simple reaction and temporal and spatial anticipation tests Variable Mean Standard deviation N Difference Standard deviation diference t df p RACEMG RPEMG RACEMG RAPEMG RAPEMG RPEMG anticipation test results. It also shows that the EMG parameters were affected by anticipatory stimuli. Conclusion The obtained research results show that anticipation has a significant influence on the reduction of time of sensorimotor responses both in temporal and spatial anticipation tests. The component which is the most responsible for the reduction of response time is reaction time (RT). However, the results of the temporal anticipation test also revealed a significant decrease in movement time (MT) (p < 0.00). It can be stated that temporal anticipation reduces both the time of information processing and movement execution. A similar tendency was observed in the spatial anticipation test (p < 0.00); however, the movement time (MT) here was longer (p < 0.001). No statistically significant differences were observed between reaction times (RT) in both types of anticipation tests (p < 0.72), which means that both types of information processing were similar. These results correspond to those obtained by Zelaznik and Hahn [20], Waśkiewicz [21], Abernethy, Wood and Parks [22]. It can thus be concluded that anticipatory signals not only accelerate information processes in the central nervous system, but they also significantly affect the duration of MT phase of a sensorimotor response. It refers both to the temporal and special aspects of the movement [23] since the study results failed to produce any statistically significant differences between the results of the spatial and temporal anticipation tests and of the control test. A significant research component was the registration of the mean muscle bioelectric tension expressed by the EMG signal. The obtained differences were highly significant and displayed a linear trend from 235 µv to 917 µv. The lowest muscle tension was noted in the control test, followed by the spatial anticipation test and temporal anticipation test. It can be assumed that anticipatory information enforces some sort of mobilization of the neuro-muscular system, which can be associated with the facilitation of impulse transmission along nervous pathways [24, 25]. The greater motor unit recruitment is translated into a higher EMG signal value [26]. The subjects concentration of attention on timing led characteristically to an increase in muscle tension. In the spatial anticipation test, during the latency phase, i.e. during tracking the EMG curve by the subjects, a decrease in muscle tension was observed. It was significantly lower than in the temporal anticipation test, but significantly higher than in the control test. It can be thus stated that, despite visual control, each type of anticipation increases the EMG signal value. The results of the anticipation tests seem to confirm the initial assumption about the significant reduction of response time due to anticipation [27, 28]. This primarily refers to the reaction time, when the information from the stimuli is recognized and processed. The analysis, however, failed to define the reasons for the variability of movement time. It seems that the main cause of such variability was the choice of subjects, i.e. elite fencers, who thanks to their experience and intuition were extremely capable of taking advantage of anticipatory information. Despite the small differences the initial hypothesis about the significant superiority of temporal anticipation over spatial anticipation was not confirmed. There is no doubt that the subject covered in this study requires further research, especially that reactions based on probability assessment which affects 22

24 Reaction time, movement time and EMG signals as indicators of anticipation process in elite fencers movement execution, are important parts of everyday motor activities and professional sports [10, 11]. The authors did not study this particular aspect, as the experiment involved simple lab tests with motor patterns which did not engage motor memory to a great extent. The obtained results can be effectively used in sport and motor learning to facilitate acquisition of motor habits, development of anticipatory reactions and understanding the significance of timing in learning sensorimotor responses. LITERATURE PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Schmidt RA: Motor Control and Learning. Champaign, Illinois, Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc [2] Petryński W: O nazewnictwie w nauce o ruchach ludzkich. Człowiek i Ruch, 2002; 2 (6): [3] Poulton EC: On prediction in skilled movements. Psychological Bulletin, 1957; 54: [4] Borysiuk Z, Sadowski J: Time and Spatial Aspects of Movement Anticipation. Biology of Sport, 2007; 24 (3): [5] Borysiuk Z, Cynarski WJ: Czas reakcji i czas ruchu, typy odpowiedzi czuciowo-ruchowych, tempo szermiercze (Reaction time and movement time, types of sensorimotor responses and fencing tempo). Ido-Ruch dla Kultury/ Movement for Culture, 2009; 9: [6] Hotz A: Qualitatives Bewegungslernen. Bern, Verlag Schweizerischer Verband für Sport in der Schule SVSS, [7] Rosenbaum D: On the selection of physical actions. Five College Cognitive Science Papers, 1989: [8] Bernstein NA: O lovkosti i yeyo razvitii. Moskva, Fizkultura i Sport, [9] Petryński W: Motor control and learning according to Bernstein s theory. 9 th International Scientific Conference Scientific Fundaments of Human Movement and Sport Practice, Rimini, 2005, September 16 th 18 th. [10] Feigenberg IM: Speed of Movement Response and Probabilistic Prognosis. Kinesiology, 2007; 17 (40): [11] Feigenberg IM: Szybkość odpowiedzi ruchowej i przewidywanie prawdopodobne. Antropomotoryka, 2007; 40: 17 31, translated by W. Petryński. [12] Feigenberg IM: Veroyatnostnoye prognozirovaniye v deyatelnosti cheloveka i povedenii zhivotnykh. Moskva, Nyudiamed, [13] Schmidt RA, Wrisberg CA: Motor Learning and Performance, third edition. Champaign, Human Kinetics Publishers, 2000: [14] Latash M: Control of human movement. Champaign, Human Kinetics, [15] Salczenko IN: Dvigatelnyje wzaimodijestviya sportsmienow. Kijew, Zdorowje, [16] Ward P, Williams AM, Bennett SJ: Visual search and biological motion perception in tennis. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 2002; 73: [17] Keller SW, Tyszler DA: Fechtovaniye po sablach. Kijew, Zdorowje, [18] Cynarski WJ: Procesy informacyjne w sportach walki badanie struktury czasowej (Information processes in combat sports research of time structure). Ido Ruch dla Kultury/Movement for Culture, 2007; 7: [19] Borysiuk Z: Struktura czasowa procesów informacyjnych w wybranych sportach walki. Warszawa, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego, [20] Zelaznik HN, Hahn R: Reaction time methods in the study of motor programming: The precuing of hand, digit and duration. Journal of Motor Behavior, 1985; 17: [21] Waśkiewicz Z: A factor analysis of motor adjustment; in Atkinson G, Reilly T (eds): Sport, Leisure and Ergonomics. London, E&FN Spon, 1995; [22] Abernethy B, Wood JM, Parks S: Can the anticipatory skills of experts be learned by novices? Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 1999; 70: [23] Kelso JAS, Putnam CA, Goodman D: On the space-time structure of human interlimb coordination. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1983; 35A: [24] Blischke K: Automatyzacja w sterowaniu ruchami człowieka (Automatisation im Rahmen motorischer Kontrolle). Antropomotoryka, 2002; 23: 3 13, translated by W. Petryński. [25] Petryński W: Współczesne teorie uczenia się ruchów i sterowania nimi przez człowieka. Katowice, Górnośląska Wyższa Szkoła Handlowa, [26] Keele SW, Ivry R, Pokorny RA: Force control and its relation to timing. Journal of Motor Behavior, 1987; 19: [27] Tyshler D, Tyshler G: Fencing. Moscow, Physical Education and Science Press, 1995: 151. [28] Czajkowski Z: About the specifi city of energy and coordination abilities. Sport Wyczynowy, 2001; 11 12: (in Polish; English abstract). 23

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26 NR AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA MOVEMENT TIME OF ELITE VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS DURING THE GAME CZAS WYKONANIA RUCHU PODCZAS MECZU U SIATKARZY REPREZENTUJĄCYCH NAJWYŻSZY POZIOM MISTRZOSTWA SPORTOWEGO Adam Kawczyński*, Dariusz Mroczek**, Jan Chmura*** ****PhD, Department of Athletes Motor Skills, Sport Institute, University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland ****MSc, Department of Athletes Motor Skills, Sport Institute, University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland ****Prof. dr. habil., Department of Athletes Motor Skills, Sport Institute, University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland Key words: movement time, psychomotor performance Słowa kluczowe: czas wykonania ruchu, sprawność psychomotoryczna SUMMARY STRESZCZENIE Aim of the work. To investigate movement time of elite volleyball players during the game. Material and methods. Fourteen volleyball players, the members of Polish National Junior Team, participated in the study. Movement time was measured with the use of Optojump system. Optojump settings were set up to take measurements during the game without any intervention in it. Blood lactate concentration was assessed to monitor exercise load during the game. All measurements were taken during the pre-game test and the sets 1, 2, 3 and 4. Results. Movement time did not change significantly during the game. Blood lactate concentration increased significantly during the set 1, 2, 3 and 4 compared with pre-game test (p 0.05). Conclusions. The characteristics of volleyball game, i.e. physiological load and increase arousal, result in players ability to maintain unchanged movement time during the game. Cel pracy. Oznaczenie czasu wykonania ruchu podczas meczu u zawodników reprezentujących najwyższy poziom mistrzostwa sportowego. Materiał i metody. W badaniach wzięło udział 14 zawodników Kadry Polski Juniorów. Badania na zawodnikach wykonywano za pomocą optometrycznego systemu pozyskiwania danych Optojump firmy Microgate. Pomiarów dokonywano podczas specyficznego wysiłku meczowego, nie zakłócając przebiegu gry w piłkę siatkową. Do oceny wielkości obciążenia meczowego zawodników wykorzystano wskaźnik określający stężenie mleczanu w osoczu krwi. Pomiary zostały wykonane przed wysiłkiem meczowym oraz podczas gry w secie 1, 2, 3 i 4. Wyniki. Czas wykonania ruchu nie zmienił się istotnie statystycznie podczas gry. Wartości stężenia mleczanu w osoczu krwi wzrosły istotnie statystycznie ( p 0,05) w setach 1, 2, 3 i 4 w porównaniu do pomiaru przed wysiłkiem meczowym. Wnioski. Na tej podstawie stwierdzono, że specyfika gry w piłkę siatkową, tj. obciążenie fizjologiczne oraz podwyższone pobudzenie ośrodkowego układu nerwowego u zawodników pozwala im na utrzymanie czasu wykonania ruchu na względnie stałym poziomie przez cały czas trwania wysiłku meczowego. 25

27 Adam Kawczyński, Dariusz Mroczek, Jan Chmura Introduction The ability to maintain psychomotor performance during the game is one of the most important ways to succeed in sport competition [1]. In the specialist literature psychomotor performance includes following components: movement time [2], reaction time [1], choice reaction time [3], other cognitive tasks, i.e. visual search [4], motor skills, i.e. running speed [1]. Optimization and developing of those skills require reliable and valid methods to asses and monitor through training process. Therefore we concentrated on movement time (MT) assessment during the game. Most of studies are made in laboratories (treadmill or bike ergometer) and focused on the effect of exercise on components of psychomotor performance. Literature analysis clearly shows that psychomotor studies in majority were made post-exercise [5, 6, 7, 8]. It seems to be important that physiological status of subjects during the post-exercise tests is not identical with their status during the exercise, moreover exercise intensity can influence test results [9, 4]. On the other hand, only during competition and training the participants are required to perform activities on moderate and high intensities, speed and accuracy [1] what substantially affects athletes motor skills (2). It is well-known fact that during sport competitions players are under pressure of numerous influences. Fatigue, which increases during the game, competes with ability to maintain movement time; other components of psychomotor performance cannot be also disregarded. In widely accepted definition, fatigue is regarded as a psychophysiological state which appears during the effort and contains two main components: 1) metabolic changes in working muscles limiting the performance [11]; 2) central nervous system fatigue which affects motor and perceptual processing; both of them are extremely important in high level ball game participation [12, 13]. All facts showed above lead to conclusion that implemented method, which is performed during the game, is an important step in sport science. Therefore, the aim of this study is to assess MT of elite volleyball players during the game. Materials and methods Subjects Fourteen elite volleyball players, the members of Polish National Junior Team, participated in the study. The average age of participants (mean ± SD) was 18 ± 1 years, the average height was 196 ± 7.39, the average weight was ± Informed consent was obtained from each subject. All the participants gathered together at preparation camp before the 2009 FIVB Boys Youth Volleyball World Championship, Jesolo- Bassano del Grappa, Italy. The study was approved by the local ethics committee. Blood lactate concentration Blood sample was taken from the ear lobe for determination of blood lactate concentration using portable lactate test analyzer (Lactate Scout, SensLab GmbH, Leipzig, Germany). Blood lactate concentration was measured during the pre-game test and during the sets 1, 2, 3 and 4. Measurement of movement time The research was done with the help of Optojump system (Microgate, Bolzano, Italy), which measured foot contact time with the ground in a measurement area with the precision up to s. Among the advantages of this device the most important is possibility to adjust the software to the needs of participants and the placement of working measurement areas in different locations depending on the specific trial. This useful tool enables to develop a test for measurement of movement time. Before pre-match warm up all players were instructed in details about the experiment procedure and location of measurement devices (Fig. 1). During the pre-game test, game effort and each of the four sets played, all participants had to follow identical test procedure, according to which the player took his place in the starting square located on the base line of the court (Fig. 1). The trial began in a square of side 70 cm, within which the start position was free. Subject stood with his foot staggered, where either the left or right leg was forward. The setting allowed for placement of backward leg so that the heel of the feet was always in the measurement area of the first couple of the Optojump measurement device (10 cm measuring from the tuber calcanei). The tested player stood facing the net, on which a light source was located at the height of 243 cm, directly in front of him. Reacting to the signal (stimulus), he had to run as quickly as possible towards the light. In order to prevent anticipation of the stimulus, the signal was given irregularly. The intensity 26

28 Movement time of elite volleyball players during the game Foot setting 70 OPTOJUMP Foot take off OPTOJUMP Figure 1. Movement time measurements and duration of stimulus were high enough to be noticed without a problem. Due to strict time limits and the low number of trials, every player made one trial before the experiment proper. In this way, players could familiarize themselves with light stimulus (signal) and experiment procedure so they could participate in the experiment without any difficulty. After that the opinions were exchanged and once more the whole procedure was presented. After the discussion of results, the resting value of movement time for all players participating in the experiment was assessed. With consideration to the extremely precise and dynamic nature of the whole trial, appropriate oral motivation was also important for correct performance. Positive motivation before and during the test multiplied the player s effective stimulation to the action. The MT measurements were taken during the pre-game test and the sets 1, 2, 3 and 4. Statistics Movement time and blood lactate concentration were analyzed with the help of the repeated-measures analysis of variance (RMANOVA) between the measurements (pre-game test and sets 1, 2, 3, 4). The significant results were further analyzed using simple contrast (compared with pre-game test and set 1). The level p 0.05 was considered to be significant. The data was presented as means with standard errors (SEM). Results Movement time The repeated-measures ANOVA revealed that volleyball game had no significant effect on MT (Fig. 2.; Tab. 1). MT tended to increase during the set 1. MT remained Table 1. Movement time and blood lactate concentration during pre-game test and during sets 1, 2, 3 and 4. Asterisks denote significant difference between values obtained in consecutive sets (1 4) as compared with pre-game test Variable Pre-game test Set 1 Set 2 Set 3 Set 4 Movement time [ms] 330 ± ± ± ± ± 20 Blood lactate [mmol/l] 1.1 ± ± 0.11* 1.5 ± 0.15* 1.4 ± 0.06* 1.3 ± 0.07* 27

29 Adam Kawczyński, Dariusz Mroczek, Jan Chmura Movement time [ms] pre-game 0 test Set Figure 2. Time course changes of movement time (mean ± SEM) for each set of game almost unchanged during the set 2, 3 and tended to decrease during the set 4. Blood lactate concentration Blood lactate concentration (LA) increased significantly during the set 1, 2, 3 and 4 compared with pre-game test (p < 0.05). LA increased by 54.5 %; 36.4%; 27.3% and 18.2% during the set 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively (Fig. 3.; Tab. 1). Discussion In our study we aimed at assessing MT of elite volleyball players during the game. In order to assess the value of MT during the game we had to implement new method, which allowed to collect data without game disturbance. McMorris et al. [2] implemented testing of MT during the whole body movement, which was partly similar to players activity during the volleyball game. Subjects had to perform run through obstacles and choose one of possible ways, as a reaction on different light signals. This psychomotor test was performed in three conditions: 1) after sitting in a chair to reach resting heart rate; 2) after cycling at 70% maximal power output (W max ); 3) after cycling at 100% W max. The authors proved that movement time was not affected by the moderate intensity exercise [2]. In our study, where highest individual LA level was about 3,2 mmol/l, movement time also did not change significantly. It should be explained why the values of blood lactate concentration were rather low during the volleyball game. The answer seems to be simple: those results were connected with the game characteristics. Players changed their position during the game and left the field to change their teammates. It resulted in recovery and rather low level of physiological parameters in spite of high-level competition. In general, volleyball game is characterized by the low lactate concentrations level (2.54 +/ 1.21 mmol/l) during and after the matches. An increase of free fatty acids indicates that the energy during the short activity periods is supplied mainly by the breakdown of creatine phosphate, while aerobic pathways restore the energy sources during the resting periods [14]. When analyzing MT during the volleyball match, we have to remember about the mental state of players. The competition as such increases arousal [15, 16]. Relationship between the level of arousal and psychomotor skill is well-documented in the literature and described as an inverted U. It means that components of psychomotor performance (i.e. movement time) decrease or remain unchanged with an increase of central nervous system arousal. After passing this optimal level of arousal, MT increases [17, 18]. All above-mentioned leads to assumption that during our game unchanged MT could be due to the increased arousal of central nervous system as an effect of competition. In our experiment exercise intensity was moderate during the game, and that indicated blood lactate concentration. It must be underlined that moderate intensity of exercise is believed to produce optimal level of CNS arousal [3, 12]. 28

30 Movement time of elite volleyball players during the game Blood lactate concentration [mmol/l] 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 * * * * pre-game 0 test Set Figure 3. Time course changes of blood lactate concentration (mean ± SEM) for each set of game Conclusion Elite volleyball players showed the ability to maintain unchanged MT during the game. It could be an effect of physiological load, game characteristic and increased arousal of players during the game. LITERATURE PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Chmura J, Nazar K: Parallel changes in the onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) and threshold of psychomotor performance deterioration during incremental exercise after training in athletes. Int J Psychophysiol, 2010; 75: [2] McMorris T, Delves S, Sproule J, Lauder M, Hale B: Effect of incremental exercise on initiation and movement times in a choice response, whole body psychomotor task. Br J Sports Med, 2005; 39: [3] Chmura J, Nazar K, Kaciuba-Uscilko H: Choice reaction time during graded exercise in relation to blood lactate and plasma catecholamine thresholds. Int J Sports Med, 1994; 15: [4] Tomporowski PD: Effects of acute bouts of exercise on cognition. Acta Psychol (Amst), 2003; 112: [5] Coles K, Tomporowski PD: Effects of acute exercise on executive processing, short-term and long-term memory. J Sports Sci, 2008; 26: [6] Hillman CH, Snook EM, Jerome GJ: Acute cardiovascular exercise and executive control function. Int J Psychophysiol, 2003; 48: [7] Kamijo K, Nishihira Y, Higashiura T, Kuroiwa K: The interactive effect of exercise intensity and task difficulty on human cognitive processing. Int J Psychophysiol, 2007; 65: [8] Themanson JR, Hillman CH: Cardiorespiratory fi tness and acute aerobic exercise effects on neuroelectric and behavioral measures of action monitoring. Neuroscience, 2006; 141: [9] Kjaer M: Epinephrine and some other hormonal responses to exercise in man: with special reference to physical training. Int J Sports Med, 1989; 10: [10] Aune TK, Ingvaldsen RP, Ettema GJ: Effect of physical fatigue on motor control at different skill levels. Percept Mot Skills, 2008; 106: [11] Fitts RH: Cellular mechanisms of muscle fatigue. Physiol Rev, 1994; 74: [12] McMorris T, Graydon J: The effect of exercise on cognitive performance in soccer-specifi c tests. J Sports Sci, 1997; 15: [13] Royal KA, Farrow D, Mujika I, Halson SL, Pyne D, Abernethy B: The effects of fatigue on decision making and shooting skill performance in water polo players. J Sports Sci, 2006; 24: [14] Kunstlinger U, Ludwig HG, Stegemann J: Metabolic changes during volleyball matches. Int J Sports Med, 1987; 8: [15] Rhea MR, Landers DM, Alvar BA, Arent SM: The effects of competition and the presence of an audience on 29

31 Adam Kawczyński, Dariusz Mroczek, Jan Chmura weight lifting performance. J Strength Cond Res, 2003; 17: [16] Sibley BA, Etnier JL: Time course of attention and decision making during a volleyball set. Res Q Exerc Sport, 2004; 75: [17] Arent SM, Landers DM: Arousal, anxiety, and performance: a reexamination of the Inverted-U hypothesis. Res Q Exerc Sport, 2003; 74: [18] Duffy E: The psychological signifi cance of the concept of arousal or activation. Psychol Rev, 1957; 64:

32 NR AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA THE RELATION BETWEEN THE TRAINING LOAD AND THE RESULTS IN THE 10 AND 20 KM RACE WALKS OF POLISH RACE WALKERS ZWIĄZKI MIĘDZY OBCIĄŻENIEM TRENINGOWYM A WYNKAMI W CHODZIE SPORTOWYM NA 10 I 20 KM POLSKICH CHODZIARZY Edward Mleczko*, Jerzy Januszewski** ** Prof. dr. habil., Theory and Methodology of Track and Field Athletics Department, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland ** Prof. dr. habil. emer., os. Dywizjonu 303, bl. 26/51, Cracow, Poland Key words: race walking, junior category, sport results, training load, correlation Słowa kluczowe: chód sportowy, kategoria juniora, wyniki sportowe, obciążenia treningowe, korelacja SUMMARY STRESZCZENIE Aim of the work. To study chosen aspects of Polish race walkers training concerning the elite of youngest contestants at various stages of their athletic mastery. Material and methods. The data on the result progression of two Polish walkers in the junior category, G.S. and B.K., was analyzed based on the several issues of The Bulletin of Polish Athletics Association (PZLA), considering the fact that the subjects have belonged to the world elite for several years. The number of starts, the volume of training: inside (in hours) and outside (in kilometres) were all summed up as well as divided into groups in accordance with the way of covering the distance (race walking vs. run) and intensity of exercises. To describe the inner loading factor (inner loading zone: aerobic, aerobic-anaerobic and anaerobic) J. Cempla and E. Mleczko [1] method was used. The strength of the relationship between the top results in the following years of training over a distance of 10 and 20 km and complied training load in the particular years was determined according to the value of the Spearman s rank correlation coefficient. Results. Extensive growth of training load is not the only way to reach the mastery level for the junior sport walker. Too high in volume run training (over 10% of the annual volume of outside training) applied to the race walker in the junior category can negatively influence his sport level. As a factor that stimulates enough race walkers may be consider the annual training volume, which not exceeds 3000 km, together with all aerobic agents in superiority (75%) and with the distribution of anaerobic and anaerobic-aerobic agents in proportions of 11:14%. The tendency to stabilize the development of sport results pace in the junior category is probably linked together with too high volume of training load. Practising 50 km race walk should not cause any decrease in the contestant s efficiency on shorter distances. Conclusions. 1. It is possible to hold long-term relative stability of sport development in race walking. 2. Training volume and its intensity on the aerobic-anaerobic level can influence the result progression in 10 and 20 km race walk at the beginning of practising sport walking. 3. Negative influence is marked by the number of starts in the year and the volume of running training load. 4. The cumulative effect of training in the following years can influence the progress of the results in sport walking, especially when covering 50 km race walk. Cel badań. Podjęto badania wybranych zagadnień szkoleniowych najmłodszego pokolenia polskich chodziarzy na różnych etapach rozwoju ich mistrzostwa sportowego. 31

33 Edward Mleczko, Jerzy Januszewski Materiał i metody. Poddano analizie materiał dokumentacyjny dotyczący progresji wyników dwóch polskich chodziarzy w kategorii juniora: G.S. i B.K., który był zamieszczony w Biuletynach Polskiego Związku Lekkiej Atletyki (PZLA). Obaj zawodnicy od wielu lat należą do światowej elity chodziarzy. Zsumowano: liczbę startów, objętość treningu na hali (godz.) i w terenie (km) oraz w grupach wydzielonych ze względu na sposób pokonywania dystansu (chód sportowy bieg) i zakres intensywności ćwiczeń. Do określenia wskaźnika obciążenia wewnętrznego (strefa obciążenia wewnętrznego: tlenowa, tlenowo-beztlenowa i beztlenowo-tlenowa) wykorzystano metodę zaproponowaną przez Cemplę i Mleczkę [1]. Siłę związku między najlepszym wynikiem w kolejnych latach szkolenia na dystansie 10 i 20 km a realizowanym obciążeniem treningowym w danym roku ustalono na podstawie wartości współczynnika korelacji rang Spearmana. Wyniki badań. Ekstensywny wzrost obciążenia treningowego chodziarza nie jest jedyną drogą do osiągnięcia klasy mistrzowskiej w chodzie sportowym przez juniora. Zbyt duża objętość treningu biegowego realizowana przez chodziarza w kategorii juniora (powyżej 10% rocznej objętości treningu w terenie) może wpływać negatywnie na jego poziom sportowy. Za wystarczający bodziec treningowy dla chodziarza można uważać objętość treningu nieprzekraczającą 3000 km w roku, w której przewagę będą mieć środki tlenowe (75%) z rozkładem środków tlenowo-beztlenowych i beztlenowo-tlenowych w proporcjach 11:14%. Wystąpienie już w kategorii młodzieżowca tendencji do stabilizacji tempa rozwoju wyników sportowych może być następstwem eksponowania zbyt dużych obciążeń treningowych w kategorii juniora. Uprawianie chodu na 50 km nie powinno spowodować obniżenia sprawności w chodzie na krótszych dystansach. Wnioski. 1. Istnieje możliwość utrzymania przez długi okres względnej stabilności rozwoju sportowego w chodzie sportowym. 2. Na progresję wyników na 10 i 20 km w początkowym okresie uprawiania chodu sportowego może mieć wpływ objętość treningu oraz jego intensywność na poziomie obciążenia tlenowo-beztlenowego. 3. Ujemny wpływ wykazuje liczba startów w roku i objętość treningu biegowego. 4. Na postęp wyników w chodzie sportowym, zwłaszcza na 50 km, może mieć wpływ kumulacyjny efekt wytrenowania w kolejnych latach treningu. Introduction Recent success of Polish race walkers is linked with the name of Robert Korzeniowski, whose achievements have been until today the benchmarks to evaluate the sport level of race walkers from Poland and abroad. Consequently, the interest of sport audience still focuses on sources of such unusual sport achievement. The most important, without doubts, is the real talent of Korzeniowski that has come from the phenomenal genotype transmitted from his parents. However, it is well-known that Korzeniowski s winning the Olympic championship in 20 km and 50 km race walk was the consequence of well-organized training system, which was concentrated on improving problematic points [1]. Unfortunately, only the foundations of this training process have been estimated and made available to the audience [2, 3]. These foundations have tooled up the contestants to measure their own potentiality in order to evaluate and to develop the mastery. Some of them on certain ontogenesis stages have better results than young Korzeniowski in the junior category [4]. As detailed analysis of this training concept proves, there are some common features, in spite of differences in the training material and time structure [3, 4, 5]. The best example is G.S., who in the junior category held the title of Polish race walking champion for distances of 10 km and 20 km (1:25.47), repeating this success several times. His greatest international achievements for the distances of 10 km and 20 km are: seventh place at the finals in the International Junior Championship in Sydney in 1996 (20 km), and as a senior tenth place at the 2002 European Championship in Munich as well as seventh and eighth place at the Olympic Games (50 km). G.S. won second place in the 2010 European Championship in Barcelona. Methods In spite of the fact that success of Polish race walkers at the turn of the 21 st century is in the majority the effect of implementing Polish training school based on the race walking achievements, is almost impossible to find any brief description of its specification in the literature in contrast to the previous achievements. In the 1980s two milestone publications were released and edited by T. Chmielewski [2] and K. Kisiel [3, 5] focusing on the training issue of Polish walkers of that time. A foretaste of what was to come was the publication of some training aspects of the Olympic Games [4]. Over the next ten years there have been no attempts to develop mentioned problematic question. 32

34 The relation between the training load and the results in the 10 and 20 km race walks of Polish race walkers Apparently, these difficulties were caused by the efforts to keep in secret training ways and hints. Accepting the requirements of personal property protection and with the acceptance of the trainers and contestants, researchers from the University School of Physical Education in Cracow undertook the research on particular training subjects of the sport mastery development. On the main assumption, the research should lead to achieve cognitive aims. Until now, the study has led to conclusion that series of results cannot have applicable value. In this publication the attention is paid to some of them. Aim of the research 1. To describe the specific features of the top Polish race walkers. 2. To test the dependence between the progressions of sport results of two Polish Olympic contestants in race walking and training load complied in the junior category. 3. To determine what connection intensity is between the progression of achieved results for distances of 10 km and 20 km race walking in the junior, pre- -senior and the senior s first season and accomplishing during that time the training load. Research question 1. What is the volume of training load enough to win the Polish championship in the race walking for distances of 10 and 20 km in the category of junior, pre-senior and the senior s first season? 2. Is there any directly proportional dependence between the result pace for the 10 and 20 km race walk ended with the Polish records in the junior category in both distances and the training structure, quantity and intensity of training load? 3. Is it possible to find typical features of the development dynamics of sport results: progression, relative stabilization and regress for all typical sport walking distances (10, 20 and 50 km) during the thirteen-year-long period of practicing race walking by the Polish champion in the 10 and 20 km race walks? 4. Which of the elements of training load in race walking of Polish champion in the junior category did show the strongest correlation with the development dynamics of sport results? Resources Material The material regarding the result progression of G.S. and B.K., two Polish race walkers in the junior category, was analyzed. The documentation came from the issues of Polish Athletics Association Bulletin, files enclosed with the Polish Athletics Association s reports, the information gained from G.S. and B.K. and the data found in Training Reports prepared by the race walkers coaches in order to meet the registration requirements of Polish Athletics Association. According to these, B.K. is a current Polish champion and a record holder in the category of race walking for the distances of 10 and 20 km in the mentioned category (the record belonged formerly to G.S.). Both of the mentioned performers won Polish championship and took part in the Summer Olympics. Until now they have belonged to the world elite of race walkers. In 2010, G.S. won second place in the Europe Championship in Barcelona. Methods 1. The subject of analysis there was, among others, the data gathered in the training reports during the period of starts in the junior category (4 years) concerning: the number of starts, inside training volume (in hours), outside training (in kilometres) with the division to the way of covering the distance (race walking vs. run) and the exercises intensity were all summed up. To describe the inner loading factor (inner loading zone: oxygen, oxygen non-oxygen and nonoxygen) J. Cempla and E. Mleczko [1] method was used. 2. The strength between the top results in the following years of training for the distance of 10 km and complied training load in the particular years was determined according to the value of the Spearman s rank correlation coefficient. 3. In the thirteen-year-long sport career of G.S. the progression of results and frequency of the race walking starts of contestant was researched. 4. During the eight-year-long training period of G.S. in race walking in the junior category (the junior, pre- 33

35 Edward Mleczko, Jerzy Januszewski senior and senior s first year season) the analyses centred upon: the number of starts, outside training capacity (km), the way of covering the distance s partition (race walking vs. run), the range of accomplished exercises intensity (inner loading zone: aerobic, aerobic-anaerobic, and anaerobic-aerobic), inside training exercises endurance (hourly) improving the strength and coordination base (so-called efficiency ) all summed up. To describe the inner loading factor (inner loading zone: aerobic, aerobic-anaerobic and aerobic) J. Cempla and E. Mleczko [1] method was used. 5. The strength of connection between the best result in the following training years for the distance of 10 and 20 km and accomplished training load in the particular year were calculated with the help of the Spearman s correlation rank coefficient. RESULTS Progression of sport results of Polish champions in race walking in the junior category Analyzing the data from Table 1, especially concerning distances of 5 and 10 km, we can see that younger contestant (B.K.) ended up his first start season with worse sport results than G.S. It should be mentioned that B.K. began participating in the 20 km race walks relatively late in last season of his starts in the junior category. More decreasing result progression of older contestant (G.S.) brought B.K. better record result. Besides that, at this stage of sport career these two elite performers did not take part in the 50 km race walks (later only G.S. participated in it). Start frequency of researched performers in the junior category Practically no difference in the number of starts in particular distances between G.S. and B.K. has been found (see Table 2). Total number of starts was influenced by the participation of G.S. in the 3 km race walks. It should be also mentioned that along with the age of race walkers we observed a decrease for G.S. and increase for B.K. in the number of starts. Total volume and structure of training load of Polish juniors in subsequent years of training We can presume different approach towards training load (see: Table 4) of G.S. and B.K. in the junior category. In the first season, the training of G.S. was quantitatively higher than it was observed in every season of B.K. In the first year of starts the differences between these two contestants reached the level of km and the tendency to enlarge training volume appeared only in the training of G.S. Analyzing the pace of the described training load s element at the category of older junior, in the training of B.K. we observed a slight decrease and stabilization at the annual volume of 3000 km. In the last year of observation, the difference reached the level of 2000 km. For ease, the similar volume of training load of B.K. in the first year of the junior category (Table 3) was mentioned. The same refers to the volume of inside training. G.S. spent more time on completing it ( hours) than B.K. ( hours). When comparing the start efficiency of G.S. and B.K. at this stage of sport career, we should consider that results of G.S. and B.K. are incommensurable. In spite of the great training effort of G.S. (annual volume of outside training km and Table 1. The result progression of the younger and older junior of Polish Olympic contestants Season I. (younger junior) II. (younger junior) III. (older junior) IV. (older junior) G.S. B.K. G.S. B.K. G.S. B.K. G.S. B.K. 5 km ,18 10 km ,00 20 km 1: : : : km 34

36 The relation between the training load and the results in the 10 and 20 km race walks of Polish race walkers Table 2. Start frequency of G.S. and B.K. in particular start seasons Tested season G. S. B. K. 93/94 94/95 95/96 96/97 Total 97/98 98/99 99/00 00/01 Total 3 km km km km Total hours of inside training) enabling him to beat Polish records, his results happened to be worse than those which belonged to performing less work B.K. ( km). Worth mentioning are some quality differences in complying training load between these two contestants. Outside training of G.S. enclosed more running as a training agent, especially during his first year in the junior category (34 38%). In due course, the participation of this agent decreased and stabilized at the level of 13% in the last year of observation. The training of B.K. enclosed running agent to the lesser extent (min %) in all periods of observation. Sport training volume complied in the sport walking engaging three inner loading zones When comparing the results of G.S. and B.K. (Table 4), we assume that the aerobic mechanism of energy changes was in the majority engaged in the training of G.S. Additionally, when taking into consideration mixed agents proportion it appears that in older junior category the stronger anaerobic-aerobic agents were involved in the training process of G.S. It seems to be interesting that in the third analyzed season B.K. reached the similar sport level as G.S. Another interesting fact is that in spite of all mentioned differences in Table 3. The volume of the inside training efficiency in the following seasons of training and complied by G.S. and B.K. outside training including two groups of training items Season Run % Race walking % Outside [km] Efficiency [h] G.S B.K G.S B.K G.S B.K G.S B.K I II III IV Table 4. The outside training volume (run, sport walking) with division of its intensity to three inner loading zones Loading zone Season Aerobic % Aerobic- -anaerobic % Anaerobic-areobic % Total [km] G.S. B.K G.S B.K G.S B.K G.S B.K I II III IV

37 Edward Mleczko, Jerzy Januszewski Table 5. Spearman s rank correlation coefficient between the results in 10 km race walk and the volume of load complied by G.S. and B.K. in the junior category 10 km results G.S. B.K. Outside training volume Efficiency volume Oxygen loading Oxygen-non-oxygen loading Non-oxygen loading The number of starts volume both contestants at the age of 18 reached the same level of sport mastery. The difference increased to 1400 km in favour of G.S. The dependence between the sport result in 10 km distance and the training load complied by the contestants of the race walking In Table 5 the Spearman s rank correlation coefficient between the results in the 10 km race walk and the volume of loading complied by both contestants were presented. The analysis of the measurements of G.S. revealed the same strongest positive strength of the dependence between the result in 10 km and the outside training volume, and efficiency (r sp = 1). The negative correlation with the training volume appeared. In the measurement of B.K. with the exception of the training volume, all other dependences were positive and of high value. No negative correlation coefficient appeared. Table 6. The result progression in race walking and the frequency of starts from particular disciplines including age and training practice of G.S. The year of training Age 5 km/number of starts 10 km/number of starts 20 km/number of starts 50 km/number of starts / / / / /8 1:35.10/ / /12 1:30.21/ / /8 1:25.47/ / /3 1:29.39/ / /4 1:27.54/ / /3 1:25.02/ : : : : : : : :

38 The relation between the training load and the results in the 10 and 20 km race walks of Polish race walkers Race walking starts of G.S. the progression of results and frequency Discussing the data from Table 6, especially when searching for the period of relative stabilization of result development, we can assume that it appears at every distance. This applies to the case of 50 km racing walk but it does not prove the obstruction in the progressive development of the performer s life records. G.S. competed for the first time at this distance having had a tenyear practice in race walking. In the following year (2005) G.S. did not make any successful appearance. Omitting the above, we should state that a typical situation of faster entering a period of relative result stabilization in the development progress at shorter distances took place. Taking into consideration training practice we accepted that above mentioned process had appeared at particular distances in following years of training: 5 km 6 th year (first season in the pre-senior category), 10 km 8 th year (senior category), 20 km 9 th year (senior category). First quite successful starts at 50 km distance G.S. had as a senior (after nine years of professional practicing race walking) and it was difficult to assume, whether in his case the dynamics of progressive development, reflected in sport results, was completed. According to the above, in the case of analysed performer, basing on his 13-year-long sport practice, we would say that none of the development pace results had suggested that in the following years G.S. would have entered the progress period in the mastery level. His life records set in 2005 prove our observation. It can be presumed that only disqualification would preclude him from improving the results at 50 km race walk. The changes in sport level do not vary as much as in the junior category and definitely show the stabilization of the sport condition up to the mastery level in the following years. Without doubts, the less successful was the period between the sixth and the seventh year of his sport practice (pre-senior years). It is worth mentioning that G.S. achieved his best results at the 50 km race walk in the senior category. In these years G.S. continued his degree studies and in the year 2005 he got a degree and reached the top level of his sport possibilities. The frequency of starts shows the slight difference. In the category of junior, especially at the age of 18, the increase in number of his starts was noticed (18 starts in one year and among them 12 at 10 km distance!). In the following years, the number stabilized at the same level (9 12 starts a year) predominantly at the distance of 20 km. In Table 7 the volume of training measurements (outside training and inside training efficiency ) and considering the way of covering distance (sport walking vs. run) in the first 8 years of the sport training: junior category (5 years), pre-senior category (2 years), senior category (1 year) was inserted. Analyzed information proves evident increase in implementing training load in the junior category. The volume of completed distance in outside training was km and in the last preparing year of the junior category it reached to km. To this measurements we should add the volume of inside training. In the preceded year the volume of inside training increased to 96.7 hours and in the last year to 71.9 hours. That result progression of G.S. at all typical distances 5, 10 and particularly 20 Table 7. The annual measurement of outside training (altogether and particularly of run and sport walking) and the training accomplished inside (efficiency) The age category Run (km) Run % Walk (km) Walk % Altogether (km) Efficiency (hour) Junior Junior Junior Junior Junior Pre-senior Pre-senior Senior

39 Edward Mleczko, Jerzy Januszewski Table 8. The structure of the training load of G.S. at the following stages of his sport training Load SEASON Aerobic km [ % ] Anaerobic km [ % ] Anaerobic-aerobic km [ % ] Total km 100% 1993 [Jr] [75.9] [10.5] [13.6] [Jr] [84.2] [ 4.2 ] [11.6] [Jr] [81.5] [ 7.9 ] [10.6] [Jr] [73.8] [ 9.6 ] [16.6] [Jr] [67.8] [14.6] [17.6] [P-sen] [79.0] [11.3] [ 9.7] [P-sen] [74.0] [14.0] [12.0] [Sen] [78.1] [11.7] [10.2] Abbreviations: Jr junior; P-sen pre-senior; Sen senior km was probably the effect of extensive load growth. This tendency was curbed in the pre-senior category (from years of age) and in the senior category (age of 22). The increase in the time of inside training was noticed. As the earlier results show, in that point of time the obstruction of the fast pace of sport result development and the tendency to relative stabilization appeared. What should be marked is the fact that achievement of the mastery level of senior category at the 20 km distance was accompanied with the quantitative growth of training load as well as the significant reduction of training provided by running (stressed in the category of early junior). Its participation at this time reached the level of 34 38% of the outside training and in the last year over limited not much of 10%. These relations between the particular exercises practiced both in running and sport walking stayed at the same level in the following training years. The intensity of outside training of the race walker As we can see from Table 8, during all these years of training the exercises engaging aerobic mechanism of metabolic changes were in the majority. On average it was kept at the steady level of 76.8% by the obvious dispersion of results ( %). The proportions of the aerobic-anaerobic and anaerobic-aerobic average approaches were nearly the same. Only in the older junior category more intensive averages of anaerobic agents ( %) dominated over those aerobic-anaerobic ( %). Due to information analysis the contestant achieved the mastery level in the phase when training Table 9. Spearman s rank correlation coefficient in relations: training load structure 10 km and 20 km result in the initial period of sport training of G.S. Load and km 20 km Outside training volume Race walking volume Run volume Efficiency volume Aerobic load Aerobic-anaerobic load Anaerobic load The number of starts

40 The relation between the training load and the results in the 10 and 20 km race walks of Polish race walkers load was quantitatively and qualitatively the strongest. Quite probable obstruction of the result in the pre-senior category might be caused by the overloading of training and a try to copy earlier training patterns. The relation between the training load and the result in the race walking for distances of 10 and 20 km In Table 9 it was shown the result of the relation strength between the result in 10 and 20 km and the training load structure practiced by G.S. during particular period of his sport ontogenesis. Relatively higher correlation factor between the training load and the result in 10 km than 20 km can be noticed. In these both cases apparently the relation strength between the sport result and outside training volume in race walking together with the aerobic-anaerobic training load appeared. The negative correlation coefficients appeared in the relations where the number of starts and the training load took place while running. Summary and discussion We can assume that at this point of his 13-year-lasting sport career, G.S. currently has reached the stage of relative stabilization of his result development. It is quite clear for a distance of 50 km, but this does not prove the obstruction of progressive development of the life records. Omitting the above and focusing on the result development progress, we should conclude that we have to do with a typical situation when the relative result stabilization appears faster at shorter distances. What should be marked is the fact that achieving the mastery level in the senior category for a distance of 20 km was accompanied not only with the quantitative growth of training load but also with the significant reduction of the volume of training load oriented on running (vital in training load at the stage of early junior). The participation of this factor at this period reached the level of 34 38% of outside training and in the last year over limited not much of 10%. These relations between the particular exercises practiced in both run and in race walking stayed at the same level in the following training years. All the data analysis led us to conclusion that the point in time when the contestant reached the mastery level was simultaneous with the period when training load was quantitatively and qualitatively the strongest. The obstruction of the results in the pre-senior category probably was caused by the overloading of training and a try to copy the training patterns from earlier stages of career. The relatively higher correlation coefficient between the training load and the result in 10 km than in 20 km can be also underlined. In these both cases apparently the relation strength between the sport result and outside training volume in the race walking together with the aerobic-anaerobic training load appeared. The negative correlation coefficients appeared in the relations where the number of the starts and the training quantity took place while running. Basing on the presented and analyzed material the question comes to mind: If the contestant B.K. has reached definitely the higher sport level, why so intensive training should be practiced? Such tiring and extensive training (above 5000 km a year) can be positively estimated when it leads to the later possibility of participation in the 50 km distance race walk. It seems that for the present effects and needs of sport development for junior category only the load of 3000 km would be enough. For sure, the need of elimination of the run agent as an training item should be considered. Past experience and the analysis of B.K. correlation coefficient show the negative influence on the result of G.S. Because of traditions and habits it seems that there is no need to try any run agents more than those, which were used by B.K. (10% of the whole year training volume). The great number of starts should also become the subject of some discussions. For sure, the number was quite high in the G.S. years of training. Conclusions 1. The appearance of the tendency to stabilization the sport results development s pace can be a succession of too significant training load in the junior category. 2. There is a possibility of holding relative stabilization of the sport development in the race walking for a long time. 3. The training quantity and its intensity on the aerobic- -anaerobic level can influence the result progression in 10 and 20 km at the beginning time of practicing the sport walking. The negative influence is marked by the number of the starts and the volume of running training. 4. The cumulative effect of training in the following years can influence on the progress of the results in the sport walking, especially in the 50 km distance. Practicing sport walking at 50 km should not cause 39

41 Edward Mleczko, Jerzy Januszewski any decrease of the efficiency in the sport walking over shorter distance. 5. The extensive growth of t training load of the race walker is not the only way to reach the mastery level in race walking for junior. 6. Training volume, which does not exceed 3000 km a year, where the superiority would be all of the aerobic agents with direct disposition of the aerobic-anaerobic and anaerobic-aerobic agents can be claimed as the enough stimulus for any race walker. 7. Too extended run training quantity completed by the race walker in the junior category can have a negative influence on his sport level. LITERATURE PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Cempla J, Mleczko E: Badania zależności między objętością, strukturą i dynamiką obciążeń treningowych biegaczy a rozwojem sportowym i reakcjami fizjologicznymi na wysiłek fizyczny o różnej mocy. Seria: Wydawnictwa Monograficzne, Kraków, AWF, 1989; 33. [2] Chmielewski T (ed.): Chód sportowy. I Konferencja naukowo-metodyczna. Kalisz, Polskie Towarzystwo Naukowe Kultury Fizycznej, [3] Kisiel K: Konstrukcja treningu w chodzie sportowym dla juniora. Lekkoatletyka, 1992; 6. [4] Walaszczyk A: Charakterystyka obciążeń treningowych w chodzie sportowym (na przykładzie Roberta Korzeniowskiego). Trening, 1996; 1. [5] Kisiel K: Trening sprawności fi zycznej w chodzie sportowym. Warszawa, RCMSKFiS,

42 NR AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD DETERMINATION BASED ON CHANGES IN RMS-EMG CURVE AND RESPIRATORY PARAMETERS WYZNACZANIE PROGU ANAEROBOWEGO U SPORTOWCÓW METODĄ ODDECHOWĄ I ELEKTROMIOGRAFICZNĄ Anna Tyka*, Tomasz Pałka**, Aleksander Tyka***, Tomasz Cisoń**, Szczepan Wiecha****, Aleksandra Stawiarska*****, Agata Cebula***** ******MSc, Department of Recreation and Biological Regeneration, University School of Physical Education, Cracow; Institute of Physical Education, PWSZ, Nowy Sacz, Poland ******PhD, Institute of Human Physiology, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland ******Prof. dr. habil., Institute of Human Physiology, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland ******MSc, Institute of Human Physiology, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland ******MSc, Doctoral Studies, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland Keywords: anaerobic threshold, respiratory parameters, rms-emg curve Słowa kluczowe: próg anaerobowy, metoda oddechowa, krzywa elektromiograficzna SUMMARY STRESZCZENIE Aim of the work. To compare two methods of anaerobic threshold (AT) determination: respiratory parameters analysis and changes in rms-emg curve. Material and methods. Monitoring of rms-emg curve was used during a cycloergometer test to exhaustion as a way of the anaerobic threshold detection and was compared with ventilatory parameters in 15 healthy ice hockey players. Results. The AT was detected on the same level on the average. Comparing two methods the ice hockey players reached the anaerobic thresholds at the level of 56% (respiratory data) and 55.5% (rms-emg data) of maximum work load (MWL) with correlation coefficient r = Conclusion. The rms-emg curve analysis provide the results of the same accuracy but faster and in more convenient way, in comparison to other methods of AT determination. Cel badań. Zweryfikowanie u sportowców możliwości stosowania dwóch nieinwazyjnych metod wyznaczania progu anaerobowego: oddechowej i elektromiograficznej. Materiał i metody. Przebadano 15 mężczyzn profesjonalnie uprawiających hokej na lodzie. Poddani oni zostali stopniowanemu wysiłkowi o narastającej intensywności, w trakcie którego rejestrowano bioelektryczne napięcie (rms-emg) mięśni szkieletowych (v. lateralis i r. femoris) oraz wskaźniki wymiany oddechowej, co pozwoliło określić wysokość mocy na progu anaerobowym (WL) wentylacyjnym i elektromiograficznym. Wyniki. Przeciętne wyniki WL na progu anaerobowum kształtowały się na zbliżonym poziomie. Próg wentylacyjny zarejestrowano na poziomie 56% MWL, a elektromiograficzny na 55,5% MWL. Wysoka wartość współczynnika korelacji liniowej (r = 0,896) dowodzi, że wyznaczanie progu anaerobowego metodą elektromiograficzną jest równie dokładne jak za pomocą innych rutynowych metod. Wnioski. Niewątpliwie zaletą tej metody elektromiograficznej jest możliwość łatwego, nieinwazyjnego wyznaczania progu w naturalnych dla sportowca warunkach terenowych. 41

43 A. Tyka, T. Pałka, A. Tyka, T. Cisoń, Sz. Wiecha, A. Stawiarska, A. Cebula Introduction It is possible that during incremental exercise the nonlinear changes of IEMG coincide with the increase of muscle cell lactate concentration. Thus the IEMG as an index of anaerobic threshold (AT) had been used before [1 5]. Viitasalo et al. [4] suggested that the non-linear increase in IEMG intensity curve can be already detected before the anaerobic threshold is reached. Previously [9] it was revealed that the dislinearity of rms-emg indices were not due to fatigue but due to a change in the skin electrical properties. Furthermore it seems that the analyses of rms-emg curve provide the results faster and in more convenient way, in comparison to other methods of AT determination. The main aim of this study was to compare two methods of AT determination: respiratory parameters analysis and changes in rms-emg curve. The further task was to establish the utility of both procedures during incremental exercise. The study was conducted in the Department of Human Physiology, University of Physical Education, Cracow (with C and 45 50% ambient temperature and relative humidity, respectively). Graded exercise test to exhaustion was performed on a cycloergometer (Jaeger ER900D, Germany). The Material and methods The study group consisted of fifteen ice hockey players, mean age 18.4 years (16 18 years), body weight 72.4 ± 7.60 kg, body height ± 4.13 cm (Table 1). Table 1. Basic anthropological data and maximum levels of some physiological indices; MWL maximal work load Parameter Mean ± SD Min. Max. Age (years) 18.4 ± Height (cm) ± Weight (kg) 72.4 ± V. O 2 max (L min 1 ) 3.99 ± V. O 2 max (ml kg 1 min 1 ) ± MWL (W) ± MWL (W kg 1 ) 4.55 ± V. max E (L min 1 ) ± HRmax 189 ± Figure 1. The determination of anaerobic threshold on the basis of individual data of subject R.F. 42

44 Anaerobic threshold determination based on changes in rms-emg and respiratory parameters exercise test was preceded by 3 minutes of warming up (the load was set at 50 W) and then every two minutes during exercise, work load (WL) was increased by 25 W. The maximum values of physiological indices are presented in Table 1. The level of pulmonary gas exchange was evaluated every 30 seconds by means of Medikro 919 E equipment (Medikro Ltd, Kuopio, Finland). Skin surface electromyography (rms-emg) of working muscles (vastus lateralis and rectus femoris) was recorded on-line and analyzed every two minutes, which coincided with work load increase, by using the ME 3000 EMG Analyser Software (Mega Electronics, Kuopio, Finland) and the surface electrodes (ROO-A, medicotest, Denmark). The level of anaerobic threshold determined by means of Wasserman et al. formula [7] was compared to the concomitant changes in rms-emg, especially of average and area values (µv). All evaluations were carried out according to Hänninen et al. [9]. To determine the anaerobic threshold pulmonary ventilation (V E ), carbon dioxide elimination (VCO 2 ) and ratio values as well as average and area values (µv) were plotted separately against the corresponding figures of work load (Fig. 1). The anaerobic threshold level was evaluated in two different ways separately: at first on the basis of changes in respiratory indices, then from rms-emg values and then from both the respiratory and rms-emg curves. The AT was determined to be just below the level at which the linearity of above curves disappeared [7]. Results The level of anaerobic threshold (AT) determined on the basis of pulmonary ventilation (V E ), pulmonary ventilation to oxygen uptake ratio (V E /VO 2 ), respiratory quotient (RQ) and carbon dioxide elimination (VCO 2 ) reached the average value of 216.7±30.86 W (Table 2). Table 2. Individual values of work load at the level of AT evaluated from respiratory and rms-emg values; WL work load, MWL maximal work load Respiratory AT (X) Mean ± SD EMG AT (Y) Mean ± SD WL (W) 217 ± ± % MWL r The data of rms-emg, especially average and area values the best indicators of the anaerobic threshold revealed AT being on the average level ± W. The difference between these two values has shown no statistically significant differences (Table 2), proving that the AT was detected on the same level on the average as the ice hockey players reached the anaerobic thresholds at the level of 56% (respiratory data) and 55.5% (rms-emg data) of maximum work load (MWL). The correlation coefficient calculated between ventilatory and rms-emg values at the anaerobic threshold levels reached the value as high as (Fig. 2). Figure 2. The regression line between work load (WL) values at respiratory and rms-emg anaerobic thresholds Discussion It has been established that the evaluation of anaerobic threshold on the basis of respiratory parameters seems to be rather exact. It depends on the effect of lactate moved into the blood which induces changes in the acid-base balance as well as changes in the pulmonary ventilation and other respiratory indices. It seems to be true that the increased lactate accumulation inside the muscle cell normally precede the blood lactate changes. These process can change the surface EMG spectrum which may be related to the measurement of EMG on fatigued muscle [5, 6]. The changes of impulses conductivity through sarcolemma are very often coupled with muscle metabolism. It has also been suggested that EMG signals depend on the muscle fibre type to be recruited during gradually increased exercise [1, 10]. It is probable that at the anaerobic threshold fast muscle fibres (IIa) are dominant, while above the an- 43

45 A. Tyka, T. Pałka, A. Tyka, T. Cisoń, Sz. Wiecha, A. Stawiarska, A. Cebula aerobic threshold the recruitment of fast muscle fibres (IIx) begins to increase during incremental exercise [5, 8, 10]. Furthermore, suggested rms-emg method of anaerobic threshold detection seems to be most easy to perform among other methods. There are some technical difficulties in the measurement of oxygen uptake and other respiratory indices because the gas analyser and gas volumemeter are necessary, what is more the mask and valves with tube can constrict the movements. Blood lactate analysis needs the very often sampling of blood being very inconvenient for the subjects. Using the simple rms-emg method for anaerobic threshold determination one can evaluate the anaerobic threshold very fast, during exercise test yet and supply the results to the coach. The method is very convenient for the subjects and easy to follow. Conclusion In comparison to other methods of anaerobic threshold determination the rms-emg curve analysis provide the results of the same accuracy but faster and in more convenient way. LITERATURE PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Helal JN, Guezennec CY, Goubel F: The aerobic-anaerobic transition: re-examination of the threshold concept including an electromyographic approach. [2] Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 1987; 56 (6): [3] Nagata A, Muro M, Moritani T, Yoshida T: Anaerobic threshold determination by blood lactate and myoelectric signals, [4] Jpn J Physiol, 1981; 31(4): [5] Tesch PA, Komi PV, Jacobs I, Karlsson J, Viitasalo JT: Infl uence of lactate accumulation of EMG frequency spectrum during repeated concentric contractions. Acta Physiol Scand, 1983; 119 (1): [6] Viitasalo JT, Luhtanen P, Rahkila P, Rusko H: Electromyographic activity related to aerobic and anaerobic threshold in ergometer bicycling. Acta Physiol Scand, 1985; 124 (2): [7] Tyka A, Żuchowicz A, Kubica R, Pałka T: The relationship between electromyographic (IEMG AT) and ventilator (VE AT) thresholds in men during graded exercise different ambient temperatures. Proceedings of the 4th Annual Congress of European College of Sport Science. Rome, July 1999: 635. [8] Stulen FB, DeLuca CJ: Frequency parameters of the myoelectric signal as a measure of muscle conduction velocity. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng, 1981; 28 (7): [9] Wasserman K, Whipp BJ, Koyl SN, Beaver WL: Anaerobic threshold and respiratory gas exchange during exercise. J Appl Physiol, 1973; 35 (2): [10] Skinner JS, McLellan TH: The transition from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism. Res Q Exerc Sport, 1980; 51 (1): [11] Hänninen O, Airaksinen O, Karipohja M, Manninen K, Sihvonen T, Pekkarinen H: On-line determination of anaerobic threshold with rms-emg. Biomed Biochim Acta, 1989; 48 (5 6): S [12] Tyka A, Pałka T, Tyka AK, Szyguła Z, Cisoń T: The infl u- ence of ambient temperature on mechanical power at anaerobic threshold determined by blood lactate and myoelectric sygnale. Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 2009; 22 (1):

46 NR AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA ASSESSMENT OF SOME MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND SPECIFIC MOTOR ABILITIES IN YOUNG WATER POLO PLAYERS IN THREE DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS OCENA WYBRANYCH CECH MORFOLOGICZNYCH I SPRAWNOŚCI SPECJALNEJ MŁODYCH ZAWODNIKÓW UPRAWIAJĄCYCH PIŁKĘ WODNĄ W TRZECH OKRESACH ONTOGENEZY Igor Stirn* **PhD, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Sport, Gortanova 22, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia Key words: water polo, young, evaluation, specific skills Słowa kluczowe: piłka wodna, ocena techniki, umiejętności ruchowe SUMMARY STRESZCZENIE Aim of the work. In order to identify and monitor talents, an evaluation of morphological characteristics and motor abilities of young athletes has become a must. The aim of the study was to ascertain which of the special skill tests contributed most to the differentiation of three different age groups of water polo players. Methods. Two anthropometrical (body height and mass), one functional (vital capacity) and eight specific technical skills were performed by 264 players categorised in three different age groups 11 to 12 (G1), 13 to14 (G2) and 15 to 16 (G3) years of age. Results. All variables under observation showed significant differences between the groups (p < 0.05). All the skills evaluated by our tests showed linear progression with respect to the growing up process. The diffe rences remain significant (p < 0.05) even when the three morphological tests were set as covariates in the statistic analysis, suggesting therefore that other factors (non-morphologic) had an important role. Using discriminant analysis we found that G1 and G2 were best differentiated by specific skill tests without a ball, while G2 and G3 were best differentiated by ball handling tests. This might be the cause of a well-known principle of motor learning that is considered in a training process simpler motor skills without a ball are developed first and are later upgraded to more demanding ball handling skills. Conclusion. Skill tests without the ball better differentiate between G1 and G2, while tests with the ball better differentiate between G2 and G3. Cel pracy. Do identyfikowania i monitorowania rozwoju talentu sportowego niezbędne jest tworzenie modelowych charakterystyk morfologicznych oraz ocena zdolności motorycznych młodych sportowców. Celem pracy było określenie poziomu zdolności piłkarzy wodnych, badanych w trzech okresach ontogenezy, za pomocą trafnych testów sprawności fizycznej. Metody. Zastosowano metodę obserwacji poziomu rozwoju morfofunkcjonalnego piłkarzy wodnych. Badania przeprowadzono na grupie 264 piłkarzy wodnych w wieku lat. Dokonano podziału na trzy grupy ze względu na wiek badanych: lat (G1), lat (G2) oraz lat (G3). Materiał zebrano posługując się metodami powszechnie stosowanymi w antropometrii do pomiaru podstawowych cech somatycznych wysokości i masy 45

47 Igor Stirn ciała. Poza tym brano pod uwagę pomiary wydolności i sprawności motorycznej, mierzonej z zastosowaniem ośmiu specjalistycznych testów. Wyniki. Wszystkie badane parametry wykazały istotne zróżnicowanie statystyczne w obrębie badanych grup (p < 0,05). Wszystkie umiejętności techniczne weryfikowane w testach wykazały liniową progresję względem przyrostu wysokości ciała. Istotne statystycznie różnice (p < 0,05), wykazane w trzech porównywalnych testach, sugerowały istotną rolę czynników pozamorfologicznych. Wykorzystując analizę dyskryminacyjną wskazano, że w grupach G1 i G2 testami najbardziej różnicującym badanych były testy bez użycia piłki. W grupach G2 i G3 największą wartość diagnostyczną wykazywały natomiast testy z piłką. Przedstawione wyniki korespondują z dobrze znanym prawem uczenia się czynności motorycznych, zgodnie z którym w procesie treningu proste czynności ruchowe (bez piłki) rozwijają się szybciej w porównaniu do trudniejszych czynności związanych z opanowaniem piłki. Wnioski. Testy motoryczne bez użycia piłki wyraźniej różnicują młodszych piłkarzy wodnych, podczas gdy testy oparte na umiejętnościach związanych z opanowaniem piłki wyraźniej różnicują starszych zawodników. Wyniki badań własnych potwierdzają znane prawo uczenia się, iż proste umiejętności rozwijają się szybciej. Introduction Monitoring morphological characteristics and motor abilities has become essential in evaluation of the young athlete s performance capacities. The data collected from testing the young athletes can be used for an early identification of talented players, for planning and executing training sessions and for positioning players to the most suitable playing positions. There are four key stages in the talent identifying process: detection, identification, development and finally selection [1]. Detection is a process when potential players that are currently not involved in water polo are being discovered. Because of specificity of the sport in question, this stage is limited to the observation of the children during out of water sport activities, especially team sports (i.e. soccer, basketball, handball etc.) and swimming. An eye of a skilled expert should detect child s general capabilities such as whole body coordination, game sense, anticipation, decision making, attitude etc. Identification refers to the process of recognition current players with the potential to become elite players [1] by measuring and analysing physical, physiological, psychological and sociological attributes of technical abilities either alone or in combination [2]. Identified players are then provided with a suitable learning and training environment, which enables them to realize their potential. Finally the most successful players are selected to the team. In individual sports (i.e. running, rowing, cycling) predictors of performance are more easily scientifically prescribed than in team games where identification and selection of the players are more demanding [3]. Three aspects had been described concerning the identification of talented players in water polo: physiological, psychological and sociological [4]. However, in some other research, it was found that physiology and morphology parameters were not essential in the early detection of talented players. Other factors significantly contributed to the success game knowledge and game sense [5], team coherence [6], status of maturity [7], anticipation and decision making [4]. Lidor et al. [8] found that the only test that showed differences between the selected and non-selected team handball players was the test which required specific technical skill. Few other physical and motor tests that were commonly used by the coaches were not sensitive enough to distinguish between mentioned groups; the results of these tests for the selected and non-selected players overlapped. Spamer and Coetzee [9] also reported that skill tests better differentiated between the more and less talented players than physical and motor tests. Due to the water environment, the game of water polo demands specific skills and abilities. According to this fact and to the results of previous studies, specific tests performed in the water were developed and applied in order to evaluate players abilities. Beside basic anthropometrical (body height and mass) and vital capacity we executed eight specific tests in the water that presumably cover the most important abilities required in water polo: horizontal start in the water, swimming velocity with and without the ball, swimming endurance, agility, strength endurance of the egg-beater kick, vertical jump out of the water and throwing velocity. The aim of the study was to ascertain which of the listed tests contribute most to the differentiation of three different age groups (12, 14 and 16 years of age) of water polo players. Methods The data was collected in a four-year period. Talented young players (according to the opinion of their coaches) from the best Slovenian water polo clubs were invited to do the testing once every year. For a purpose of this re- 46

48 Assessment of some morphological characteristics and specific motor abilities in young water polo players... search we divided them in three different age groups: 11 to 12 (labelled G1) 13 to 14 (G2) and 15 to 16 (G3) years of age that consisted of 52, 133 and 79 players respectively. Body height (BH), body mass (BM) and vital capacity (VC) were measured and eight specific tests were performed in the water: 5-metre swim (S5): player floated in the water with the back of his head in contact with the goal line (as waiting for the start of the game). On a signal (whistle and a swing with an arm), he started swimming with maximum velocity. The time from the starting signal to the moment when the head reached the marked spot that was positioned 5 m from the starting line, was measured. Each player performed this test twice and better result was used for further analysis. 25-metre swim (S25): on a starting command player pushed with legs off the swimming pool wall and started to swim with maximum velocity to the end of a 25-metre distance pool. Each player performed this test twice and better result was used for further analysis. 25-metre ball dribbling (BD25): player floated at the starting wall of the swimming pool in a horizontal position with his legs on the wall. In one hand he held a ball. On a starting command player pushed off the swimming pool wall, released the ball from the hand, placed it in front of the head and started to dribble the ball with maximum velocity to the end of a 25-metre distance pool. Each player performed this test twice and better result was used for further analysis. 200-metre swim (S200): on a starting command player pushed with legs off the swimming pool wall and started to swim with maximum velocity for 200 meters. Each player performed this test once. 4 5-metre swimming in changing directions (S4X5): player floated in the water with the back of his head in contact with the goal line. On a signal (whistle and a swing with an arm), he started swimming with maximum velocity to the other line which was strained 5 metres away from the starting line. He touched that line and swam back again to the starting line and then he repeated this path once again. Player swam four times five meters with maximum velocity. Each player performed this test once. Egg-beater kick in vertical position with a 5 kg weight (VEK, Fig. 2): player held the 5 kg weight with both hands above the head in vertical body position and traded water performing egg-beater kicks. Player ended the task when he was not able to keep the elbows out of the water. One-hand vertical jump out of the water and reach test (VJW): player jumped out vertically of the water and touched with one hand the measuring scale as high as possible as demonstrated in Figure 1. The distance from the water surface to the spot on a measuring scale was measured. Each player performed this test five times and the best result was used for further analysis. The measuring board had been previously calibrated to the water surface using a small weight on the end of a rope as suggested by Platanou [10] Throw the ball at the goal (TG): subjects were asked to throw the ball with dominant arm with maximum velocity. The ball was thrown in the direction of the 5-metre distant radar (Speed Check Personal Sport Radar, Tribar Industries, Quebec, Canada) which measured the velocity of the ball. Radar was posi- Figure 1. Vertical jump out of the water test Figure 2. Egg-beater kick with weight in vertical position 47

49 Igor Stirn tioned behind the net of a water polo goal, which protected it from the impact. It was positioned in front of subject s right shoulder, approximately at the height of the release of a ball to enable its most direct (optimal) path to the radar. The throws were executed without faints, like penalty throws. The highest velocity of the five throws was used for further analysis. Descriptive statistics, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and discriminant analysis were executed. Normality of the data was checked using the Smirnov-Kolmogorov test and Levene`s test of homogeneity of variance had been done before ANOVA and discriminant analysis were performed. Results Average values and corresponding standard deviations of all tests for all three age groups are shown in Table 1. The values of all variables under observation showed approximately linear progression (Fig. 3). The differences between the groups were statistically significant in all variables under observation (p < 0.05). In accordance with expectations there Table 1. Average values and corresponding SD for all variables Test Unit G1 G2 G3 Me SD Me SD Me SD BH cm BM kg VC l S5 s S4X5 s S25 s S200 s BD25 s VJW cm TG km/h VEK s Figure 3. The common display of all variables. For better transparency, data is shown in two graphs, with their original units. Note linear progression in all variables. Abbreviations are listed in the Methods section. The corresponded units are: VC (l), S5 (s), S4X5 (s), S25 (s), BD (s), BH (cm), S200 (s), VJW (cm), TG (km/h), BM (kg), VEK (s). All variables show differences between the groups (p < 0.05), which are not marked on the graph, due to the transparency 48

50 Assessment of some morphological characteristics and specific motor abilities in young water polo players... Table 2. The correlation of each variable with the discriminant function were significant differences in body weight and mass between the players of different age groups, therefore we set these two variables as covariates. Even so, the differences between the groups in all variables remain statistically significant. The results of discriminant analysis showed that performed tests clearly differentiated the G1 from G2 and G2 from G3. Only one significant discriminant function was revealed in both cases; canonical r xy =0.58 and r xy =0.68 for differentiation of G1 to G2 and G2 to G3 respectively, while the accounted variance was 100 % and p=0.000 in both cases. Structure matrix presenting the correlation of each variable with the discriminant function is presented in Table 2. G1 and G2 are best differentiated by the S25, VEJ and S4X5, however all other tests differentiate the groups significantly. All tests also significantly differentiate between the G2 and G3, however the highest correlation with the discriminant function showed VC, TG, BD25 and S25. Discussion G1 vs. G2 G2 vs. G3 Function Function S VC VEJ TG S4X BD BH S BD S TG BH AS AS VC S4X S VEJ S BM VEK S BM VEK The aim of the study was to find out which of the performed specific skills test differentiate best three different age groups. In general it was found that G1 (11 and 12 years of age) and G2 (13 and 14 years of age) were best differentiated by the special skill tests without a ball (S25, VEJ, S4X5) while G2 and G3 (15 and 16 years of age) were best differentiated by the tests in which players handle a ball (TG, BD). All tests developed and performed in this research can be labelled specific skill tests. Skill tests have shown to contain more information to the coaches with respect to the basic motor and physical tests [8]. Tests were chosen or developed in accordance with the demands of a modern water polo game. Good water polo player should be a good swimmer; swimming fast, first without the ball (S25) and then with the ball (25BD) is one of the most essential demands of the game. Water polo player opposite to the swimmer does not perform starting jump from the edge of the pool, neither he is allowed to push off the pool wall he must start from the water. Water starts are obligatory every time the player starts movement in any direction; from the resting position or when changing directions. This happens when there is an unpredictable change in ball possession (start in a counter attack or defending counter attack), after the whistle of a referee or in accordance with playing situation in general i.e. attacking the opposite player who is in a situation to score a goal. A good water start is a combination of a quick reaction to the situation (to a visual or/and sound signal) and an effective horizontal egg-beater kick in coordination with the crawl arm strokes. Water starts usually prolong in short sprints and are performed very frequently during the game. S5 was used to evaluate this skill. As already mentioned players frequently change directions of swimming. This skill includes quick stopping, rotating the body for 180 (or any other angle) and starting in a new direction. We evaluated this skill-performing test labelled S4X5. Another basic technical water polo skill is vertical jump out of the water (VJW). A player must raise his body out of the water when receiving and throwing the ball and when trying to intercept it. Our test was similar to the one used by Falk et al. [4]. Namely, it is possible also to evaluate the neto raise out of water; Platanou [10] measured the difference between the reach with the extended arm at body in a fundamental vertical floating position (water surface at the acromion level) and a reach when the player jump out of the water. This way the share of anthropometric dimensions (particularly upper body and arm length) would be annulated, however in our opinion that absolute pitch is more important to the game and the absolute reach test is also simpler to carry out. There are a lot of duels during a game, when the opponent players press 49

51 Igor Stirn against each other, using fast alternating egg-beater kicks. Therefore we measured the strength endurance of egg-beater kick in a vertical position with additional weight (VEK). Swimming endurance is important as well, because the game might not stop for several minutes (S200) and players have to swim up and down the pool without a rest. 200-metre swim test was found to be correlated to the critical velocity, which was defined as the swimming velocity over a very long period of time without exhaustion [11]. Swimming tests in many other distances like 50 m, 100 m, 400 m, 4 times 50 m, etc. were performed in different studies. To our opinion this tests are redundant in evaluating the swimming abilities of young players; the correlation between S25 and S200 in our study was 84.3%, therefore the correlation of a swim test on any other distance to S25 or S200 would probably be very high containing very little new information. Swimming tests at different distances performed in some other studies were used in order to evaluate condition of a chosen metabolic mechanism, which apparently was not the subject of our study. And finally, throw at the goal is one of the most important skills of a player. One of the major characteristics of a quality throw is a great velocity of the ball released from the hand (TG). There were evident differences between the numbers of players tested in every group. The number of the youngest players (11 to 12 years of age) is the smallest at this age many players only began to play water polo and their skills are not well developed yet, so they were not chosen for testing by their coaches. On the other hand, the 13 and 14 years old players presented the largest group it looks like this is the most important period for the coaches and the players themselves to gain additional information about their abilities. Later, at the age of 16, the selection process might have been fully presented. The evidences for this statement were smaller numerous of the tested players in G3 with respect to the G2 and smaller standard deviations in all variables under observation with respect to both other groups. This implied that players in G3 already presented roughly selected players. In accordance with the expectations the results of all tests improved significantly from group to group (p < 0.05). Better results can easily be attributed to growing up process in general to changes in body weight, mass and vital capacity. However, differences remain significant even when we excluded these variables by setting them as covariates in the ANOVA calculation. Other factors such as involvement in training process in general might be the cause. According to a general training plan running on in clubs involved in this research young players train approximately 4.5, 7 and 9 hours per week at the age of 12, 14 and 16 years respectively. Values of all observing variables showed linear progression implying improvement in measured skills with respect to their age and/or involvement in a sport. Average times of a 25 meters crawl (S25) 15.6 ± 1.4 seconds for G2 and 13.8 ± 0.9 seconds for G3 were better than the average time reported by Bratusa and Dopsaj [12], which was 16.1 ± 0.7 for junior players of Slovenian water polo team playing at perimeter positions (backs). Unfortunately many other tests that had been performed in that research (i.e. 50 and 1500 m crawl, 25 m backstroke, 25 m crawl using legs only, 10 x 50 m crawl) were not comparable to our data. Falk et al. [4] tested years old players which corresponds to the group G2 in our study, however only two tests could be compared S200 and VJW. They reported an average result ± 9.6 seconds and ± 6.1 seconds for the players that were later selected to the Israel youth (U17) national team or not, respectively. An average result of selected players corresponded perfectly to our result ± It must be noted that in our study players swam in a 25-metre pool (benefit) starting without jumping from the starting block (deficit) and in Falk`s study swimming test was started with the jump of the starting block (benefit) in a 50-metre swimming pool (deficit). Very similar results in both studies were obtained in jumping out of the water as well: 129 ± 11 cm for selected and 130 ± 6 cm for non-selected players in Falk et. al [4], and 130 ± 11 in our study. Throwing velocity has been measured in several studies, however only adult players were measured and velocities from km/h were reported [13 17]. Throwing velocities showed progression from G1 to G3, and the highest throwing velocities measured in the oldest players in our study nearly approached to these values. Trying to discus other results of the tests performed in our study in a certain age group of players we found that there is a vast deficit on the subject in the literature. The variables that differentiate the G1 and G2 most were the ones that estimated the basic skills in the water swimming without a ball, jumping out of water and swimming with changing direction. These are the skills that young water polo players are taught first. When joining the water polo club many of children are nonswimmers or very poor swimmers, therefore many ba- 50

52 Assessment of some morphological characteristics and specific motor abilities in young water polo players... sic swimming drills are done in their training program. In order to improve their overall body coordination and to gain sense for the water young water polo players are usually taught all four swimming techniques, however crawl and breaststroke`s leg work are the most emphasized. Later on crawl is transformed into water polo crawl, with its main characteristics head out of water, shorter stroke length and higher stroke frequency, while breaststroke`s leg work is developed in a egg-beater kick. Some children learn faster than the others and differences between them occur. It is possible that after some time all young players manage to master basic techniques to some degree and the differences in these skills are not so evident any more. Instead, the differences in specific ball handling skills occur in dribbling and throwing the ball. The ability of throwing a ball with a maximal velocity is an important factor for water polo players. An individual s maximal throwing velocity depends on body segments characteristics and especially on optimal throwing mechanics, which is in other words throwing technique. Conclusions We found out that the battery of special tests used in our study significantly differentiated between groups of players of different age. Tests that measured specific skills in the water without the ball (swimming 25 meters, jump out of the water, swimming in changing directions) were better in differentiating younger players (12- and 14-year-olds) and tests representing the ball handling skills were better in differentiating 14- and 16- year-old water polo players. The main principle of progressive learning and developing special motor skills needed and used in water polo as well as an overall involvement in the water polo sport, quantified by hours per week spent in a training process, might present the most reasonable cause for this results. LITERATURE PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Williams AM, Reilly T: Talent identification and development in soccer. J Sports Sci, 2000; 18(9): [2] Regnier G, Salmela JH, Russel SJ: Talent detection and development in sport; in Singer R, Murphey M, Tennant (ed.): A Handbook on research on sports Physiology. New York, Macmillan, 1993: [3] Reilly T, Secher N, Snell P, Williams C: Physiology of sports. London, E&FN Spon, [4] Falk B, Lidor R, Lander Y, Lang B: Talent identification and early development of elite water-polo players: a 2-year follow-up study. J Sports Sci, 2004; 22(4): [5] Hoare DG, Warr CR: Talent identification and women s soccer: an Australian experience. J Sports Sci, 2000; 18(9): [6] Reilly T, Williams AM, Nevill A, Franks A: A multidisciplinary approach to talent identification in soccer. J Sports Sci, 2000; 18(9): [7] Pienaar AE, Spamer EJ, Steyn SC: The identifi cation and development of rugby talent among ten year old rugby players: a practical model. J Sports Sci, 1998; 16: [8] Lidor R, Falk B, Arnon M, Cohen Y, Segal G, Lander Y: Measurement of talent in team handball: the questionable use of motor and physical tests. J Strength Cond Res, 2005; 19(2): [9] Spamer EJ, Coetzee M: Variables which distinguish between talented and less talented participants in youth sport: a comparative study. Kinesi, 2002; 34(2): [10] Platanou T: Simple in-water vertical jump testing in water polo. Kinesi, 2006; 38(1): [11] Matkovic I, Gavrilovic P, Jovovic D, Thanopoulos V: Specifi c swimming abilities test of top Yugoslav water polo players and its validation; in Biomechanics and medicine in swimming VIII. Proceedings of the VIII International Symposium on Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming. University of Jyvaskyla, Finland,1998: [12] Bratusa Z, Dopsaj M: Difference between general and specific swimming abilities of junior top water polo players based on their position within the team. Rev Port Cien Des, 2006; 6(2): [13] Whitting WC, Puffer JC, Finerman GA, Gregor RJ, Maletis GB: Three dimensional chinematographic analysis of water polo throwing in elite performers. Am J Sports Med, 1985; 13: [16] Darras NG: Maximum shooting velocity in water polo direct shot and shot with faints of the international level athlets participating in the 10th FINA World Cup; in Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming VIII, University of Jyvaskyla, Finland, 1999; [14] Elliot BC, Armour J: The penalty throw in water polo: a cinematographic analysis. J Sports Sci, 1988; 6: [15] Feltner M, Taylor G: Three-dimensional kinetics of the shoulder, elbow, and wrist during a penalty throw in water polo. J Appl Biom, 1997; 13: [17] Stirn I, Strojnik V: Throwing with different kinetic chain. Rev Port Cien Des 6(2):

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54 NR AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA THE RANK OF ONE-ON-ONE DUELS BASED ON WOMEN S EUROPEAN FOOTBALL CHAMPIONSHIP ENGLAND 2005 RANGA POJEDYNKÓW 1 1 NA PRZYKŁADZIE MISTRZOSTW EUROPY W PIŁCE NOŻNEJ KOBIET ANGLIA 2005 Andrzej Soroka* * PhD, Pope John II State School of Higher Vocational Education, Biala Podlaska, Poland Key words: women s football, game analysis, one-on-one game Słowa kluczowe: piłka nożna kobiet, analiza gry, gra 1 1 SUMMARY STRESZCZENIE Aim of the work. The information derived from match analysis is a straight and measurable reflection of a set match. In present practice of training such analyses are the foundation of success of a footballer and a team. Football belongs to team games. Their crucial specialities are technical-practical preparation of players and their contribution to the effort made in one-on-one duels, being the bases of the football duels in general. The aim of this work is to analyze one-on-one game in offensive and defensive actions performed by female teams on the strength of information gained from the competitions of the highest rank, such as the 2005 Women s European Championships in The article is also aimed at defining the significance of one-on-one game within technical elements applied with a ball by women s teams. Material and methods. The research material was provided by the observation of 15 meetings, which were set during the competition. The systematic, external and categorized observations throughout the standardized research tool such as the author s observation program were used as methods of gaining the data. A statistic analysis of the study results was done using the Statistica software. Results and conclusions. The effectiveness of one-on-one duels, in a very essential way, varied the teams of winners from the teams of losers. The effectiveness of one-on-one game in defence formation was of the highest value, whereas among the players of the attack line this element of the game appeared least effective. Within analyzed technical elements, the biggest influence on the victory had efficiently performed one-on-one duels in defensive and offensive actions. Lesser but also equally essential influence on the success had accurate ball passes and the effectiveness of enforcing the execution of dead-ball situations. Cel pracy. Informacje uzyskane na podstawie analiz meczowych są prostym i wymiernym odzwierciedleniem rozegranego meczu. We współczesnej praktyce szkoleniowej stanowią one podstawę sukcesu piłkarza i zespołu. Piłka nożna należy do gier zespołowych, jednak jej podstawą są pojedynki 1 1. W nich bowiem tkwią podstawowe zasady pojedynku piłkarskiego. Celem pracy jest analiza gry 1 1 w działaniach ofensywnych i defensywnych kobiecych drużyn na podstawie informacji z zawodów najwyższej rangi, jakimi były Mistrzostwa Europy rozegrane w 2005 roku. Praca ma również określić znaczenie gry 1 1 pośród elementów technicznych wykonywanych z piłką przez zespoły kobiece. Materiał i metody. Materiału badawczego dostarczyła obserwacja 15 spotkań, jakie zostały rozegrane podczas turnieju. Jako metodę pozyskiwania danych zastosowano obserwację systematyczną, zewnętrzną i skategoryzo- 53

55 Andrzej Soroka waną przez wystandaryzowane narzędzie badawcze, jakim był autorski arkusz obserwacji. Wyniki badań poddano analizie statystycznej za pomocą programu Statistica. Wyniki i wnioski. Skuteczność wykonania pojedynków 1 1 w istotny sposób różnicowała zespoły zwycięskie od przegranych. Skuteczność gry 1 1 formacji obronnej osiągnęła najwyższą wartość wykonania, natomiast zawodniczki linii ataku ten element gry wykonywały z najmniejszą skutecznością. Spośród analizowanych elementów technicznych największy wpływ na zwycięstwo miały skuteczne pojedynki 1 1 w działaniach defensywnych i ofensywnych. Mniejsze, lecz równie istotne znaczenie miały podania celne i skuteczność egzekwowania stałych fragmentów gry. Introduction Team games are regarded as the essence of sport. Among them most popular is football, said to be the emanation of rivalry, competitiveness and cooperation. The range of issues linked with the specificity of women s football encourage into more accurate recognition of training methods in order to prepare players effectively and to make them ready to meet the requirements of other competitors as well as in order to become better player, winners and to have more impressive technical-tactical skills in the individual and team dimensions. To cope with such requirements, it must be known, how the best teams are playing. Accordingly, the observation of football teams with the highest sport competences becomes very important. The collected information, based on observations and match analysis, is a simple and measurable reflection of a set match. It is a specific way of approach towards the facts that have appeared during the match together with their understanding and interpretation. In present training practice these facts become a foundation of success of both: the player and the football team as a whole. The analyses of female football game become currently a matter of interest among research workers. For instance, certain observations were undertaken aiming at registration of female players actions with the ball during the game [1 4]. The individual skills and abilities of football players are the foundation for achieving success in team games. They not only define the mastery of a player but also contribute to quality of his or her and the others game [5]. Despite the fact that football is a team game, the success of technical preparation of each player is also very important to maintain the team s prosperity. The player s competence in performing technical elements has an influence on the effectiveness of technicaltactical actions, for instance in one-on-one duels. Emphasizing the contradictory character of major goals of both playing teams, we can observe that in one-on- -one duels are present the basic rules of football matches. A footballer of the high class shapes the abilities of proper behaviour in constantly changing situations through duels in offensive and defensive actions. The one-on-one means the competition of two players from opposite teams, who have contradictory goals. The one-on-one duel in attack is based on all reactions and actions of the player who owns the ball and whose goal is to escape from the rival and to follow the assignments of the game. However, the player s actions against the player with the ball, in order to take it back or knock it, are called one-on-one duels in defence [6]. The aim and research hypothesis The aim of the research is to analyze one-on-one games in offensive and defensive actions of elite female teams basing on precise information gathered during the 2005 Women s European Football Championship in England. The additional aim is to define the importance of one- -on-one game within other technical elements applied with the ball as well as to examine whether the effectiveness of one-on-one duels differentiate the teams of winners from the teams of losers, and whether the effectiveness of their carrying out is different in particular formations. In this article the author tried to obtain answers to the following research questions: 1. Does the effectiveness of one-on-one duels, in an essential way, differentiate victorious and lost teams as well as players of particular formations? 2. Which from technical elements carried with the ball are most significant during the female football match and how are characterized within them oneon-one duels? 3. Can quantitative and qualitative characteristics of one-on-one duels be comparable with the male game? 54

56 The rank of one-on-one duels based on Women s European Football Championship England 2005 Material and methods of gaining and analyzing the data Observations were made for 15 (all) matches that were set during the European Women s Championship held in England in The material for the study also comprised the observations of all 130 female players, who took part in the final phase of the competition. As a method of gaining the data, there were applied systematic, external and categorized observations through standardized research tool, which was the author s sheet of observation. From the applicatory perspective, the observation was indirect in character owing to the use of DVD records. The observation was conducted while playing back the football matches recorded previously on DVD records from the TV broadcast. In these analyses, the author took into account such one-on-one game observations, in which the player during the fight for the ball conducted physical contact, or owing the ball was attacked aggressively by the opponent, or finally by applying dribbling the player was winning the duel. In such cases, the number of won and lost duels was estimated in order to analyze the effectiveness of female footballers. The analyses were carried out for: in defence getting back the ball, in offensive actions attack with the ball, in defence and attack ability to strike with the head [5]. The one-on-one duels were divided into frontal duels, in which the ball was between players from the attack and defence zones. In this case, the attacking player had in front of him the defender who covered the access to his goal. Another case of one-on-one duels was when the striker had behind his back the defender; the attacking player was between the defender and the ball [7]. A statistical analysis of the study was carried out with the help of Statistica software. The use was made of the Student s t-test for independent groups after previous verification of arrangement of variables with the W Shapiro-Wilk test and the Brown-Forsyth test, which check homogeneity of variations. In the case of variables, which do not fulfil these criteria, the U Mann- -Whitney test was applied. In order to study essential differentiations between formations, test of one-factor analysis of variation (ANOVA) was applied, whereas in order to state differentiations and which averages are essentially differentiated, post hoc test of reasonably considerable difference (RIR) was used [8]. To identify actions with the ball, which were the most significant in achieving success, the analysis of discriminatory function was used [9, 10]. Statistically essential were those variables, in case of which the probability of randomness was smaller than Research results In the 2005 European Championship female players during the game were conducting from 184 to 212 duels (on average 198). Considering this technical element, the most effective were female players of championship team from Germany as well as teams from Norway and Denmark (Table 1). Higher effectiveness of play was observed in defensive actions rather than in attack. The most effective in collecting the ball were the players from Germany, Table 1. Structure and effectiveness of one-on-one duels Serial number Country one-on-one play in general amount average in a match one-on-one duels won one-on-one duels amount average in a match indicator of effectiveness 1. Germany Norway Finland Sweden Denmark France England Italy Total average

57 Andrzej Soroka % 30 66,5 49,2 57,6 46,1 58,6 37,8 53,7 40,6 58,6 46,4 51,5 41, ,1 48,3 39,6 57,1 42, Germany Norway Finland Sweden Denemark France England Italy Total 1x1 1 1 in defence defense 1x1 1 1 in offence offense Figure 1. Effectiveness of one-on-one (1x1) duels in defensive and offensive actions Finland, Denmark and Norway. The least effective were the teams from France and Italy, which did not play a significant role in this championship. Similar situation appeared in one-on-one game in attack, in which the highest effectiveness presented the teams from Germany, Denmark and Norway. For other teams the measures of indicators of effectiveness in one-on- -one duels were very similar, but on the lower level than those typical for best teams (Fig. 1). A comparative analysis was applied in studying the effectiveness of one-on-one duels for the teams of the winners and the losers, as well as the effectiveness of one-on-one games in defence, and effectiveness of the form of an offensive action, considering particular pitch zones. In these analyses statistically considerable differentiations were noticed. They appeared in effectiveness of one-on-one game in actions as a whole, in defence and middle zones, as well as in attack and middle zones. In each case, more effective were performers from the winning teams. The statistical differentiation did not appear in defence actions in attack zone and in offensive actions in defence zone (Tables 2 and 3). Statistically significant differentiations appeared while applying comparative analysis of one-on-one play effectiveness among players of particular formations (Table 4). Table 2. Differentiation in effectiveness of one-on-one duels in defence and attack of victorious and lost teams (Student's t-test) One-on-one duels Winning teams Losing teams Value of Student's t-test Effectiveness ± SD Effectiveness ± SD Value of Student's t-test Level of significance p In defence 64.8 ± ± * In defence defence zone In defence middle zone 69.8 ± ± * 60.3 ± ± * In attack 48.8 ± ± * In attack middle zone 51.7 ± ± * In attack attack zone 45.2 ± ± * * determined by accurate and effective actions 56

58 The rank of one-on-one duels based on Women s European Football Championship England 2005 Table 3. Differentiation of one-on-one duels in defensive and offensive actions of victorious and lost teams (U Mann-Whitney test) Type of one-on-one duels Sum of ranks of the winners Sum of ranks of the losers Value of U Mann- -Whitney test Accurate p one-on-one duels in total * in defence attack zone in attack defence zone * determined by accurate and effective actions Table 4. Differentiation in average values of indicators of effectiveness in one-on-one duels among formations (analysis of ANOVA variation) Variable Effect SS Effect MS Error SS Error MS Value F Value p Indicators of effectiveness * * determined by accurate and effective actions The differences appeared between the players of defence line, midfield and attack lines with higher essential effectiveness of defenders as well as between midfield formations and attack formations with higher essential play effectiveness of the players of the second line (Table 5). A comparative analysis of the qualitative activities of technical elements allowed the selection of an element, Table 5. Differentiation in average values of indicators of effectiveness in one-on-one duels among formations (test of sensible essential difference by Tukey) Formations Defense M=62.2 Midfield M=48.0 Attack M=39.5 Defence X 0.000* 0.001* Midfield 0.001* X 0.002* Attack 0.000* 0.002* X * determined by accurate and effective actions Table 6. Differentiation of technical actions among victorious and lost teams (Student's t-test) Technical actions Winning teams Losing teams Student's t-test X ± SD X ± SD Value of Student's t-test Level of significance p Effectiveness of one-on-one play in defense 64.8 ± ± * Effectiveness of one-on-one play in offense 48.8 ± ± * Effectiveness of shots 20.6 ± ± * * determined by accurate and effective actions 57

59 Andrzej Soroka Table 7. Differentiation of technical actions among victorious and lost teams (U Mann-Whitney test) Technical activities Sum of ranks of the winners Sum of ranks of the losers Value of U Mann- -Whitney test Accurate p Accuracy of passes * Total effectiveness of one-on-one play Effectiveness of fast attack Effectiveness of positional attack , * * determined by accurate and effective actions which effectiveness of performance, in statistical terms, significantly differentiated the teams of the winners and the losers. These were: accuracy of passes, accuracy of shots, total effectiveness of one-on-one play, effectiveness of one-on-one play in attack, effectiveness of oneon-one play in defence, and effectiveness of the form of an offensive action i.e. fast attack, positional attack and execution of dead-ball situations (table 6 and 7). Based on the analysis of a discriminant function, a search was made amongst the earlier selected variables for those which contributed to group discrimination, namely factors that affected significantly the win- Table 8. The results of selection of discriminating variables, which create their own model of variables, provided for further analysis Model variables Wilks lambda Partial Wilks lambda F of elimination (2.30) Level of significance p Tolerance value 1-Tolerance (R-square) Effectiveness of 1x1 play in defence Effectiveness of 1x1 in offence * * Accuracy of passes * Effectiveness of executing dead-ball Table 9. Factors of discriminating functions Discrimination variable Function 1 Crude Standardized Constant Effectiveness of 1x1 play in defence Effectiveness of 1x1 play in offence Accuracy of passes Effectiveness of executing dead-ball Own value Per cent of variation 100% 58

60 The rank of one-on-one duels based on Women s European Football Championship England 2005 ning of a match. In this way, variables were selected that formed a model to be used in further analyses: effectiveness of one-on-one play in defense, effectiveness of one-on-one play in attack, accuracy of passes and effectiveness of the execution of dead-ball situations (Table 8). The formulated function explained 100% of the total discriminant power. Crude results of coefficients after standardization explained and determined the contribution of the variables in the canonical function. The study showed that the greatest contribution to the formulated function was made by discriminant variables describing the effectiveness of one-on-one plays in both defence and offence. In turn, the discriminant variables describing the accuracy of passes and execution of dead-ball situations had a considerably smaller contribution to the function (Table 9). Discussion and conclusions Discussion The main references to obtained research results are the analyses of one-on-one play of male players, due to the lack of such literature studies that concern the analyses of mentioned element in female football. The importance of one-on-one duels in football is emphasized by Żmuda [11], who points out that in Men s European Championship in 2005 the ability of fast take- -over of the ball was the main motto of the best teams, as well as those teams had better preparation for taking over the ball and winning one-on-one duels by almost every each player of the teams of winners. The research proved a comparable, as among male footballers, number of set one-on-one duels during the match. During the World Championships in 1990 [12] and in 1994 [13] players set, on average: 194 and 205 duels. Szwarc, following Gerisch and Reichelt [14], defined a number of duels, undertaken on average by players during the match, and estimated it from 200 to 270. The frequency (from 17 to 38) and the effectiveness (from 23% to 78%) of those duels varied among players and were influenced by the pitch position that players were occupying [15]. Those results were also affirmed with Szwarc s research, who showed that an average player undertook from 20 to 30 one-on-one duels during the meeting. The players of victorious teams, similarly, as it took place among women, more often than the teams of losers were undertaking one-on-one game [6]. Comparing the effects of analysis of undertaken research with the results of men s play, it is observed that there is a considerable similarity in one-on-one duels in defence, in which the teams of the winners achieve significantly higher effectiveness of one-on-one duels than the others [16]. It was stated [13] that bigger success was achieved with the effective play in defence than in attack during the 1998 World Championship The best teams achieved the highest indicators of effectiveness in defensive actions, whereas the effective play in offensive duels had no influence on occupied position in the competition. Other studies also showed that the effectiveness of one-on-one rivalry in the attack, estimated for the team as a whole, did not differentiate the winners and the losers [13, 6], which was not confirmed in women s play during analyzed championships, because the one-on- -one duels in attack, despite less significant meaning in defensive actions, appeared to be important and approved with essentially statistical differentiation. Conclusions 1. In Women s European Championships the effectiveness of one-on-one duels in an essential way differentiated the teams of winners from the teams of losers. The effectiveness of duels of defence formation was characterized with the highest effectiveness, whereas the players of attack line with the lowest. 2. Amongst the technical elements performed with the ball, the highest influence on the team s victory had effective one-on-one duels in defensive and offensive actions, whereas lower influence had well-aimed passes and effective execution of dead-ball situations. 3. Very similar quantitative characteristic in play of women and men was confirmed. However, qualitative analyses approved the convergence in effectiveness and meaning of one-on-one duels in defence actions, whereas in the attack more important meaning of one-on-one duels appeared in women s play. Despite the above presented explicit results, the author, following Szwarc [17], inclines to the statement which indicates that the theory of football game lacks unequivocal definition of the duel in one-on-one games ; it lacks natural understanding, interpretation and study of this technical-tactical element. Such an approach forces to undertake comparative analyses carefully and does not allow making the unequivocal judgments, however, it ought to be emphasized that defining the activities and presenting them in numbers helps to define positively the dimension of undertaken studies. 59

61 Andrzej Soroka LITERATURE PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Konstadinidou X, Tsigilis N: Offensive playing profi les of football teams from the 1999 Women s World Finals. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 2005; 5(1): [2] Bergier J, Soroka A: Analiza akcji bramkowych w II Mistrzostwach Świata Kobiet do lat 19 Tajlandia 2004; in Żak S, Spieszny M, Klocek T (ed.); Gry zespołowe w wychowaniu fizycznym i sporcie. Studia i Monografi e, Kraków, AWF, 2005; 33: [3] Bergier J, Soroka A, Buraczewski T: Analysis of actions ended with shots at goal in Women s European Football Championship (England 2005); in Reilly T, Korkusuz F (ed.): Science and Football VI. The Proceedings of the Six World Congress on Science and Football. London New York, Taylor & Francis Group, 2008: [4] Soroka A, Bergier J: Charakterystyka działań juniorek i seniorek grających na pozycji bramkarza na przykładzie gry w piłkę nożną kobiet; in Bergier J (ed.): Piłka nożna kobiet. Biała Podlaska, PWSZ, 2006: [5] Wrzos J: Wielki futbol. Poznań, Oficyna Wydawnicza G&P, [6] Szwarc A: Metody oceny techniczno-taktycznych działań piłkarzy nożnych. Gdańsk, AWFiS, [7] Stępiński M: Taktyka współczesnej piłki nożnej. Poznań, Wydawnictwo Zysk i S-ka, [8] Stanisz A: Przystępny kurs statystyki, t. I, Statystyki podstawowe. Kraków, StatSoft, [9] Stanisz A: Przystępny kurs statystyki, t. III, Analizy wielowymiarowe. Kraków, StatSoft, [10] Ryguła I: Proces badawczy w naukach o sporcie. Katowice, AWF, [11] Żmuda W: Analiza gry najlepszych zespołów ME Trener, 2000: 5: [12] Loy R: Wohin steuert der Fuβball?. Fussballtraining, 1994; 10: [13] Bergier J.: XVI Mistrzostwa Świata w Piłce Nożnej Francja`98 charakterystyka gry zawodników. Trener, 1999; 5: [14] Gerisch G, Reichelt M: Erhebungstechniken und praktische Anwendung der computer und videogestutzen Spielanalyse im Fussball; in Weber K, Kollath E, Schmidt GJ (ed.): Video und Computer im Leistungssport der Sportspiele. Cologne, Sport und Buch Strauss, 1991: [15] Gerisch G, Reichelt M: Computer and video aided analysis of football games; in Reilly T, Clarys J, Stribbe A (ed.): Science and Football II, London, EFN SPON, 1993: [16] Bergier. J.: Wielokierunkowa analiza działań z piłką w mistrzostwach świata w piłce nożnej USA 94. Rocznik Naukowy Instytutu Wychowania Fizycznego i Sportu w Białej Podlaskiej, 1997b; vol. III:

62 NR AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA THE INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL EFFORT IN WARM CONDITIONS ON CHANGING THE WHITE BLOOD CELLS NUMBER IN TRAINING AND NON-TRAINING MEN WPŁYW WYSIŁKU FIZYCZNEGO W PODWYŻSZONEJ TEMPERATURZE OTOCZENIA NA ZMIANY W OBRAZIE BIAŁOKRWINKOWYM U TRENUJĄCYCH I NIETRENUJĄCYCH MĘŻCZYZN Wanda Pilch*, Marta Szarek**, Dorota Gryka-Nowaczyk**, Michał Kaczmarek***, Wacław Mirek**** *** Dr. habil., Physiology and Biochemistry Unit, Institute of Human Physiology, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland **** MSc, Physiology and Biochemistry Unit, Institute of Human Physiology, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland **** MSc, Doctoral Studies, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland **** PhD, Theory and Methodology of Track and Field Athletics Department, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland Key words: thermoregulation, athletes, white blood cells, exercise in the heat Słowa kluczowe: termoregulacja, lekkoatleci, leukocyty, wysiłek w podwyższonej temperaturze SUMMARY STRESZCZENIE Aim of the work. The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of warm and humid conditions on changing the number of white blood cells during submaximal effort in training and non-training healthy men group. Material and methods. The study involved 2 groups of 10 healthy men. The first group consisted of 10 medium- and long-distance runners who had similar aerobic working capacity as well as similar length of training (5 ± 1.2 years). The second control group consisted of 10 healthy non-training men. The tests were performed on a cycloergometer with individually estimated work load of 53 ± 2% VO 2 max, in the test-room in which the temperature of 33 C ± 1 C and humidity of 70% was maintained. The effort was continued to the point when the core temperature of subjects measured per rectum increased by 1.2 C. Before and after the test the body weight was measured as well as the core temperature of the subjects was monitored during the exercise. In the blood samples collected before and after the test the total protein level and hematological indexes were determined. Results and conclusions. This study showed that the physical effort in warm and humid conditions results in decrease of the body mass and the plasma volume contraction in both groups. However, the work done by the athletes was found to be longer and harder compared with the control group. Intense sweating during the exercise caused a higher decrease of the plasma volume in the training group than in non-training group. The rise in the number of lymphocytes, neutrophiles and basophiles accompanied by the increase of the total white blood cells was observed in the regularly training group of men, whereas in the control group only the number of neutrophiles and eosinophiles increased significantly. The results of the study show that after effort leuco- 61

63 Wanda Pilch, Marta Szarek, Dorota Gryka-Nowaczyk, Michał Kaczmarek cytosis was remarkably higher in the athletes in comparison with the non-training group. Moreover, the work done by the athletes which caused the increase in the core temperature by 1.2 C was significantly harder. Cel pracy. Określenie wpływu wysiłku submaksymalnego w otoczeniu o podwyższonej temperaturze i wilgotności na ilościowe zmiany leukocytów u osób trenujących i nietrenujących. Materiał i metody. Badaniami objęto 10 lekkoatletów uprawiających biegi długo- i średniodystansowe, posiadających podobny poziom wydolności aerobowej i podobny staż treningowy (5 ± 1,2 lat) oraz losowo zakwalifikowanych do grupy kontrolnej mężczyzn nieuprawiających wyczynowo sportu. Badani wykonywali wysiłek na cykloergometrze z indywidualnie wyznaczonym obciążeniem 53 ± 2% VO 2 max w komorze termoklimatycznej w temperaturze 33 C ± 1 C oraz wilgotności względnej 70%. Wysiłek był kontynuowany do momentu, w którym temperatura mierzona per rectum podwyższyła się o 1,2 C. W trakcie badań oznaczano zmiany masy ciała i temperatury wewnętrznej badanych oraz we krwi pobieranej przed i po wysiłku, oznaczano białko całkowite oraz wskaźniki hematologiczne. Wyniki i wnioski. Przeprowadzony eksperyment wykazał, że wysiłek w podwyższonej temperaturze i wilgotności powietrza wpłynął na obniżenie masy ciała i objętości osocza badanych osób. Lekkoatleci wykonali dłuższą i większą pracę niż osoby nietrenujące. Intensywne pocenie w czasie wysiłku spowodowało większy ubytek objętości osocza u lekkoatletów w porównaniu do osób nietrenujących. W obrazie białokrwinkowym biegaczy po wysiłku wystąpił wzrost całkowitej liczby krwinek białych, limfocytów, neutrofilów oraz bazofilów. Natomiast we krwi osób nietrenujących zaobserwowano wzrost liczby neutrofilów i eozynofilów. Znacznie większa powysiłkowa leukocytoza wystąpiła u lekkoatletów, którzy wykonali znacznie większą pracę celem podniesienia temperatury wewnętrznej o 1,2 C w porównaniu z mężczyznami nietrenującymi. Introduction Physical activity in high temperatures requires the intensification of the thermoregulatory mechanisms. Under such conditions, heat both penetrates into the body from a hot environment and is generated during an intense physical work. Excess heat must be eliminated from the body in order to prevent hyperthermia. Under these conditions, the most effective way of heat elimination is the binding of thermal energy during the evaporation of sweat. Undertaking physical activity in conditions of high humidity puts additional strain on the body and reduces exercise capabilities. Steam transfers more heat to the body in high temperature environment than dry air. High humidity hinders the body s cooling mechanism, i.e. sweating. Consequently, body temperature rises and the load of the respiratory system and the circulatory system increases. Under conditions of high temperature and humidity, the mechanism of heat elimination through sweating becomes less effective, which leads to dehydration and increase in internal body temperature. Under such conditions, the lack of fluid intake causes the inability to continue exercise. Physical activity in hot humid environment causes the loss of body fluids through sweating. Sweat rate may reach 2 3 litres per hour. Water penetrates from the intercellular space to sweat, which reduces the volume of plasma and circulating blood [1]. Numerous studies prove that physical activity causes changes in the immune system. The increase in leukocyte number after physical effort is the most thoroughly studied effect [2, 3]. This phenomenon is called myogenic leukocytosis [4]. Acute and immediate leukocytosis escalates in direct proportion to intensity and duration of physical activity and in inverse proportion to the body s fitness level [5, 6, 7]. Neutrocytes play the main role in the increase of leukocyte number during and after physical effort. Lymphocytes have less influence, though the number of monocytes increases, too. After approx 2 hours of restitution, the increased number of neutrocytes does not change, and the number of lymphocytes decreases [8]. It is assumed that the increase in leukocyte number induced by physical effort may result from leukocyte redistribution. The increase in stroke volume and blood flow velocity may cause release of marginal cells (at rest, for example in the lungs, in the liver, and in the spleen) into the circulation [9]. Researchers find it difficult to explain the influence of physical activity on quantitative changes in leukocyte populations and mechanisms responsible for the above mentioned changes. Research results are not unequivocal, which may be connected with the complexity of the immunological system and various factors influencing its functioning [10]. The available literature lacks the data concerning the combined influence of high temperature, humidity and effort on the size of changes of the picture of leukocytes. The majority of previous research studies 62

64 The influence of physical effort in warm conditions on changing the white blood cells number in training... examined only the influence of physical effort on the changes of peripheral blood leukocytes. The aim of this research was to determine the influence of sub-maximal physical effort performed in the environment of high temperature and humidity on quantitative changes of leukocytes in both athletic and untrained people. Material and methods The research group consisted of students from the University School of Physical Education (AWF): 10 long- and middle-distance runners (group /T/, trained persons) and 10 untrained males (control group, group /N/, untrained persons). Their general profile is presented in Table 1. The athletic males had similar aerobic capacity (VO 2 max 60,53 ± 13,5 ml kg 1 min -1 ) and similar period of training (5 ± 1,2 years). Physical activity of the untrained males concerned only their participation in the physical education programme at the university. The untrained group represented mean levels of aerobic capacity according to the standards of the American Heart Association (1972). Table 2 presents general characteristics of respiratory quotients in males examined. The research project was approved by the Bioethics Committee for Clinical Research of the District Chamber of Physicians in Cracow. Before the pivotal study, experimenters selected workloads for cycle ergometer exercise. The pivotal study was performed in a temperature-controlled chamber at 33 C ± 1 C and relative humidity of 70%. Participants of the research did work on a cycle egrometer. The workload of 53 ± 2%VO 2 max was determined individually for each participant. Participants continued cycling until the temperature per rectum rose by 1.2 C (so-called Kubica s Test ). A rectal temperature reflected the temperature set by the thermoregulatory centre, and the temperature rise of 1.2 C meant that participants reached the bottom limit of the efficiency of the thermoregulatory mechanisms [11]. Table 1. The general profile of trained men (group T) and non-trained men (group N) Parameter group T, n=10 (x ± SD) group N, n = 10 (x ± SD) Age (years) 21,6 ± 0,52 21,7 ± 0,48 Body height (cm) 179 ± 7,0 176,4 ± 5,44 Body mass (kg) 67,7 ± 5,19# 73,43 ± 6,98 BMI (kg/m 2 ) 21,16 ± 1,16 23,55 ± 1,92 The content of fat in the body (%) 7,06 ± 1,54# 10,22 ± 2,23 Data are mean ± standard deviation. Table 2. The general characteristics of respiratory quotients in males examined Parameter Trained (T) Non-trained (N) N = 10 N = 10 VO 2 max (ml kg 1. min -1 ) VO 2 max (l min 1 ) V E (l min 1 ) x ± SD 60,53 ± 13,51# 44,46 ± 8,98 x ± SD 4,07 ± 0,84 3,27 ± 0,54 x ± SD 147,30 ± 36,44# 117,80 ± 15,82 Data are mean ± standard deviation. # Difference between the T/N group; p < 0,05 63

65 Wanda Pilch, Marta Szarek, Dorota Gryka-Nowaczyk, Michał Kaczmarek Participants body mass (BM) was measured before and after cycling on a cycle ergometer. A rectal temperature (Tre) was monitored at five-minute intervals that were examined during cycling in a temperature- -controlled chamber. Blood was sampled from the median cubital vein before and three minutes after the research. There were two test tubes: with lithium heparin and with EDTA. The blood cell count was performed in the whole blood sample with EDTA. Experimenters obtained data concerning the total number of white blood cells and their division into populations: neutrocytes, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophiles, and basophiles. The heparinised blood samples were subjected to centrifugation at 3500 r/min (1200g) for 10 min. In the obtained haemolysis-free plasma samples, experimenters determined the concentration of total protein. The blood cell count was performed on the Sysmex XE 2100 Analyzer. All lab tests of haematological and biochemical indices were performed in the Institute of Clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory Diagnostics at the Jagiellonian University, Collegium Medicum. Changes in plasma volume (ΔPV) were calculated from total protein value. Total protein was determined before and after experiments by the use of the following formula: ΔPV = 100 [(Bk Bp)/(Bk)] Bk final protein determined after the research Bp initial protein determined before the research ΔPV changes in plasma volume [12]. Because of dynamic changes in plasma volume occurring during physical effort in high temperature, haematological indices determined after physical work were corrected by encompassing changes in plasma volume. In order to calculate values corrected, the Kreamer-Brown formula was used: W sk = (%ΔPV 0,01 W po ) + W po W sk corrected value W po value after physical effort [4]. For the purpose of answering the research question, the obtained results were developed with the use of methods of descriptive statistics. Basic numerical characteristics of the examined variables, i.e. arithmetic mean and standard deviation were determined. In order to compare value changes of indices before and after the research, the Student s t-test for dependent samples was used. In order to show differences between trained and untrained group, the Student s t-test for independent samples was used. Research results In order to assess exercise capacity of the thermoregulatory mechanisms in the group of examined males, the Kubica s test was performed. During the experiment, the group of athletic persons showed lengthened mean time of physical work performance in a temperaturecontrolled chamber in comparison with the group of untrained persons. Similarly, mean work performed by runners was significantly higher than in untrained men. Table 3 presents mean duration time of the Kubica s test and mean work quantity performed by trained and untrained participants. Physical effort in high temperature (the Kubica s test) caused dehydration and weight loss in participants. Runners showed higher weight loss than the group of untrained men (Table 4). After the Kubica s test, in both groups reduction in plasma volume (Δ% PV) was observed. Athletes showed higher mean loss of plasma volume than untrained men. This change was not significant statistically. Figure 1 presents the above mentioned data concerning changes in plasma volume after the Kubica s test in athletes and untrained men. Table 3. The mean time duration of the Kubica s test and mean work quantity performed by trained and non-trained participants Group Trained (T) Non-trained (N) Parameter x ± SD x ± SD The mean time duration of the Kubica s test [min] 30,7* 8,9 25,1 9,1 The mean work quantity [kj] 268,7* 13,03 166,9 51,2 # Difference between the T/N group; p < 0,05 64

66 The influence of physical effort in warm conditions on changing the white blood cells number in training... Table 4. Changes in body mass observed in trained (T) and non-trained (N) group after Kubica s test Trained (T), n = 10 Non-trained (N), n = 10 Before After Before After BM (kg) x ± SD 67,78 ± 5,35 66,98 ± 5,36* ( ) 0,8 ± 0,16 72,51 ± 8,56 71,99 ± 8,46* ( ) 0,52 ± 0,15 %BM ( ) 1,2% ( ) 0,72% Data are mean ± standard deviation. # Difference between the T/N group; p < 0,05 Figure 1. Changes in plasma volume after the Kubica s test in trained (T) and non-trained (N) men Δ% PV x Trained (T) Non-trained (N) 10,5 8 ±SD 3,2 1,7 Data are mean ± standard deviation. Table 5 presents data concerning quantitative changes of the total number of leukocytes (WBC) and their particular populations (NEUT, LYMPH, MONO, EOS, BASO) before and after the Kubica s test in athletes and untrained participants. Physical effort in the environment of high temperature and humidity caused changes in the total number of white blood cells both in athletes and untrained men. The number of leukocytes increased significantly in runners. In untrained participants this increase was not significant statistically. Both groups demonstrated a statistically significant increase of neutrocyte population in blood. Mean rise of neutrocytes number in runners was higher than in untrained persons. Changes in the number of lymphocytes after ex- -amination look slightly different. In middle-distance runners, the increase of lymphocyte population was statistically significant. In untrained men the number of lymphocytes decreased. However, this decrease was not statistically significant. Physical activity performed in high temperature and humidity did not cause quantitative changes in monocyte population in untrained men. In athletes, the number of monocytes increased slightly. However, this increase was not statistically significant. Statistically significant changes were observed in population of eosinophils in both groups after the Kubica s test. In the group of trained men, there was an increase of eosinophils. A slight decrease in the number of eosinophils was observed in untrained participants. No changes were observed in the number of basophiles in untrained men after the test, whereas a slight increase of the number of basophiles was detected in athletes. The comparison between the lymphocyte and neutrocyte proportion after the Kubica s test revealed the ratio change of these cells in untrained participants. The number of lymphocytes decreased, and the number of neutrocyte increased. These changes were not statistically significant. Discussion The research results concerning the changes in plasma volume indicate that dehydration caused by the physical effort in high temperature is depended on the level of fitness. Dehydration manifested itself as plasma volume reduction and weight loss after physical activity. The group of untrained men showed smaller plasma volume and smaller weight loss than the group of athletic participants. Higher weight loss and greater reduction of plasma volume in athletes could result from their higher body water percentage. Many authors prove that regular physical activity leads to the increase in plasma volume and the expansion of muscle and skin capillaries [13, 14]. Long-term endurance training may also influence the growth rate of body temperature. It was showed that in the group of athletes the body temperature rises slowly because their bodies initiate the thermoregulatory mechanisms in the early stages of exercising. In athletic people, heat loss through sweat 65

67 Wanda Pilch, Marta Szarek, Dorota Gryka-Nowaczyk, Michał Kaczmarek Table 5. Quantitative changes of the total number of leukocytes (WBC) and their particular populations (NEUT, LYMPH, MONO, EOS, BASO) before (A) and after (B) the Kubica s test in trained (T) and non-trained participants (N) Leukocytes (WBC) [10 3 /µl] Neutrophiles (NEUT) [10 3 /µl] Lymphocytes (LYMPH) [10 3 /µl] (T) (N) (T) (N) (T) (N) x A B A B A B A B A B A B 4,7 6,14* # 1,44 5,08 5,53 0,45 2,68 3,52* 0,84 2,61 3,23* 0,62 1,47 1,97* # 0,5 1,82 1,69-0,13 ±SD 0,93 1,09 0,83 0,98 1,32 0,64 0,66 0,71 0,48 0,69 0,82 0,41 0,2 0,4 0,38 0,38 0,63 0,45 * Difference from values before the effort; p < 0,05 # Difference from the N group; p < 0,05 Monocytes (MONO) [10 3 /µl] Eosinophils (EOS) [10 3 /µl] Basophiles (BASO) [10 3 /µl] (T) (N) (T) (N) (T) (N) x A B A B A B A B A B A B 0,36 0,43 0,07 0,46 0,46 0 0,17 0,20* # 0,02 0,18 0,14* # 0,04 0,02 0,03* # 0,01 0,02 0,02 0 ±SD 0,11 0,08 0,1 0,13 0,13 0,07 0,11 0,13 0,08 0,08 0,07 0,04 0,01 0,02 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 * Difference from values before the effort; p < 0,05 # Difference from the N group; p < 0,05 66

68 The influence of physical effort in warm conditions on changing the white blood cells number in training... production and its evaporation starts earlier and is more intense [13, 14]. Probably due to this mechanism athletes in the research performed longer and more intense work than untrained participants. In the experiment conducted, experimenters analyzed the influence of physical effort in high temperature and humidity on the character of changes in the leukocytic system. Physical effort performed under such conditions had a significant influence on the increase of the total number of leukocytes in athletes, whereas in untrained persons a general number of white blood cells did not change significantly despite their similar physical effort. In middle-distance runners, experimenters detected a statistically significant increase in the number of lymphocytes. In untrained persons, the number of lymphocytes decreased but this decrease was not significant statistically. In the group of untrained men, the ratio of neutrocytes to lymphocytes changed. Neutrocytes increased at the expense of lymphocytes and general number of leukocytes did not change. It means that in untrained people the body reacted by increasing only the number of neutrocytes, whereas in trained people the body responded by increasing the number of lymphocytes, too. In similar experiment performed by Kostrzewa and Wiktorowicz, the experimenters analyzed the changes in the population of peripheral blood lymphocytes under the influence of physical effort in healthy men. The research conducted by the above mentioned authors showed exercise-induced myogenic leukocytosis characterized by neutrocyte number increase [15]. Duda et al. conducted studies concerning the influence of a gradual physical effort performed on a cycle ergometer on fatigue. The research showed the increase in the number of leukocytes, lymphocytes, and thrombocytes in blood. The increased number of neutrocytes lasted after two hours of rest [8]. Similar results were obtained by Hubner-Woźniak et al. They showed an exercise-induced drop of lymphocyte number in blood by putting untrained people through sub-maximal physical effort [16]. Leukocytosis after intense physical exercise was presented by Pedersen, too. He detected that prolonged intense physical activity led to an increase in neutrocyte number and decrease in lymphocyte number below the initial value. Lymphocyte population decrease depended on intensity and duration of exercises [17, 18]. It is hard to say whether exercise-induced quantitative changes of white blood cells and their particular populations have physiological significance and whether such changes may influence the immunological system. Studies showed that among young people, medium intensity training (3 5 times a week, for minutes, 40 60% VO 2 max) does not lead to significant changes in the immunological mechanisms [19]. On the other hand, changes in the immunological mechanisms were observed in people performing high intensity training. Increased incidence rate was observed among athletes in the in-season period, which resulted from exhausting training loads. The most frequently reported infections concern the upper respiratory system [20, 2, 3, 19, 8]. According to Słowiańska-Lisowska et al. and Weight [6, 21], after many weeks of overloading, the antibody level drops in athletes, which may lead to an increased susceptibility to bacterial and viral infections. Similar conclusions concerning the influence of physical activity on the immunological system were presented by Wit. She showed that people taking part in competitive sports may suffer from reduced immunity [20]. Literature provides numerous evidences indicating that physical activity exerts significant influence on the functioning of immunological system (stimulating or hindering influence). However, it is hard to explain the role of exercise-induced short-term reversible changes of leukocyte number and their populations. There is no doubt that this issue requires further research, especially concerning physical activity performed under variable environmental conditions. Conclusions The following conclusions were drawn on the basis of the research: 1. Compared to the group of untrained people, the time of work on a cycle ergometer was significantly longer in athletes. It was observed that trained people require more time to rise their rectal temperature by 1.2 C, which may suggest better efficiency of thermoregulatory mechanisms in this research group. 2. Plasma volume loss was bigger in trained persons than in untrained ones, which may suggest that athletes body eliminated excess heat in a more efficient way. 3. In the group of athletes, there was an increase in the general number of white blood cells. On the other hand, in the group of untrained participants, general number of leukocytes did not change despite the fact that they performed physical effort of a similar 67

69 Wanda Pilch, Marta Szarek, Dorota Gryka-Nowaczyk, Michał Kaczmarek load. It can be assumed that redistribution of existing cells was influenced by a regular long-term training. It is possible that in the group of untrained men this mechanism was not as developed as in athletes and its development would require regular stimulation of their bodies. 4. In the group of untrained people, physical effort in high temperature caused an increase in neutrocytes only. On the other hand, in the group of athletic people, the number of lymphocytes increased, too. The level of fitness in athletes could be a significant factor in this case. LITERATURE PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Gleeson M, Greenhaff PL: Dehydratation, rehydratation and exercise in the heat. Insider, 1996; 4: 2. [2] Kuchar E: Wpływ wysiłku fizycznego na układ odpornościowy próba wprowadzenia do zagadnienia. Med Sport, 1998; 9: 1 3. [3] Monkiewicz M, Kuliczkowski K: Wpływ różnych wysiłków fizycznych na homeostazę immunologiczną sportowca. Sport Wyczyn, 1998; 9 10: [4] Kraemer WJ, Patton JF, Knultgen HG, Marchitelli LJ, Cruthirds C, Damokosh A, Harman E, Frykman P, Dziados JE: Hypothalomic-pituitary responses to short-duration high-intensity cycle exercise. J Appl Physiol, 1989; 66: [5] Gabriel H., Kinderman W: The acute immune response to exercise: what does it mean?. Int J Sports Med, 1997; 18: [6] Weihgt L: Exercise and the immune system : a review. S Afr J Sports Med, 1997; 3 (1): 4 8. [7] Suzuki K, Yamada M, Kurakake S, Okamura N, Yamaya K, Liu O, Kudoh S, Kowatari K, Nakaji S, Sugawara K: Circulating cytokines and hormone with immunosupresive but neutrophil-priming potentials rise after endurance exercise in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2000; 81: [8] Duda K, Majerczak J, Żołądź J A, Duda J P, Kołodziejski L, Rychlik U, Klupa J: Wpływ jednorazowego intensywnego wysiłku fizycznego, wykonanego przed i po upuście krwi, na poziom wybranych wskaźników hematologicznych u młodych, zdrowych mężczyzn. Przegl Lek, 2005; 62 (7): [9] Shepard RJ, Hind S, Shek PN: Exercise and immune system. Sports Med, 1994; 18: [10] Nieman DC: Immune response to heavy exertio. J Appl Physiol, 1997; 82: [11] Kubica R: Podstawy fizjologii pracy i wydolności fizycznej. Wydawnictwo Skryptowe nr 24, Kraków, AWF, [12] Harrison MH, Gravney MJ, Cochrane LA: Some sources of error in the calculation of relative change in plasma volume. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol, 1982; 50: [13] Shvwrtz E, Magazanik A, Glick Z: Thermal responses during training in a temperate climate. J Appl Physiol, 1974; 36: [14] Cheuvront SN, Carter R, Sawka MN: Fluid balance and endurance exercise performance. Curr Sports Med Rep, 2003; 2 (4): [15] Kostrzewa A, Wiktorowicz K. Wpływ wysiłku fi zycznego na skład populacji limfocytów krwi obwodowej zdrowych dawców. Alergia Astma Immun, 1996; 1 (2): 104. [16] Hubner-Woźniak E, Lutosławska G, Tkaczyk J, Kęska A, Kłossowski M, Martyn A, Wit B: Wpływ wysiłku submaksymalnego na zachowanie się leukocytów we krwi u kobiet i mężczyzn. Wych Fiz i Sport, 2001; 2: [17] Pedersen BK, Bruunsgaard H, Klokker M, Kappel M, Maclean DA, Nielsen HB, Rhode T, Ullum H, Zacho M: Exercise-induced immunomodulation possible roles of neuroendocrine and metabolic factors. Int J Sports Med, 1997; 18: 2 7. [18] Nieman DC, Pedersen BK: Exercise and immune function. Sports Med, 1999; 27: [19] Eberhardt A: Postępy w immunologii wysiłku fi zycznego. Med Sport, 1998; 9: 4 5. [20] Wit B: Wpływ różnych form wysiłku fizycznego na wybrane parametry układu immunologicznego człowieka. Wybrane fragmenty. Med Sport, 1997; 10: 3 8. [21] Słowińska-Lisowska M, Majda J: Stężenie immunoglobulin i kortyzolu w surowicy w cyklu treningowym u lekkoatletów. Wychow Fiz Sport, 2001; 1:

70 NR AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA THE PHYSIOLOGICAL COST OF WALKING IN OVERFAT GIRLS KOSZT FIZJOLOGICZNY WYSIŁKÓW MARSZOWYCH U DZIEWCZĄT O NADMIERNYM STOPNIU OTŁUSZCZENIA CIAŁA Jadwiga Szymura *, Marcin Maciejczyk **, Joanna Gradek ***, Magdalena Więcek **, Jerzy Cempla ****, Marek Bawelski ** **** PhD, Department of Clinical Rehabilitation, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland **** PhD, Institute of Human Physiology, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland **** PhD, Department of Theory and Methodology Athletics, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland **** Prof. dr. habil., Institute of Human Physiology, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland Key words: physiological cost, walking, obesity, girls, oxygen intake Słowa kluczowe: koszt fizjologiczny, marsz, otyłość, dziewczęta, pobór tlenu SUMMARY STRESZCZENIE Aim of the work. Determination of physiological cost of locomotion effort treadmill walking at various speeds in girls with excessive body fat (%) aged about 10 years. Material and methods. The study covered 40 girls: 20 with excessive body fat (33.2 ± 5.6%F) and 20 with normal level (14.5 ± 4.9%F). They walked on a treadmill at two speeds (3.6 km h 1, 4.8 km h 1 ). Results. Total VO 2 (l min 1 ) was by 22% and 26% (p < 0.05) greater in girls with excessive body fat than among girls with average level. Girls in the study group achieved lower values of VO 2 kg 1 13% and 10%. VO 2 values expressing the relative load on the body compared to maxima of this parameter were by 10% higher in the study group than in the control during slow walk and ca. 14% (p < 0.05) higher during faster walk. At both marching speeds the study group exhibited significantly higher values of V E. No significant differences in HR were noted. Conclusions. Higher values of VO 2, %VO 2 max, %V E max and %HR max during locomotion effort of overfat girls at the same intensity of test exertion indicate higher cost of physical exercise incurred by overfat girls. Cel pracy. Określenie kosztu fizjologicznego wysiłków lokomocyjnych w formie marszu o różnej intensywności u dziewcząt o nadmiernym stopniu otłuszczenia ciała. Materiał i metody. Badaniami objęto grupę 40 dziewcząt w wieku około 10 lat: 20 dziewcząt o nadmiernym stopniu otłuszczenia ciała (33,2 ± 5,6%F) i 20 o przeciętnym stopniu otłuszczenia ciała (14,5 ± 4,9%F). Badane dziewczęta wykonywały na bieżni mechanicznej dwa wysiłki marszowe o różnej intensywności (3,6 km h 1 i 4,8 km h 1 ). Wyniki. Wielkości globalne VO 2 kształtowały się u dziewcząt nadmiernie otłuszczonych przeciętnie na poziomie o 22% i 26% (p < 0,05) wyższym od notowanego w tych samych pod względem prędkości lokomocyjnej wysiłkach u dziewcząt przeciętnie otłuszczonych. Dziewczęta w grupie badanej uzyskiwały natomiast niższe wielkości VO 2 kg 1 w analizowanych wysiłkach (13% i 10%). Stanowiące wykładnik obciążenia względnego organizmu wielkości VO 2 odniesione do poziomu maksymalnego tego parametru, w grupie badanej były wyższe w stosunku do obserwowanych w grupie kontrolnej o około 10% podczas wolniejszego oraz o około 14% (p < 0,05) podczas szybszego marszu. Podczas obu wysiłków marszowych w grupie badanej notowano znacząco wyższe wartości wentylacji minutowej płuc. Nie zanotowano istotnych różnic w wielkościach HR. 69

71 Jadwiga Szymura, Marcin Maciejczyk, Joanna Gradek, Magdalena Więcek, Jerzy Cempla, Marek Bawelski Wnioski. Odnotowany podczas wysiłków lokomocyjnych u dziewcząt o nadmiernym stopniu otłuszczenia ciała wyższy poziom VO 2, jak również wyższe wartości %VO 2 max %VEmax i %HRmax przy tych samych intensywnościach wysiłków testowych wskazują na wyższy koszt pracy fizycznej u dziewcząt o nadmiernym stopniu otłuszczenia ciała. Introduction The common occurrence of overweight and obesity is becoming a complex problem with important social and psychological implications, afflicting virtually each age range and every social or economic group. The domains of interest to specialists in different areas focus on searching for most efficient treatment methods and preventing obesity in both individual aspect and in relation to the whole population. In consideration of a variety of factors which might affect obesity, this presents a considerable challenge. Treating and preventing obesity seems to be of significant importance in relation to overweight children, who often experience, even before entering adulthood, a number of disorders which accompany obesity such as diabetes, arterial hypertension and, in the light of many studies, they are prone to high risk of diabetes-related disorders in early adulthood [1, 2, 3]. Huge impact on more frequent occurrence of obesity, in addition to improper diets, is attributed to continuously decreasing percentage of physical activity. This fact is particularly widespread in developed countries, where modern technologies and solutions for public transportation and growing urbanization have dramatically limited level of human physical activity, thus contributing to the rise in average body weight [4, 5]. Obese children are typically less physically active and less willing to take up any physical activity than their slim peers [6, 7]. Another alarming fact is that, as they are growing, obese children limit the time spent doing physical activity as compared to slim counterparts [8, 9, 10]. The results of investigations by Treuth et al. [9] revealed that higher level of adipose tissue significantly relates to higher amount of time spent inactively, whereas its lower level corresponds to higher daily extent of physical activity with moderate intensity. Therefore, it seems to be legitimate for many obesity treatment programs to recommend reduction of sedentary lifestyle in favour of increased share of physical activity, which, in relation to developmental age, plays an important role in stimulation of both physical and mental development of children. Forms of exercise recommended for obese people include physical activity of different intensity such as walking, marching, cross-country runs or jogging [11, 12]. This form of physical activity is recommended not only as a slimming therapy but also as an element of a widely understood systematic and long-term prevention of obesity. This can be explained by the fact that they are natural form of locomotion, easy to be perform, readily available, cheap and possible to be done under any conditions. Therefore, it appears that they are best forms of physical activity to be recommended to obese people and can contribute not only to reduction of body mass but also, due to its nature, to improvement of physical fitness among young people. However, when planning intensity and duration of locomotion effort, therapists, doctors or physical education teachers should take it into consideration that during realization of this form of movement obese children are exposed to additional load caused by carrying of excessive body mass, which is undoubtedly connected with greater load to the body as compared to non-overweight children. Furthermore, levels of physical fitness and endurance in obese children are often lower, thus increased effort might lead to faster rate of fatigue accumulation as compared to their slim peers [13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. This study aims at determination of dynamics of changes and the level of fundamental parameters of respiratory and circulatory system and evaluation of physiological cost of walking effort with different intensity in girls with excessive level of fat percentage against the background of slim girls. Material and methods Characteristics of objects The study covered 40 girls aged 10 years (20 girls with excessive and 20 girls with average body fat percentage). Chronological age and body height did not cause differentiation in the compared groups. Average values in remaining analysed somatic parameters were significantly greater than in girls with higher body fat percentage (Tab. 1). Procedure of object selection A group of 40 persons was selected in initial part of the investigations which comprised 449 girls from second and third grade randomly chosen from primary schools. 70

72 The physiological cost of walking in overfat girls Table 1. The subject s anthropological characteristics Parameter group group N x O /x N [%] d O N N = 20 N = 20 Age [years] 9.9 ± ± BH [cm] ± ± BM [kg] 45.3 ± ± * FFM [kg] 30.4 ± ± * F [%] 33.2 ± ± * BMI 21.7 ± ± * *p < 0.05 This part of the investigations was conducted in school facilities. They encompassed measurement of fundamental somatic parameters. Selection of groups was purposeful. Somatic differentiation among children was taken into consideration, focused on the share of adipose tissue in overall bodyweight. In order to select, from the studied sample, girls with abnormal fraction of body fat, a method based on evaluation of percentage of body adipose tissue in overall bodyweight, using bioelectric-impedance analysis (%F BIA ) was employed. Eligibility criteria for inclusion in the group was the value over the total of mean value (x ) and standard deviation (SD) for this factor throughout the studied sample of the population. The control group included girls with average body fat percentage (%F BIA < x + SD and %F BIA > x SD). Procedure Participation in the study was on voluntary basis. A precondition to participate in cardiac stress testing was an informed consent obtained from parents or legal guardians and positive opinion of paediatricians on health status and lack of contraindication to exertion of higher intensities. Non-training persons were included in the study. The investigations were conducted under laboratory conditions in the morning, two hours after typical meal and with prior medical check-up. The project obtained positive approval of the Bioethical Commission at the Regional Medical Chamber in Krakow (No. 9KBL/OIL/2002) and Education Welfare Service in Krakow. Somatic parameters, body composition Several somatic parameters measurements were taken to allow for characterization of body size, proportions and the share of passive and active components in overall bodyweight. The measured parameters included body height (BH) (by means of Martin anthropometer), body mass (BM) and fat mass (FM), fat free mass (FFM) and share of adipose tissue in overall bodyweight measured by means of bioelectric impedance analysis (%F BIA )(Body Composition Analyser TBF-300, TANITA, Japan). Cardiac stress testing The studied group of children performed two 6-minute locomotion effort tests at different walking speed, similar to the speed of moving typical of this age (3.6 km h 1 ; second trial: 4.8 km h 1 ). The tests were separated with 4-minute rest period. Detailed analyses focused on the level and profile of changes in the selected parameters of respiratory system and heart rates. Registration of physiological parameters was made based on analysis of expired gas, using Medikro 919 Ergospirometr (Medikro Oy, Finland) apparatus. Rest and exercise-related values were registered for the following parameters: minute ventilation (V E ), respiratory rate (f R ), tidal volume (V T ), minute oxygen intake (VO 2 ), minute carbon dioxide production (VCO 2 ), relative minute oxygen intake (VO 2 kg 1 ), respiratory quotient (RQ), oxygen/carbon dioxide concentration in expired gas (FEO 2, FECO ), ventilation equivalence 2 71

73 Jadwiga Szymura, Marcin Maciejczyk, Joanna Gradek, Magdalena Więcek, Jerzy Cempla, Marek Bawelski of oxygen/carbon dioxide (V E VO 2 1, V E VCO 2 1 ). Heart rate (HR) was registered using POLAR ACCUREX PLUS monitor (Polar Elektro, Finland). Statistical analysis Calculations were made using Statsoft STATISTICA 6.0 software package. Basic characteristics for descriptive statistics were obtained. Significance of intergroup differences in terms of somatic parameters and the level of physiological parameters during periods of relative functional equilibrium was evaluated by means of the Student s t-test for independent samples. During the testing, the equality of variances (the Brown-Forsyth test) and distribution normality (the Shapiro-Wilk test) were checked. In order to compare the results of girls with excessive body fat to those with average body fat percentage in terms of the analysed parameters, a percentage index was employed to express mean scores for the studied group in relation to the control group scores, adopted as 100%. Assessment of the effect of body fat percent and intensity of exercise on the level of the determined parameters was made using the method of bivariate/multivariate analysis of variance (ANOVA/MANOVA). Results Dynamics of changes in parameters of respiratory and circulatory system during walking exercise was parallel in all groups, however, the highest level was observed in girls with excessive body fat percent (Fig. 1 5). This indicates higher values of physiological cost of walking exercise. The intergroup differences in physiological parameters observed during slower walk were deepened with the rise in the set speed in second walking test. Both in walking effort with lower and higher intensity, statistically significant differences in terms of oxygen intake (Fig. 1 3) were observed between the compared groups. Global values for this parameter maintained in overweight girls at the mean level of 0.56 l min 1 during first and 0.67 l min 1 during second walk, which means scores higher than recorded for average girls with nearly 22% and 26%. Deepening of intergroup differences in minute oxygen intake, resulting from the growth in effort intensity was statistically significant (p < 0.05). The values registered for control group were 0.46 l min 1 and 0.53 l min 1 respectively. It should be noted that absolute values of oxygen intake observed in girls with 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 VO 2 [l. min -1 ] 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0, t [min] Group O Group N Figure 1. Dynamics of changes of total values of VO 2 in overfat girls (group O) and control group (N) during walking at different velocities and restitution 72

74 The physiological cost of walking in overfat girls VO 2 BM -1 [ml kg -1 min -1 ] t [min] Group O Group N Figure 2. Dynamics of changes of relative to BM values of VO 2 in overfat girls (group O) and control group (N) during walking at different velocities and restitution excessive body fat percentage in first test exceeded the values of this parameter recorded in the control group during second walking exercise. Comparison of oxygen intake to body mass and fat free mass in the examined girls reduced existing intergroup differences. The girls from the examined group showed, in both exercise tests, lower relative values of minute oxygen uptake in relation to body mass. The result for girls from the examined group comprised 87% of the results in the control group during first and 89% in second test. These differences turned out to be significant only in the case of slower walk VO 2 FFM -1 [ml kg -1 min -1 ] Group O Group N Figure 3. Dynamics of changes of relative to FFM values of VO 2 in overfat girls (group O) and control group (N) during walking at different velocities and restitution t [min] 73

75 Jadwiga Szymura, Marcin Maciejczyk, Joanna Gradek, Magdalena Więcek, Jerzy Cempla, Marek Bawelski In final phase of test exercises, values of minute oxygen intake in relation to fat-free body mass were higher by nearly 9% and 12% in the study group. Intergroup differences for walking at the speed of 3.6 km h 1 was, on the average, 1.5 ml kg min 1 and was not statistically significant. During walk at the speed of 4.8 km h 1, the range of differences between the compared groups deepened up to 2.4 ml kg (p < 0.05). During both walking tests considerably higher values of respiratory minute volume (Fig. 4) were recorded for girls with excessive level of body fat. Intergroup difference expressed in percentage amounted to 19% during first walking and it significantly deteriorated (up to 28%) during second test. During relative functional equilibrium period of slower walk, average respiratory minute volume amounted to 17.6 l min 1 in the studied group and 14.8 l min 1 in the control group (during fast walk this value was 20.9 l min 1 and 16.4 l min 1 respectively). Relationship between walking speed and intergroup differences for this parameter was statistically significant (p < 0.05). Heart rate did not considerably differentiate the compared groups (Fig. 5). Table 2 presents comparison of selected physiological parameters recorded in final minutes of walking tests in relation to maximal values achieved during graded exercise test. The girls with excessive percentage of adipose tissue walked at higher percentage values of VO 2max, V Emax, and HR max, which proves higher cost of physical exercise. The values of VO 2 recorded during exercise, related to the maximal level of this parameter, constitute an index of relative load to the body and provide information about actual physiological load to the body. Values of %VO 2max in the studied group were by 10% higher in relation to those observed in the control group during slower walk and by 14% (p < 0.05) during faster walk (Tab. 2). The studied group achieved, on the average, during first test the same percentage of maximal pulmonary ventilation as the control group during fast walk. The intergroup difference deepened for higher values of walking speed up to statistically significant value (from 12% to nearly 21%). Percentage values for maximal heart rate registered in final minutes of test exercise also differed con V E [1. min -1 ] t [min] Group O Group N Figure 4. Dynamics of changes in maximal heart rate in overfat girls (group O) and control group (N) during walking at different velocities and restitution 74

76 The physiological cost of walking in overfat girls HR [1. min -1 ] t [min] Group O Group N Figure 5. Dynamics of changes V E in overfat girls (group O) and control group (N) during walking at different velocities and restitution Table 2. The amount of chosen physiological parameters noted during walking at different velocities expressed as percentage of maximal values in overfat girls Parameter group O group N x O /x N [%] d O N speed 3.6 km h 1 %VO 2 max BM ± ± %V Emax 27.8± ± % HR max 62.8± ± * speed 4.8 km h 1 %VO 2 max BM ± ± * %V Emax 33.3± ± * % HR max 65.5± ± * *p<0.05 siderably from both walks. It is remarkable that mean percentage of HR max reached by overweight girls during walk at the speed of 3.6 km h 1 (62.7%) was greater than mean value recorded in the control group (61.5%) during walk at the speed of 4.8 km h 1. Discussion The study on overweight and obese people conducted on treadmills must take into consideration the aspect of carrying excess body mass by people with higher level 75

77 Jadwiga Szymura, Marcin Maciejczyk, Joanna Gradek, Magdalena Więcek, Jerzy Cempla, Marek Bawelski of adipose tissue. When carrying excess body mass, obese children must make greater efforts to achieve the same level of physical activity as their slim peers. This might contribute to limitation of exercise abilities of these people, which might be indicated by the higher level of physiological parameters in overweight and obese children at these types of exercise [18, 14, 19]. Dynamics of the analysed physiological parameters was similar in both compared groups, however, girls with excess body fat performed the assigned exercises with significantly higher level of physiological parameters and higher percentage values of their maximal level as compared to the control group. Study by Maffeis et al. [13] reports that a part of the studied children discontinued test exercises before the assigned task time elapsed. With the rise in speed of locomotion effort, the number of children who discontinued walk (or run) before the set test time limit grew faster in the group of obese children as compared to the control group [13]. Obese children reach the level of VO 2 max during walking/running tests at the speeds lower than slim children [20]. This results from much higher level of physiological response during running or walking effort with high intensity in obese children, who discontinued running tests much sooner as a consequence of growing fatigue at lower effort intensities. Excessive body mass adds additional load and therefore, in order to maintain a particular locomotion speed it is necessary to use more energy. The author s study shows that locomotion effort comparable in terms of speed demands of girls with excess body fat much higher relative load than of girls with average amount of fat. Higher values of minute oxygen intake expressed in overall and relative values (in relation to fat-free body mass) in the study group point to higher physiological cost of this effort. Different results relating to walking and running effort were obtained by Maffeis et al. [13]. Although they observed, similarly to the author s investigations, higher global energy cost in obese children comparing to the control group for each set walking speed (2 7 km h 1 ) and running speed (7 11 km h 1 ), it is remarkable that during the walk at the speed of 5 km h 1 this difference amounted to 50% and was deepening with the rise in walking speed. Energy cost was comparable in the studied groups when presented in relation to slim body mass. This was not confirmed by the author s investigations, in which both absolute and relative values (related to FFM) of physiological parameters and percentage values of their maximal level in final minutes of locomotion effort were higher in the group of girls with excess adipose tissue concentration. The results of the investigations presented by Maffeis et al. [20] indicated that physiological cost of exercise at the speed of 7 km. h 1 (both in obese and slim children) is higher in the case of running rather than walking as a form of effort. Similar relationships were also observed by other researchers in relation to adults [21, 22]. This results from the fact that the relationship between oxygen intake and effort intensity is similar in its nature to linear dependency only for running whereas during walking exercise this relationship is rather a curvilinear one [23]. Maffeis et al. [20] recommend walking at the speed of 4 km h 1 as a measure to treat obesity in children. According to the results of investigations carried out by this team, it is walking at the very speed that contributes to higher consumption of fat as an energy substrate than in the case of strenuous exercise. These scholars argued that faster walking speeds are not easy for obese children and they are not willing to continue this type of effort for longer time. These views seem to be legitimate since it is commonly known that moderate exercise intensity contributes to increased consumption of fat acids in working muscles while rise in intensity of effort causes that fat consumption decreases and carbohydrates are becoming main energy substrate. Moreover, loading overweight and obese children with too strenuous exercise might discourage them to take up any physical activity. This is of particular importance in relation to effort such as walking or running when these children are exposed to additional load in the form of excess body mass, which causes higher relative load to the body, expressed as a higher percentage of VO 2 max. Results of investigations of physiological cost of walking and running exercise in boys and girls presented by Maffeis et al. [13] indicate that exercise-induced physiological adaptations during performance of locomotion effort are similar in both boys and girls. The authors achieved similar results (higher physiological cost of exercise in obese children) through separate analysis of the group of boys and girls and analysis without consideration of genders. However, considerably higher level of physiological parameters during all test exercises was recorded in both obese girls and those with average body fat concentration in comparison to groups of boys. Dissimilar results were recorded by Szymura et al. [24]. Their investigations show that boys reached higher values than girls for most of the analysed physiological parameters. Therefore, it appears that during 76

78 The physiological cost of walking in overfat girls selection of intensity of walking and running effort for children, besides such aspects as period of development (economy of exercise of locomotion nature is much better in postpubertal children than in prepubertal ones [25]), or percentage of body fat, differentiation between genders should also be considered. These considerations should also emphasize economy of walking and running effort determined through assessment of oxygen consumption or level of oxygen intake observed during functional equilibrium for the given walking or running speeds at submaximal intensity [26, 27, 28, 29]. During investigations of children, running economy is mainly expressed as a value of oxygen intake during exercise with a particular, submaximal intensity. Rowland et al. [26] show that this measure in children in prepubertal phase of development can be formed by the level of VO 2 kg 1 recorded during running at the speed of 9.6 km h 1 or the value of VO 2 kg 1 induced by the speed increment of 1.6 km h 1. Running economy can be also determined based on assumption of linear relationship between running speed and VO 2 oxygen intake. To achieve this, the physiological cost to cover 1 kilometre based on oxygen intake during running effort at submaximal intensity is estimated. The physiological cost determined using this procedure estimated by McMiken and Daniels [30] amounted to nearly 200 m kg 1 of body mass per 1 km of covered distance. It is generally accepted that running economy in children is much lower than in young people or adults, which involves higher physiological cost of exercise [31, 32, 25]. The results of studies by Donkervilet et al. [25] show that running and walking economy is markedly different between sexes even in children at younger age. Girls at the age of ten were characterized by better economy of both walking and running effort, which was caused by better motor coordination. Higher values of oxygen intake recorded in boys during walking exercise by Gradek and Cempla [14] in relation to girls and higher relative load in boys expressed in %VO 2 max might point to enhanced walking economy in girls. Silva and Lopes [33] reported that frequent obesity and higher blood pressure is connected with reduced level of daily physical activity. Children who commute to schools using public transportation, scooters or cars show excessive body mass and adipose tissue considerably more frequently than their peers who travel to schools by walking or cycling. However, according to Sallis and Glanz [34], modern transportation and urban solutions limit daily physical activity. Large distances between schools and homes, lack of pavements and cycle lanes cause that it is faster and safer for children to get to school using public transportation or cars rather than by walking or cycling. Thus, it is more and more often emphasized that efficiency of prevention and treating obesity can be based only on slimming programs whose efficiency is often insignificant and the obtained effects are maintained for only a short period of time. It is also highlighted that promotion of healthy lifestyles should encompass, among other things, adaptation of communication and urban solutions in a way that allows for safe, physically active commuting to school or work and ensuring conditions for physical recreation, which is of particular importance in large agglomerations. To sum up, locomotion effort constitute a natural form of movement which involves all large muscle groups. However, during these type of exercise, obese children must carry additional body mass, which is connected, among other things, with joint overload. However, giving up public transportation or cars used for commuting to schools or work might impact, through children s increased amount of daily physical activity, on reduction in excessive body mass. Movement-related games based on running or walking forms of physical exercise are also a big attraction for children, therefore they can be enjoyable alternative to a monotonous slimming therapies and might contribute to the increase in time spent each day on physical activity. Conclusions The cost of physical exercise during walking effort is higher in girls with excessive body fat. This fact is confirmed by higher values of %VO 2 max recorded at the same intensities of test effort. Dynamics of changes in physiological parameters during walking effort, when excess body mass contributed to higher physiological load in girls with excessive adipose tissue, were similar in both groups but they maintained at significantly different levels. Most of the analysed physiological parameters were at higher level in girls with excess body fat. Intensity of exercise considerably affected the value of intergroup differences in the level of physiological parameters. The reason for this (apart from additional load in the form of excess body fat carried during this form of exercise performed by overweight girls) might be the method of load selection, comparable for all the girls in terms of locomotion speed but without consideration of individual effort-related abilities of the body. 77

79 Jadwiga Szymura, Marcin Maciejczyk, Joanna Gradek, Magdalena Więcek, Jerzy Cempla, Marek Bawelski LITERATURE PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Wabitsch M: Overweight and obesity in European children: defi nition and diagnostic procedures, risk factors and consequences for later health outcome. Eur J Pediatr, 2000; 159 (suppl. 1): [2] Abu-Abid S, Szold A, Klausner J: Obesity and cancer. J Med, 2002; 33(1 4): [3] Dehghan M, Akhtar-Danesh N, Merchant AT: Childhood obesity, prevalence and prevention. Nutr J, 2005; 4: 24. [4] Goran MI, Treuth MS: Energy expenditure, phisical activity and obesity in children. Pediatr Clin North Am, 2001; 48(4): [5] Nelson KM: Designing healthier communities through the input of children. J Public Health Manag Pract, 2008; 14(3): [6] Müller MJ, Grund A, Krause H, Siewers M, Bosy-Westphal A, Rieckert H: Determinants of fat mass in prepubertal children. Br J Nutr, 2002; 88(5): [7] Mikami S, Mimura K, Fujimoto S, Bar-Or O: Physical activity, energy expenditure and Intake in 11 to 12 years old Japanese prepubertal obese boys. J Physiol Anthrol, 2003; 22(1): [8] Molnar D, Livingstone B: Physical activity in relation to overweight and obesity in children and adolescents. Eur J Pediatr, 2000; 159(1): [9] Treuth MS, Hou N, Young DR, Maynard LM: Accelerometry-measured activity or sedentary time and overweight in rural boys and girls. Obes Res, 2005; 13(9): [10] Gillis LJ, Kennedy LC, Bar-Or O: Overweight children reduce their activity levels earlier in life than healthly weight children. Clin J Sport Med, 2006; 16(1): [11] Salbe AD, Weyer C, Harper I, Lindsay RS, Ravussin E, Tataranni PA: Assessing risk factors for obesity between childhood and adolescence: II Energy metabolism and physical activity. Pediatrics, 2002; (110): [12] Maffeis C, Zaffanello M, Pellegrino M, Banzato C, Bogoni G, Viviani E, Ferrari M, Tatò L: Nutrient oxidation during moderately intense exercise in obese prepubertal boys. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2005; 90(1): [13] Maffeis C, Schutz Y, Schena F, Zaffanello M, Pinelli L: Energy expenditure during walking and running in obese and nonobese prepubertal children. J Pediatr, 1993; 123(2): [14] Gradek J, Cempla J: Koszt fizjologiczny wysiłków marszowych u chłopców otyłych w przedpokwitaniowej fazie rozwoju. Antropomotoryka, 2003; (26): [15] Gradek J, Szymura J, Cempla J, Maciejczyk M, Bawelski M: Wydolność tlenowa i beztlenowa u otyłych dziewcząt i chłopców w przedpokwitaniowej fazie rozwoju. Medicina Sportiva, 2006; 10(4): [16] Maciejczyk M, Cempla J, Bawelski M, Pałka T, Więcek M, Szymura J, Gradek J: Developmental changes during puberty in aerobic capacity in boys with excessive level of bodyfat. Medicina Sportiva, 2006; 10(4): S [17] Szymura J, Cempla J., Gradek J, Maciejczyk M, Więcek M: The aerobic capacity in obese prepubertal girls. Medicina Sportiva, 2006; 10(4): S [18] Goran MI: Energy metabolism and obesity. Med Clin North Am, 2000; 84(2): S [19] Norman AC, Drinkard B, McDuffie JR, Ghorbani S, Yanoff LB, Yanovski JA: Influence of exess adiposity on exercise fi tness and performance in overweight children and adolescents. Pediatrics, 2005; 115(6): [20] Maffeis C, Schena F, Zaffanello M, Zoccante L, Schutz Y, Pinelli L: Maximal aerobic power during running and cycling in obese and non-obese Children. Acta-Paediatr, 1994; 83(1): [21] Falls HB, Humphrey LD: Energy cost of running and walking in young women. Med Sci Sports, Spring 1976; 8(1): [22] Greiwe JS, Kohrt WM: Energy expenditure during walking and jogging. J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 2000; 40(4): [23] Walker JL, Murray TD, Jackson AS, Morrow JR Jr, Michaud TJ: The energy cost of horizontal walking and running in adolescents. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 1999; 31(2): [24] Szymura J, Cempla J, Gradek J: Poziom wybranych reakcji fizjologicznych na wysiłki marszowe u dzieci otyłych w przedpokwitaniowej fazie rozwoju. Medycyna Metaboliczna, 2005; 9(1): S [25] Donkervliet E, Smits T, Ziemba AW, Kemper HCG, Wagenaar RC: Can sex and puberty-related differences in walking and running economy be explained by the differences in coordination patterns? Biology of Sport, 2000; 17(4): [26] Rowland TW, Auchinachie JA, Keenan TJ, Green GM: Submaximal aerobic running economy and treadmill performance in prepubertal boys. Int J Sports Med, 1988; 9(3): [27] Morgan DW, Martin PE, Krahenbuhl GS: Factors affecting running economy. Sport Med, 1989; (7): [28] Morgan DW, Bransford DR, Costill DL, Daniels JT, Howley ET, Krahenbuhl GS: Variation in the aerobic demand of running among trained and untrained subjects. Med Sci Sorts Exerc, 1995; 27(3): [29] Morgan DW, Tseh W, Caputo JL, Keefer DJ, Craig IS, Griffi th KB, Krahenbuhl GS, Martin PE: Longitudinal stratifi cation of gait economy in young boys and girls: the locomotion energy and growth study. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2004; 91(1): [30] McMiken DF, Daniels JT: Aerobic requirements and maximum aerobic power in treadmill and track running. Med Sci Sports, 1976; (8): [31] Krahenbuhl GS, Williams TJ: Running economy: changes with age during childhood and adolescence. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 1992; 24(4): [32] Cempla J: Porównawcze badania kosztu fizjologicznego biegów o różnej intensywności u dziewcząt i chłopców w okresie dojrzewania. Antropomotoryka, 1995; 12(13): [33] Silva KS, Lopes AS: Excess weight, arterial pressure and physical activity in commuting to school: correlations. Arq Bras Cardiol, 2008; 91(2): [34] Sallis JF, Glanz K: The role of built environments in physical activity, eating, and obesity in childhood. Future Child, Spring 2006; 16(1):

80 NR AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA PHYSICAL FITNESS PROGRESSION IN WOMEN WITH OBESITY UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF REGULAR PHYSICAL ACTIVITY POPRAWA SPRAWNOŚCI FIZYCZNEJ KOBIET Z OTYŁOŚCIĄ POD WPŁYWEM REGULARNEJ AKTYWNOŚCI RUCHOWEJ Jan Ślężyński*, Ilona Ślężyńska**, Marzena Ślężyńska*** ****Prof. dr. habil., the Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Poland ****MSc, Medical University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland ****Student, the Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Poland Key words: obesity, physical activity, healthy lifestyle Słowa kluczowe: otyłość, aktywność fizyczna, zdrowy styl życia SUMMARY STRESZCZENIE Aim of the work. To prove that regular physical activity combined with rational lifestyle have positive influence on physical fitness improvement, adipose tissue reduction and weight loss in obese women. Material and methods. The research was conducted on 40 women with different obesity degree, aged between 20 55; the average age Body mass measurements and adipose tissue proportional measurements were performed using the Tanita scales, the device that uses the bioelectrical impedance analysis. During the 9-month observation the subjects took part in physical activities (aerobic and swimming) three times a week. Physical fitness was evaluated by the fitness tests in May 2002 and in February Sit-ups, standing long jump, shuttle run agility test 3 10 m and forward bends were measured. Results. The researchers showed that this 9-month period of regular physical activity had a significant impact on the improvement of physical fitness and the reduction of adipose tissue among tested women. Conclusions. Somatic and fitness measurements have motivated obese women to accept, implement and promote healthy lifestyle. Cel pracy. Wykazać, że regularna aktywność ruchowa, w połączeniu z racjonalnym trybem życia, wpływa korzystnie na poprawę sprawności fizycznej oraz redukcję tkanki tłuszczowej i zmniejszenie masy ciała kobiet z otyłością. Materiał i metody. Badaniom poddano 40 kobiet o różnym stopniu nadwagi i otyłości w wieku lat; średnia wieku 39,3 lat. Do pomiaru masy ciała i procentowej zawartości tkanki tłuszczowej w ustroju posłużyła waga Tanita. Urządzenie wykorzystuje technikę impedancji bioelektrycznej. Przez 9 miesięcy badane kobiety uczęszczały trzy razy w tygodniu na zajęcia ruchowe (aerobik i pływanie). Sprawność fizyczną oceniano próbami sprawnościowymi wykonywanymi w maju 2002 roku i lutym 2003 roku, w skład których wchodziły: siady z leżenia, skok w dal z miejsca, bieg wahadłowy 3 10 m i skłon w przód. Wyniki. Badania wykazały, że 9-miesięczna regularna aktywność ruchowa w znacznym stopniu wpłynęła na poprawę sprawności fizycznej oraz zmniejszenie procentowej zawartości tkanki tłuszczowej u badanych kobiet. Wnioski. Pomiary somatyczne i sprawnościowe motywowały kobiety z nadwagą i otyłością do zaakceptowania, wdrożenia i promowania aktywnego ruchowo stylu życia. 79

81 Jan Ślężyński, Ilona Ślężyńska, Marzena Ślężyńska Introduction Obesity is the tendency to accumulate the fat tissue in human body. It can be divided into 3 types which are characterized by the increased number of fat cells (hyperplasic obesity) or by the increased size of the adiposities (hypertrophic obesity) or both of these tendencies (mixed obesity) [1, 2]. Normal proportion of adipose tissue in adult women should be 12 16% and in men 12 14% of total body mass. Obesity in men is diagnosed when the adipose tissue exceeds 25% and in women when it exceeds 30% of body mass. There are several methods of obesity and overweight evaluation. Most common in use is body mass index, calculated with formula: BMI= body mass in kilos/ (height in meters). The World Health Organisation (WHO) has accepted the following body mass index classification: the norm overweight ( kg/m 2 ) obesity I ( kg/m 2 ) obesity II ( kg/m 2 ) and obesity III (over 40 kg/m 2 ). Fat deposition can be also evaluated by the skin folds thickness, usually measured below the shoulder blade, over the triceps brachii and in the abdomen. Body mass is usually controlled by the traditional scales which are not sensitive enough to measure fat deposition in the body. Therefore, it should be emphasized that the real danger is not the weight (over normal body mass) but excessive fat deposition. Reduction of adipose tissue that usually goes hand in hand with weight loss is the main goal of balanced diet and physical activity. Fast working so-called magic diets, although lower body mass, but by reducing muscle mass and by body dehydration. Those who exercise systematically can be dissatisfied with the slow pace of weight loss, since the reduction of fat tissue is usually combined with the increase of muscle mass. The average scales do not distinguish it. The latest technique of body tissue constituents evaluation is bioelectrical impedance analysis which send a weak, safe electric current through body tissues. In this way, thanks to such devices as Tanita, body mass weight as well as fat, muscle and water deposition in human body can be evaluated. There are several obesity classifications. Anthropometrical measurements describe the waist-to-hip ratio (WHR ratio). This way gynoid obesity (pear-like), characteristic for women, is described: rounded hips, more fat located in the upper part of the body, buttocks, and thighs. Android (visceral) obesity (apple-like) is characteristic for men. Visceral obesity (apple-type) is diagnosed when the WHR ratio is equal or higher than 0.8 in women and 1.0 in men. If the ratio is below 0.8 in women and 1.0 in men, the gynoid obesity (pear-type) is diagnosed [2]. Increased adipose tissue mass that causes overweight or obesity also contributes to various metabolic, functional and organic disorders, especially in motor system and circulatory system. Obesity is connected with more frequent occurrence of such diseases as diabetes type 2, hypertension, hyperlipidosis (the ratio between good cholesterol HDL and bad LDL is important), cerebral haemorrhage, ischemic heart disease, cholecystolithiasis, arthrosis especially gonarthrosis and spondyloarthrosis and aricose veins of the lower extremities [3, 4, 5]. Basic obesity treatments: 1. Diet aside from low calorie food it is recommended fat and monosaccharide intake reduction together with great increase of vegetables and fruits intake. The diet should consist of 30 50% protein, 25% fats and 25 40% carbohydrates. 2. Physical activity apart from diet and physical activity is the fundamental component of slimming diet; it increases metabolism and eliminates metabolic dysfunctions. 3. Pharmacological treatment it is used when BMI exceeds Surgical treatment is used when BMI exceeds Psychological stimulation increases the therapy efficacy regardless of the body mass reduction and changes in nutrition habits. Proper physical activity can regulate body mass, equalize energy balance and diminish the risk of obesity-accompanying diseases. The higher physical activity the more reduction in body mass can be expected. Body mass reduction is possible under condition that physical activity is combined with proper diet and doing exercises with the intensity around 70% of maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 max). As we understand, physical activity is every physical exertion of the skeletal muscles with energetic expenditure over the static level or indispensible for sustaining vital body functions. Regular physical exercise is usually accompanied with profitable changes in the body, which are essential elements in obesity prevention and treatment. Physical activity can be spontaneous or organized, programmed. Highly recommended are: energetic march, jogging 80

82 Physical fitness progression in women with obesity under the influence of regular physical activity and jogtrot, cycling, sport games, gymnastics, swimming, rowing, aerobic, ski running, hiking and mountain hiking. Elderly people should avoid exercises with sudden body movements, excessive loads on joints and exertions with head upside down. Before starting physical exercising, physical efficiency should be evaluated. In case of circulatory insufficiency, ischemic heart disease, hypertension, acute infections, unstabilized diabetes excessive physical exertion is contraindicated. Physical activity is an essential element of healthy lifestyle. Obesity reduces life expectancy for years. People with body mass lower for about 10% live longer. Suffering from overweight and obese bear additional costs of every physical exertion after its finishing [4, 6]. Movement therapy can be effective in moderate obesity. In massive obesity the therapy must be combined with adequate diet and intensive physical exercises. The extreme forms of obesity are treated mainly with dietetic and pharmacological or sometimes surgical treatment [3, 6]. Thanks to physical activity increase it is possible to maintain the energy without strict diet which may cause some nutritional deficiency. Physical activity is the physiological must from early childhood to old age as it stimulates physical and psychological development and favours human vitality. The basis of movement is the activity of the skeletal muscles that intensifies metabolism. The researches have proved that obesity causes negative health consequences and physical activity is a great chance for positive changes. Positive influence of physical activity in human body is more and more appreciated in contemporary civilization [7 17]. Research objective The objective of the research was to evaluate tissue components, especially the level of physical fitness in women with overweight and obesity before and after their 9-month participation in fitness improving exercises. Suitable chosen efficiency tests were to diagnose and control changes related to this physical activity. It was also important to create a motivation of self-aware physical fitness stimulation and healthy life promotion. Materials and research methods The research was conducted on 40 women with different obesity degree, aged between (the average age 39.3) who took part in the movement therapy in Plus-size Club in Knurów. The therapy was held three times a week for one hour (swimming and aerobic) during the period of 9 months. Among the subjects there were 72% married women, 23% unmarried women and 5% widows. The families of 3 persons (44%) and of 4 persons (33%) were in majority with few exceptions of the numerous families (18%) and of 2 persons families (5%). The workingclass origin was dominant (47%) subsequently there was intellectual-class origin (28%) and rural origin (25%). Most of the participants completed secondary education (52%) and had higher education (25%), only a few of them had elementary education (15%) and incomplete higher education (8%). On the basis of waist-to-hip ratio the WHR ratio was calculated, and as a result 29 women were classified as having visceral (androidal) obesity and 11 women as having gynoid obesity. For the measurements of the body mass and the percentage of adipose tissue was used the Tanita scale which uses as it has been mentioned before the bioelectrical impedance analysis. The measurements were taken twice: in May and in November For physical fitness evaluation, which took place in May 2002 and in February 2003, the fitness tests including the measures of sit-ups, standing long jump, shuttle run test and forward bends 1 were used. Method of fitness tests performance: 1. Sit-ups (strength) lying down on back, legs bent at 90-degree angle in knee-joint, feet spread at the width of about 30 cm, hands with intertwined fingers and placed under the head, the partner on knees between the recumbent person s feet, pressing them to the mattress. On the signal, the recumbent person touched knees with elbows, and after that she immediately returned to recumbent position to enable her intertwined fingers contact with the floor and anew was doing sit-up without pushing herself back with elbows off the mattress. The number of sit-ups properly done in 30 seconds was registered. 2. Standing long jump (force) tested person stood astride with feet parallel to the fixed line, next slightly leaned the torso forward, bent legs (not more than 90-degree) simultaneously waving arms forward and vigorously rebounded from the floor to make the longest jump. One out of three jumps, measured 1 The tests were taken from International Physical Fitness Test [18] with slight modifications. 81

83 Jan Ślężyński, Ilona Ślężyńska, Marzena Ślężyńska to the closest trace left by the hill, was registered (in centimetres). 3. Shuttle run 3 10 meters (agility) running from standing position from the start-line to pole B, located 10 meters from the start-line, next running around it returning to the start line, where field A was located, again running around it and running back to field B were was the finishing line. The fastest result out of two runs was registered with up to 0,1 sec. accuracy. 4. Forward bend (flexibility) the tested person was standing at the elevation with toes at the verge of that elevation, feet together, legs straight in kneejoints. In this position the person was doing forward bend trying to reach with fingers the lowest line with the scale and hold this position for 2 sec. The centimetre scale was placed perpendicularly to the elevation surface. The elevation, on which the tested person was standing, was marked as 0, over the elevation was the positive scale and below the negative scale. Better score out of two was registered. Furthermore, from May 2002 till March 2003 in two- -month intervals the measurements of chest, hips and waist ambit as well as the measurements of body weight were taken. Systematic measurements enabled to control adipose tissue loss in specific body parts and were encouraging factors in continue physical exertion. In March 2003, the participants were asked to fill in the questionnaire for informative and preventive purposes. The questionnaire played important role in recognizing the habits and demeanours influencing positively or negatively on overweight or obesity. The data of measurements was statistically compiled to calculate arithmetic means (x ) and standard deviation (s) as well as variation coefficient (V). The differences relevance of arithmetic means was evaluated by the Student s t-test. Two relevance levels were taken: p < 0.01 and p < The main findings In May 2002 following degrees of obesity were identified among tested women: 12.5% in the standard; 45% on the border of the normal, close to obesity; 25% obesity I ; and 17.5% obesity II, while in March 2003 this proportion positively changed: 17.5% in the standard, 47.5% before obesity, 25% obesity I ; and 10% obesity II (Table 1). Average height of examined women was cm. The measurements of tissue components were made twice, using Tanita scales: in May and in November After half a year of physical exercises (twice a week aerobic and once a week aqua aerobic) in women with different obesity degrees following features were reduced: body mass BMI, the basal metabolism, body impedance for electric impulse flow, adipose tissue mass, tissue-free total body mass and general body water volume. In May 2002 average BMI was and in November unit measurement (Table 2). Proportionally to body mass the basal metabolic rate BMR was lowered. It evaluates the metabolism in repose, and indispensable energy expenditure for sustaining basic vital functions. In May 2002 BMR rate was 1546 kcal and in November kcal. Simultaneously with adipose tissue loss the body impedance for electric impulse flow was also lowered. The muscles acts as electrical while tissue as resistor; the less tissue content the lower is the body impedance. In May 2002 average was Ω, and in November ,9 Ω. There was also slight adipose tissue loss. Fat mass in total body mass was in May % and in November 36.2%, Table 1. Obesity degrees in examined women determined by Body Mass Index Obesity degree May 2002 March 2003 n % n % Normal Overweight Obesity I Obesity II

84 Physical fitness progression in women with obesity under the influence of regular physical activity Table 2. Somatic features of the examined women in May 2002 (I) and October 2003 (II) Feature Examination Min max x s V d t Body mass in kg I II Body mass index I II Basal metabolism in kj I II Basal metabolism in kcal I II Body impendence I II Fat free body mass I II Body fat percentage Adipose tissue mass I II I II Body water volume I II Hence it can be concluded that the percentage of fat mass in total body mass was reduced. Similar effect was observed in tissue mass; before starting physical activity the average was 29.8 kg and in November kg. Accordingly, slight reduction in tissue of the examined women was observed. Fat-free body mass was also measured (muscles, internal organs, bones and water) and it also underwent positive changes; in May 2002 it was average 50.1% and in November 2002 it was lowered to 48.8%. General body water volume measurements were also significant as it composed of 50 70% of total body mass. Higher hydration level is observed in men than in women what is connected to their bigger muscle mass. Fluctuations of body hydration are physiological and dependent mainly on nourishment and physical activity. Among examined women following volumes of body water were registered: in May kg, in November kg. Therefore, general body water volume was reduced. Summarizing, it is should be stated that under the influence of physical activity during those 6 months the body mass and the BMI was reduced. Proportionally to lower body mass, the basal metabolism was lowered. Comparing the proportional tissue content in total body mass in May 2002 and November 2002 it is resulted that in majority of the women (28) it was lowered. Similar observations were made to tissue mass. Therefore, physical activity has brought the expected effects to those women. Physical efficiency examinations (table 3) have revealed that systematic movement exercises significant- 83

85 Jan Ślężyński, Ilona Ślężyńska, Marzena Ślężyńska Table 3. Physical efficiency in May 2002 and February 2003 (II) Feature Examination Min max x s V d* t Sit-ups strength Standing long jump force Forward bend flexibility Shuttle run test agility I II I II I II I II * the differences (d) which are significant on level 0.01 were distinguished with bold print and on level 0.05 with italics ly improved abdominal muscle strength of participants, and that was confirmed by the increase in average sit-ups number between the scores in May 2002 (15.9) and November 2002 (18.9). The researchers observed significant improvement in examined women s force: in May 2002 the average score of standing long jumps was 136 cm and in November cm. The slight progress in agility (forward bend) was also made: from 3.33 cm to 4.75 cm in February Examined women significantly improved the results in shuttle run test 3 10 m (agility): in May 2002 the average score was 12.3 sec. while in February 2003 it was 11.6 sec. Most of the subjects (36) obtained better results and only few of them (4) had worse results. Summing up all results of efficiency tests it should be stressed significant agility, force and strength improvement and slight flexibility improvement. Regular 9-month physical activity, apparently has lead to versatile physical effectiveness improvement in examined women. Conclusions The research allows to formulate following conclusions: 1. Physical activity turned out to be a significant factor to counteract obesity. Among women who were exercising, the body mass was lowered as well as the breast ambit and waist ambit and slightly hips ambit. Adipose tissue was reduced together with slightly fat-free body mass reduction. 2. Under the influence of physical activity the movement activity was improved significantly: strength, agility, force and slightly flexibility. Better physical fitness is simultaneously better life comfort. 3. Rational lifestyle and physical activity influenced positively on reduction of overweight and obesity. Somatic and fitness measurements have motivated women with obesity to healthy acceptance, implementation and promotion of healthy lifestyle. LITERATURE PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Baranowska B, Białkowska M, Wasilewska-Dziubińska E, Pachocki R: Otyłość choroba cywilizacji. Warszawa, PZWL, [2] Biasiotto J, Fernando A: Control your weight. Muscle and Fitness, 1989; 4. [3] Tatoń J: Otyłość patofizjologia, diagnostyka, leczenie. Warszawa, PZWL, [4] Tatoń J: Zarys patogenezy otyłości. Polski Tygodnik Lekarski, 1995, supl. 1: [5] Rywik S, Węgrowska W, Piotrkowski P, Broda G: Epidemiologia otyłości jako czynnik ryzyka chorób układu krążenia. Polski Tygodnik Lekarski, 1995, supl. 1: [6] Białkowska M, Szostak WB: Wybór metody leczenia otyłości w zależności od stopnia zagrożenia zdrowia. Polski Tygodnik Lekarski, 1995, supl. 1: [7] Drabik J: Aktywność fi zyczna w edukacji zdrowotnej społeczeństwa. Gdańsk, AWF,

86 Physical fitness progression in women with obesity under the influence of regular physical activity [8] Drabik J: Aktywność fizyczna w treningu zdrowotnym osób dorosłych, Gdańsk, AWF, [9] Fijałkowski W, Karpińska B: Ruch a zdrowie kobiety. Warszawa, PZWL, [10] Jopkiewicz A (red.): Aktywność ruchowa osób starszych. Kielce, WSP, [11] Kuński H: Elementy zdrowotne rekreacji fizycznej osób w wieku średnim. Warszawa, IWZZ, [12] Nazar K, Kociuba-Uściłko H: Aktywność ruchowa w zapobieganiu i leczeniu otyłości. Polski Tygodnik Lekarski 1995; supl. 1: [13] Romanowski W, Eberhardt A: Profilaktyczne znaczenie zwiększonej aktywności ruchowej człowieka. Warszawa, PZWL, [14] Vaccaro P, Clinton M: The effects of aerobik dance conditioning on the body composition and maximal oxygen uptake of college women. Journal Sports Medicine, 1981; 21. [15] Wolańska T: Aktywność fi zyczna a zdrowie. Warszawa, SiT, [16] Willmore JH: Body composition in sport and exercise: directions for future research. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 1983; 15. [17] Zając A, Waśkiewicz Z: Dietetyczno-treningowe wspomaganie zdrowia i sprawności fi zycznej. Katowice, AWF, [18] Pilicz S, Przewęda R, Dobosz J, Nowacka-Dobosz S: Punktacja sprawności fi zycznej młodzieży polskiej według Międzynarodowego Testu Sprawności Fizycznej. Warszawa, AWF,

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88 NR AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA ABILITY TO SELF-CONTROL IN THE CONTEXT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN SCHOOLCHILDREN AT THE AGE OF ZDOLNOŚĆ DO SAMOKONTROLI W KONTEKŚCIE AKTYWNOŚCI FIZYCZNEJ U UCZNIÓW W WIEKU LAT Vytė Kontautienė*, Audronius Vilkas** ***MSc, assistant, Department of Physical Education, Faculty of Pedagogy, Klaipėda University, Klaipėda, Lithuania ***Prof. dr., Department of Theory of Physical Education, Faculty of Sports and Health Education, Vilnius Pedagogical University, Vilnius, Lithuania Key words: self-control, ability, social skills, physical activity, pupils at the age of Słowa kluczowe: samokontrola, rozwój, nawyki socjalne, aktywność fizyczna, uczniowie w wieku lat SUMMARY STRESZCZENIE Aim of the work. To evaluate the ability to self-control of schoolchildren at years of age. The research was conducted in the primary classes of comprehensive schools in Klaipėda city and district in January Material and methods. The sample of the surveyed was 99 pupils of the third and fourth forms, including 59.6% of girls and 40.4% of boys. The research based on the literature survey of this subject area was done by means of questionnaire and mathematical statistics tools (Cronbach s Alpha, Spearman s rank correlation coefficient, and the Student s t-test and χ 2 analysis). The questionnaire of self-control evaluation was designed on the basis of the programme To grow and strengthen of Lithuanian physical culture, as well as Riggio and Friedman s (1982, 1983) Social skills inventory for emotional control and social control. Results. A weak tendency was established to the effect that children, who knew the rules of behavior and observed them, were generally more patient (p < 0.01). Children who tended to think in an optimistic way were better able to cope with the difficulties they encountered (p < 0.001). Tidy school learners were generally patient (p < 0.01). Courageous pupils were better able to cope with the difficulties they encountered, which was the proof of ability to control oneself (p < 0.001); an essential correlation was established between the gender and the knowledge of the rules and their observation (p < 0.001). Conclusions. The scale of the self-control behavior models (Cronbach s Alpha: 0.716), applied for the evaluation of expression of the self-control ability, demonstrated the existence of personal qualities significant for self-control and the models of self-control behavior. The opinions of girls and boys on when they were least able to control themselves were statistically significant. The girls tended to think that they were least able to control themselves when they were hurt or insulted (p < 0.05) or in the situations when they were not correctly understood (p < 0.05). The boys find it difficult to control their emotions when others manage to perform tasks and they fail. Cel pracy. Ocena zdolności do samokontroli uczniów w wieku lat w kontekście aktywności fizycznej. Materiał i metody. Badaniami prowadzonymi w 2009 r. objęto 99 dzieci w wieku lat, uczniów klas trzecich i czwartych szkół ogólnokształcących w Kłajpedzie i rejonie kłajpedzkim. Grupę tworzyło 59,6% uczennic 87

89 Vytė Kontautienė, Audronius Vilkas i 40,4% uczniów płci męskiej. Na podstawie analizy literatury przedmiotu, wytycznych zatwierdzonego do realizacji na Litwie programu wychowania fizycznego Dorastać i stawać się silniejszym (2004) oraz konkluzji zawartych w pracach Riggio i Friedmana (1982, 1983), dotyczących nawyków społecznych, opracowano kwestionariusz do badań nad kontrolą fizyczną, emocjonalną i społeczną. Do analizy danych posłużono się narzędziami statystyki matematycznej (współczynnik alfa Cronbacha, korelacja rangowa Spearmana, kryteria testu t-studenta i χ 2 ). Wyniki. Zaobserwowano słabą tendencję, zgodnie z którą dzieci znające i respektujące zasady savoir vivre u są na ogół cierpliwe (p < 0, 01); dzieci, które wykazują zdolność do optymistycznego myślenia, przeważnie potrafią radzić sobie z trudnościami (p < 0,001); natomiast uczniowie cechujący się schludnością, przeważnie są też cierpliwi (p < 0,01); odważni uczniowie na ogół odznaczają się stanowczością (p < 0,001); ustalono także zasadniczy związek korelacyjny między płcią i znajomością zasad zachowania oraz ich przestrzegania (p < 0,001). Wnioski. Na podstawie oceny zdolności do samokontroli według modelu samokontroli zachowania (współczynnik alfa Cronbacha: 0,716) wykazano, że istnieje związek między istotnymi cechami osobowymi a modelami samokontroli zachowania. Dziewczynki i chłopcy w różny sposób rozumieją okoliczności, w których najtrudniej jest im kontrolować samych siebie. Z badań wynika, że uczniowie w wieku lat wykazują ograniczoną zdolność do samokontroli sprawności fizycznej. Uczniom brakuje nawyków samokontroli sprawności fizycznej, sprawdzania i korygowania częstotliwości pulsu i oddechu podczas ćwiczeń fizycznych, aktywności fizycznej i przygotowania fizycznego. Introduction In the system of physical culture of contemporary comprehensive schools, physical education is viewed as an activity that develops pupils psychomotoric abilities, contributes to accumulating knowledge and also trains their social skills necessary for all fields of life. Social abilities can be defined as a kind of behaviour that in certain social situations results in an adequate ratio of positive and negative consequences for an individual, social environment, and society at large. One of such abilities, recognized as a contemporary trend in the research into sport psychology, is self-control. In the science of sport, self-control (selbstkontrolle, самоконтроль) is understood as a purposeful observation, analysis, and correction of one s health condition, physical development, physical fitness, mental condition, emotions, behaviour, and actions in the process of physical education or professional training [3]. Self-control can also be attached to social skills. Subjective (a good physical condition, sleep, appetite, willingness to exercise, and load tolerance) and objective (one s weight, pulse, breathing, and blood pressure) indicators of self-control were identified. For Aleksejeva and Melnikov (Алексеева, Мельников) [4], the objective self-control indicators were anthropometric measurements: pulse, frequency of breathing, vital capacity of lungs, orthostatic sample, holding breath, and other tests, while the subjective self-control indicators included one s physical condition, working capacity, sleep, appetite, digestion disorders, and increased thirst. The number of self-control indicators could differ, and the important thing was to learn to correctly identify and evaluate them [4]. As indicated by the analysis of specialist literature, the self-control abilities were to be trained from early childhood. Junior school age was a suitable period to start developing self-control ability due to the psychosocial and moral evolution of a child at 7 10 years of age and the formation of favourable physical and mental conditions [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. The analysis proved that the school age was conducive to the development of self-control abilities, especially by means of sports activities, as the self-control skills were formed for the rest of one s life [10]. Great attention has been paid to research in the social skills (moral, situational, essential, and competitive) of pupils going in for sports [11, 12, 13]. Lately, scientific works on sports have been analyzing the characteristics of sportsmen s self-regulation and self-control [14, 15, 10, 12, 16]. The said research most frequently disclosed the manifestations of subjective and mental self-control that were expressed by the ability to control and regulate one s own emotional state. However, few works could be found on the subject of studies of self-control at junior schol age, i.e. at primary school. The aim of the research is to evaluate the expression of primary school pupils self-control abilities. The tasks of the research are the following: 1) to evaluate the 3rd 4th form pupils knowledge of physical self-control in terms of gender; 2) to establish whether the girls and boys understanding of self-control differs; 3) to evaluate optimal conditions for the expression of self-control abilities. 88

90 Ability to self-control in the context of physical activity in schoolchildren at the age Material and method Organization of the research. The research was conducted in primary forms of comprehensive schools of Klaipėda city and district in January The sample of the survey was 99 school learners of the 3rd and 4th forms: 59.6 % of girls and 40.4% of boys. Research methods. The following methods were used: analysis of specialist literature, survey applying questionnaires, mathematical statistics (Cronbach s Alpha, Spearman s rank correlation coefficient, and the Student s t-test and χ 2 analysis). The questionnaire of self-control evaluation was designed on the basis of the programme To grow and strengthen [17] of Lithuanian physical culture, and with the help of Social skills inventory for emotional control and social control by Riggio and Friedman [18, 19]. Results By means of mathematical statistics methods a scale of behaviour models typical of self-control, as well as scale norms of personal qualities significant for selfcontrol, were designed. To establish the validity of the scales, the internal consistency of the variables components of the scale was evaluated, with Cronbach s Alpha applied, and the internal consistency of the scale was established. As Cronbach s Alpha on the scale of personal qualities was (n = 10), and on the behaviour scale Cronbach s Alpha (n = 22), the scale can be said to be homogeneous and quite a valid means of measurement. Table 1 shows the correlations between personal qualities significant for self-control and behaviour models of self-control. In the analysis of personal qualities significant for self-control and the models of behaviour typical of self-control, the following weak tendency was established (Spearman s rho = 0.272, p = 0.007): the children who knew the rules of behaviour and observed them were frequently characterized as patient (p 0.01). A weak but statistically significant (Spearman s rho = 0.368, p < 0.000) correlation (weak tendency) between personal quality of optimism and ability to find the way how to cope with encountered difficulties was determined: it means that children inclined to think optimistically were better able to cope with encountered difficulties (p < 0.001), which served as a proof of their self-control ability. In the analysis of the interrelationship of the thirdand fourthformers personal qualities significant for self-control, a weak (0.289) though statistically signifi- Table 1. Validity analysis of the scales of self-control behaviour models and of personal qualities significant for self-control Scale Criterion Cronbach s Alpha Number of statements (N) Scale of personal qualities significant for self-control Scale of behaviour models typical of self-control Table 2. Opinions of boys and girls as to when they find it most difficult to control themselves No Girls Boys Statement Agree with the statement I feel lonely ** I am hurt I work alone, and no one helps ** No one understands me Others succeed, and I fail to perform the task Note: * level of significance p 0.001; ** level of significance p 0.01; *** level of significance p

91 Vytė Kontautienė, Audronius Vilkas Table 3. The correlation of personal qualities and models of behaviour The correlation between personal qualities and behaviour Spearman s correlation coefficient Statistical significance ** Tidy Patient *** Pursuing goals Self-confident ** Patient I know the rules of behaviour to be observed, and I observe them * Resolute Courageous * Optimist If I encounter a difficulty, I find a way to cope with it p = p = p = p = p = Note: * level of significance p 0,001; ** level of significance p 0,01; *** level of significance p 0,05. cant (p = 0.004) relationship between the qualities of tidiness and patience was established (see: Table 3). This relationship demonstrated the following weak tendency: tidy school learners were generally also patient, and vice versa, patient school learners were characterized by personal tidiness (p < 0.01). Similar relationships were established between the personal qualities of pursuing goals and self-confidence (p 0.05), resolution and courage (p 0.001). Consequently, a following weak tendency was established: school learners who pursued goals were also more self-confident, and courageous school learners were more frequently characterized as resolute. In the analysis of the relationship between the gender and self-control behaviour models (see: Table 2), as well as personal qualities typical of self-control, the following generally weak, however, statistically significant reverse correlation was established: ability of selfconfidence (Spearman s rho = 0.288, p < 0.01), of being tolerant (Spearman s rho = 0.227, p < 0.05), and clever (Spearman s rho = 0.249, p < 0.05), reacting quickly and positively to remarks (Spearman s rho = 0.277, p < 0.01). An essential correlation was only established between the gender and the knowledge and observation of the rules of behaviour (Spearman s rho = 0.417, p < 0.001). With the aim of evaluating the conditions of expression of self-control abilities, a problematic question was raised in the research whether the girls and boys answers to the question: When do you find it most difficult to control yourselves? differed. To assess the differences in the answers of the boys and the girls, the Chi Square criterion was applied. The answers in percent are presented in Table 3. As witnessed by the data in the table, not all the differences in the respondents answers were statistically significant. Statistically significant differences in the answers of boys and girls as to when they found it most difficult to control their emotions occurred in the following cases: the girls, more frequently than the boys, were inclined to think that they found it difficult to control their emotions when they were hurt or insulted (χ² = 3.863, df = 1, p = 0.049) and in the situations when they were not understood correctly (χ² = 3.994, df = 1, p = 0.046). For 55% of the boys, it was most difficult to control their emotions when others succeeded and they failed to perform the task; however no statistically significant differences were established. The expression of the respondents self-control abilities was evaluated according to the programme of Lithuanian Physical Education To grow and to strengthen (Augti ir stiprėti) [17]. The respondents were asked to answer nine questions about self-control in PE lessons; the distribution of results conveyed in percent is shown in Table 4. The frequency of pulse was one of the physical self-control indicators significant for the evaluation and correction of physical load. The percentage shows that 53.4% of girls and 54.1% of boys managed to recognize correctly that their pulse was the least frequent while lying. Unfortunately, the others (46.6% of girls and 45.9% of boys) did not manage to recognize when their pulse was the least frequent and gave wrong answers (while standing, walking, running). 90

92 Ability to self-control in the context of physical activity in schoolchildren at the age Table 4. The correlation of personal qualities significant for self-control and the self-control behaviour models in terms of gender Personal qualities significant for self-control and the self-control behaviour models Spearman s correlation coefficient Gender Statistical significance p ** Self-confident p = *** Tolerant p = *** I am resourceful and self-confident p = ** I quickly respond to remarks p = * I know the rules of behaviour I have to observe, and I observe them p = Note: * level of significance p 0.001; ** level of significance p 0.01; *** level of significance p Discussion Generalising the discussed problem it can be stated that the abilities of self-control of primary learners have not been investigated extensively. The researches on peculiarities of self-control abilities have been carried out but not during the lessons of physical training. The works of some authors analyse self-control not as social behaviour of primary learners but from the perspective of other various (disabled, delinquent) social groups [20]. A considerable attention is paid to the researches on social skills (moral, situational, essential, competition) of sports athletes and senior school learners actively involved in sports [11, 12, 13] as well as to the studies on peculiarities of their self-regulation and self-control [21, 14]. According to the researches of other authors [22, 23] the programme of psychological training can be efficiently applied for the development of self-control skills; however, these researches were conducted on high proficiency athletes and the works on development of selfcontrol skills at junior school age are scarce. Ringio and Friedman [18, 19], Malinauskas [24], Šniras, Malinauskas [25] conducted similar researches on self-control but they investigated self-control in a broader context of essential social skills. Since essential social skills are perceived as automated abilities, it is obvious that school learners are able to develop and enhance them. Self-control is the main aspect of human function and the main component of human behaviour in various cultures. The research on pre-school children carried out by Chinese scientists [26] allowed for comparison of children s abilities to self-dependent control their behaviour in Western and Eastern cultures. Other scientists [27, 29] revealed the researches on primary learners self-control, which cannot be interpreted as corresponding to our data because their analysis is focused on other aspects of self-control. Though selfcontrol has been the focus of researches for a long time, very few measurement instruments to evaluate children s self-control tendencies and behaviour have been created. Ceccini, Montero et al. [10] investigated the influence of schoolchildren s personal and social responsibility on self-control and participation in games according to the rules following the model by Hellison [28]. Thanks to intervention programme the experimental group improved their personal feedback, delayed satisfaction, self-control and processes of self-regulation; the values of personal and social responsibility due to satisfaction and sport mastery increased and simultaneously a decrease in values of variables related to a wish to win, rough play, contact faults and bad mastery was observed. Above mentioned proves that school age is favourable for development of self-control skills particularly through physical activity. The research on children from years of age proved the usefulness of self-control for learning to perform a movement [29, 16]: children had to decide on their own when the best time for finding out the results of performance was. The research results assured that older children better understood the importance of self-control for knowing the results to the process of learning to perform a movement. According to the data of our research, the influence of self-control on knowledge and abilities was not established. 91

93 Vytė Kontautienė, Audronius Vilkas The research under discussion was based on the structure of self-control abilities applied in the science of sports [3]. Some authors present comparatively different interpretations of self-control: Lanc et al. [27] perceive self-control as a double phenomenon, i.e., as an ability to appropriately receive and provide feedback to an adult or a peer, maintaining positive personal response system through these interactions. Children possessing self-control skills may gain trust of their peers because it allows foreseeing a subset of positive answers in various stimulating situations. The research in question confirmed the significance of self- -confidence to self-control skills. Other authors [26], following the structure of self-control skills developed by Kendall and Wilcox, define it as a comparatively consistent tendency of self-command from the cognitive (legal) and behavioural (executive) aspects. Cognitive aspects include deliberation, solution to problems, planning and evaluation, which make a child to behave not in an impulsive way. Abilities to consider, to conduct the chosen behaviour or not to behave in an undesirable way are ascribed to components of behaviour. In our research the scale of self-control behaviour mo dels was also applied for evaluation of the expression of self-control skills, which emphasised not an impulsive but well-balanced behaviour. These different structures of self-control confirm that this phenomenon is very complicated and its various aspects may be chosen for its evaluation. Self-control skills create possibilities for timely identification of negative changes in the body and prevent from negative consequences. Statistically significant difference in opinion of the boys and girls about when their self-control fails was revealed. Similar data were received by Chinese scientists [26], who established that girls are more capable of controlling themselves compared to boys. It was also revealed that children, who grew without brothers or sisters, were more irritable, less controlled themselves and were less concerned about daily activities compared to children who grew in the family not alone. Traditionally self-control was considered to be a personal trait such as the power of will. Such personality features as self-confidence, orderliness, punctuality, diligence, determination are linked to self-control as well as with values and virtues [30, 31]. Self-control is related to persistence, initiative, courage, determination, an ability to foresee, self-dependence and patience. The researches on adolescents spiritual values show that they acknowledge values that embody the good (honesty, sensitivity, dignity) best, whereas the values that require self-control (devotion to work, self-respect and respect for others, non-compliance with negligence) are evaluated worse [30, 13]. Primary learners living in towns find such values as self-confidence, honesty, joviality the most important, primary learners from the centres of districts evaluate sympathy, friendliness, politeness highest, whereas learners from rural areas see friendliness, respect for others and politeness as the most relevant. All the values are weaker linked with self- -control. The scale of self-control behaviour models used for evaluation of self-control abilities expression showed that there exists a link between personal qualities relevant to self-control and self-control behaviour models but its substantiation requires further researches. Self-control opens up new perspectives in physical education not only to follow, organise but also to correct the health condition, physical fitness, physical development, psychical states, emotions and to orient in changes of own body. This is provided for in the General curriculum framework for primary and basic education [1] which points out that physical activity stimulates an ability to adapt to continuously changing conditions and requirements, it also creates conditions to recognize own individuality, to develop physical and spiritual endurance, self-control abilities, which will be necessary in various critical life situations. The links between physical self-development and psychical health in school learners at the age from were confirmed by the researcher [32, 23]. It was established that physical self-development has a positive effect on psychical health because a statistically relevant (p < 0.05) improvement of psychical balance, i.e., school learners self-control abilities, was established. Athletes with strong self-control tend to adjust themselves flexibly to changing situation, to manage their emotions perfectly and to achieve good sports results efficiently [23, 15]. Our researches show that self-control skills are important to everyone; therefore, the bases for mastering self-control should be introduced in primary forms. It is necessary to explain the importance and necessity of including these issues in the proper organisation of physical education process and its implementation. We think that this research did not reveal all the factors that have effect on the control of individual s behaviour in certain situations. It is possible that some school learners may fail to use their self-control skills due to a big number of cognitive, emotional and environmental factors, others may lack these skills and it can be diffi- 92

94 Ability to self-control in the context of physical activity in schoolchildren at the age cult for them to use their social skills at the moment of anger. It is necessary to conduct further researches to reveal how long school learners are able to retain self-control skills because if skills are not enhanced, they tend to become weaker [33]. The researches set up new problems: what links are established between physical and self-control skills in the context of physical culture lessons; how self-control skills are developed while developing physical abilities; how to develop physical abilities to improve the level of self-control skills; how to model the process of education during lessons of physical culture to improve self-control skills while developing physical abilities. This embraces only several topical issues, which require both theoretical and empirical analysis in order to expand the possessed knowledge and contribute to the search for new solutions to the problems. Conclusions 1. The research revealed the differences in expression of self-control skills with regard to gender: the opinions of girls and boys about the moments when they fail to control themselves were not the same. The girls tend to think that they fail to control themselves when they are insulted or hurt (p < 0.05) and in situations when they are not understood (p < 0.05). Boys find it difficult to control their emotions when others manage to perform tasks and they fail. 2. The scale of self-control models applied for evaluation of expression of self-control skills showed that there exists a link between personal qualities relevant to self-control and the models of self-control behaviour. A weak trend (p < 0.01) that children who are aware of behaviour rules and keep to them are more patient in general was established. Children who tend to think in an optimistic way are able to manage difficulties more frequently (p < 0.001). Statistically relevant correlational link was identified between the gender and awareness of behaviour rules as well as keeping to them (p< 0.001). 3. Analysing the interlinks among personal qualities relevant to self-control of school learners from years of age a weak trend was established that these pupils who are organised and neat are in general patient (p < 0.001); the pupils with established goals are more self-confident, (p < 0.05); courageous school learners have more qualities related to determination (p < 0.001). 4. The research revealed insufficient physical self- -control skills of school learners at the age of Approximately the half of year-olds in the research managed to point out that their pulse rate is lowest in laying position and about two thirds of schoolchildren were able to evaluate correctly normal human temperature, physical peculiarities of jumping and velocity, to notice changes in blood pressure rate while exposed to physical load. The comparative percentage analysis of self-control skills test results shows that school learners lack abilities of physical self-control to observe, monitor and correct the pulse and breathing rate as well as physical activity and physical fitness in the process of physical education. LITERATURE PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Pradinio ir pagrindinio ugdymo bendrosios programos [in English: To grow and strengthen]. Vilnius, ŠMM, Available at: [2] Svoboda B: Sport and physical activity as a socialisation environment: Scientific Review, Part 1. Strasbourg, France, Council of Europe, [3] Stonkus S (ed.): Sporto terminų žodynas. Kaunas, LKKA, [4] Aleksejeva EN, Melnikov WS: Самоконтроль занимающихся физическими упражнениями и спортом: методические указания. Orenburg, GOU OGU, 2003: 37. [5] Papalia DE, Olds SW: Child s world: infancy through adolescence. New York, [6] Baumeister RF, Exline JJ: Self-control, morality and human strength. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 2000; 19: [7] Malina R, Bouchard C, Bar-Or O: Growth, maturation and physical activity. Second edition. Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics, [8] Pileckaitė-Markovienė M, Nasvytienė D, Bumblytė D: Vystimosi psichologija: vaikystė. Vilnius, Enciklopedija, [9] Bailey R: Physical education and sport in schools: a review of benefits and outcomes. Journal of School Health, 2006, 76: [10] Cecchini JA, Montero J, Alonso A, Izquierdo M, Contreras O: Effects of personal and social responsibility on fair play in sports and self-control in school-aged youths. European Journal of Sport Science, 2007; vol. 7, no. 4: [11] Weinberg SR, Comar W: The effectiveness of psychological interventions in competitive sport. Sports Medicine, 1994; 18: [12] Šniras Š: Krepšinį žaidžiančių moksleivių situaciniai 93

95 Vytė Kontautienė, Audronius Vilkas socialiniai įgūdžiai trenerio ir komandos draugų akimis. Ugdymas. Kūno kultūra. Sportas, 2004; 2 (52): [13] Šniras Š, Malinauskas R: Moksleivių dorovinių įgūdžių tyrimo ypatumai. Ugdymo psichologija, 2004; 11 12: [14] Muraven M, Tice, Diane TM, Baumeister RF: Self-control as a limited recourse: regulatory depletion patterns. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1998; 74: [15] Malinauskas R, Malinauskienė V: Psichologinio rengimo programos poveikis didelio meistriškumo stalo tenisininkų savireguliacijai ir savikontrolei. Sporto mokslas, 2004; 2 (36): [16] Chiviacowsky S, Wulf G, de Medeiros FL, Kaefer A, Tani G: Learning benefi ts of self-controlled knowledge of results in 10 years old children. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 2008; vol. 79, no. 3: [17] Norkus S (ed.): Lietuvos kūno kultūros ženklo programa Augti ir stiprėti. Šiauliai, Šiaurės Lietuva, [18] Ringio RE, Friedman, HS: The interrelationships of self- -monitoring factors, personality traits and nonverbal social skills. Journal of Nonverbal Behaviour, 1982, 7: [19] Ringio RE, Friedman HS: Individual differences and cues to deception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1983, 45: [20] Grasmick HG, Tittle CR, Bursik RJ, Arneklev BJ: Testing the core empirical implications of Gotteredson and Hirschi s general theory of crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 1993; 30 (1): [21] Weinberg SR, Gould D: Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. New York, Human Kinetics, [22] Martens R: Sporto psichologijos vadovas treneriui. Vilnius, LSIC, [23] Malinauskas R: Psichologinių įgūdžių lavinimo programos įgyvendinimas sporto mokyklų komandose. Sporto mokslas, 2001; 4 (26): [24] Malinauskas R: Esminiai socialiniai įgūdžiai ir jų vertinimas (remiantis sporto pedagogų tyrimo duomenimis). Ugdymo psichologija, 2004; 11 12: [25] Šniras Š, Malinauskas R: Miestų ir rajonų krepšinio sporto mokyklų moksleivių socialinių įgūdžių raiška. Ugdymas. Kūno kultūra. Sportas, 2006; 4 (63): [26] Wang A: Validation of a self-control rating scale in a Chinese preschool. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 2002; 3: [27] Lanc KL, Givner CC, Pierson MR: Teacher expectations of student behaviour: social skills necessary for success in elementary school classrooms. The Journal of Special Educations, 2003; 38 (2): [28] Hellison D: Teaching responsibility through physical activity. Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics, [29] Humphrey LL: Children s self-control in relation to perceived social environment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1984, vol. 46, no. 1: [30] Martišauskienė E.: Paauglių dvasingumo ugdymas kaip pedagoginis reiškinys. Vilnius, VPU, [31] Kavalir P: Спорт в системе ценности чешских подростков: непрерывность и изменение. Mezdunarodnyj Zhurnal Istoriji Sporta, 2004; 21 (5): [32] Batutis O, Kardelis K: Moksleivių socialinės izoliacijos, integracijos ir savigarbos sąsaja su fi ziniu aktyvumu. Ugdymas. Kūno kultūra. Sportas, 2002; 2: [33] Bandura A.: Social Cognitive Theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 2001; 52:

96 REVIEW PAPERS PRACE PRZEGLĄDOWE

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98 NR AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA PUBEBERTY PHASE IN GIRLS KEY QUESTIONS IN CONNECTION WITH SPORT MASTERY ZAGADNIENIE FAZY POKWITANIA DZIEWCZĄT W PROBLEMATYCE SZKOLENIA SPORTOWEGO KOBIET Larysa Genrichovna Shakhlina*, Teresa Socha** ** PhD, professor, National University of Physical Education and Sport of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine ** Dr. habil., assoc. prof., Department of Individual Sports, Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Poland Key words: teenager, sports preparation, pubescence Słowa kluczowe: nastolatki, szkolenie sportowe, faza pokwitaniowa SUMMARY STRESZCZENIE The article considers morph-functional changes that occur in the body of teenage girl in pubertal period and their role in the sports preparation of female athletes. Pubescence or so-called teenage period has a special place in age-specific development process. Teenage period is one of the most critical periods in human life: pubescence is started, the growth of functions of the endocrine systems is continued, the intensified growth and development of all organs and systems is continued, the intensity of metabolism is enhanced, the neurohumoral regulation of somatic and vegetative functions is formed and considerably rebuilt. We conclude that functional abilities of a person are depended on the sex and age. The extreme physical and mental influences on a teenager organism could result in imbalance in regulation of the vegetative functions, changing the efficiency and economy of all systems activity. Possibility of manifestation of an inadequacy between chronological and biological age in some teenagers seems to be very important feature of pubescence period, particularly for sports selection and the following training. To evaluate and compare the indices of the functional state of boys and girls during physical loads it is necessary to regard not a passport but a biological age. W pracy przedstawiono i poddano analizie szereg zagadnień kluczowych charakterystycznych dla fazy pokwitania dziewcząt oraz ich znaczenie w selekcji do treningu sportowego oraz doborze obciążeń treningowych dla dziewcząt. Faza pokwitania jest jednym z okresów o największym znaczeniu w rozwoju fizycznym i emocjonalnym człowieka. Tempo rozwoju poszczególnych funkcji organizmu ludzkiego w fazie pokwitania nie jest jednorodne, w konsekwencji czego wiek biologiczny nastolatek może różnić się od ich wieku kalendarzowego. Wiek biologiczny może prześcigać lub pozostawać w tyle za wiekiem kalendarzowym. Ponadto istotnym zagadaniem, jak podkreśla Astrand, jest istnienie różnic rozwojowych pomiędzy dziewczętami i chłopcami w tym samym wieku w okresie pokwitania. Różnice dymorficzne oraz możliwość istnienia rozbieżności pomiędzy wiekiem kalendarzowym i biologicznym nastolatek powinny być uwzględniane w selekcji dziewcząt do treningu sportowego i doborze treści treningu. Powinno to dotyczyć zarówno aspektu treningu fizycznego, jak i treningu emocjonalnego w trakcie całej kariery sportowej. Problem Morph-functional changes that occur in a teenage girl s body in the pubertal period and their role in the sports preparation of female athletes have been considered. Teenagers form the huge and most perspective part of the society. Unlike children and adults, they cover up severe health problems, rarely call for a doctor, rarely are hospitalized and that is why official information about their health status is significantly underestimated 97

99 Larysa G. Shakhlina, Teresa Socha by the health service. As to Sharapova [1], the director of the Department of Medico-Social Problems of Family, Maternity and Childhood, Ministry of Health and Social Development of Russian Federation, until now there is no unified opinion in Russian literature whether teenagers are in need of special medical provision. The main goal of teenager medicine is to protect and strengthen the health of teenagers for future optimal realization of their forces and abilities in creative activity of a society [1, 2]. Subject to the terms of somatic, psychological and social maturation, in 1977 WHO experts proposed to consider year-old person as a teenager and this definition still applied in the most countries of the world [2]. It is accepted to divide human life cycle into two stages antenatal and postnatal. The last one, by turn is composed of a line of age-specific periods that differ by special features morphological, physiological, biochemical and functional. Motor activity, changing the functions of an organism, assists in their development, perfection of mechanisms of an adaptation that is why age-specific features of functional abilities of man define his working capacity. Pubescence or so-called teenage [3], or pubertal [4, 5] period has its own place in age-specific development process. Such periods as: teenage/pubertal (13 16 years of age for boys and years of age for girls) and junior (17 21 years of age for boys and years of age for girls) should be separated out in a scheme and accepted on the grounds of anatomy, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, pedagogy. After that, the features of growth and development of human body should be accepted by the All-USSR conference on age-specific periodization by the Academy of Pedagogical Science of the USSR. While analyzing the scheme of age-specific periodization, Chtetcov [6] and Nikityuk [7] emphasize that 13-year-old boys on their pubescence level correspond with 11-year-old girls. That is why pubescence of boys starts just at the beginning of teenage period differently to the pubescence of girls, where substantially covers the previous period of the second childhood (the age of 8 12 for boys and 8 11 for girls) [8, 9, 10]. Teenage period is a stage of transition from childhood to maturity, characterized by the processes of rapidness of tempos of physical, mental, spiritual and social growth. Gurkin [2] emphasizes that teenage period is a really existing phase in human life, when person has not been already a child but not yet an adult [2, 11]. Some authors divide the age of pubescence into two phases: prepubertal, which is very expressed in girls, and pubertal. Menarche is a conditional boarder between them [10, 12, 13]. Boys and girls up to 6 years of age belong to neutral asexual period on the level of sexual development. Approximately two-year lasting outdistancing onset of pubertal period of girls in comparison with boys defines the necessity for describing firstly this phase of ontogenesis in girls. According to belief that the period of pubescence lasts about 10 years, age limits are established between 7 (8) and 17 (18) years of life. During this period, besides the maturation of a reproductive system, physical development of female body growth of body length, ossification of growth zones of tubular bones, allocation of adipose tissue on female type, formation of constitution typical for women has being finished [9, 14]. The beginning of pubescence in girls is accompanied by the increase of epinephros secretion of sex steroids up to 7 years of age, and ovaries up to years [23]. Rapid somatic and sexual development of girls is conditioned by activation of sex glands [8, 15]. Clinical sign of prepubertal period of girls, which begins with the age of years and continues up to years, is the acceleration of skeleton growth in length so-called pubertal leap of growth that affects all body size, which is conditioned by anabolic effect of sex hormones. Androgens increase the growth of skeleton; estrogens cause the maturing of bone tissue and ossification of growth zones of tubular bones [16]. Pubertal leap of growth could increase the body length from 7 to 10 cm per year. From the age of years girls are ahead of boys in stature that is connected with the earlier beginning of their pubescence. At the age of years girls and boys grow almost the same but from the age of years boys outrun girls in growth and this excess of growth of men upon women is remained during the whole life [7, 15, 17]. Old formulated hypothesis of the Moscow gynecologists school [18, 19] concerning the fact that initiation of pubescence is invoked by maturing of the nucleus hypothalamus participating in regulation of the gonadotropic functions of hypophisys has been corroborated with current science achievements. While investigating 580 healthy girls at the age of it was stated [20] that 22% of them had overweigh (redundant body weight RBW), and 20% had insufficient body weight its deficit (DBW). Development of mammary glands as an indicator of the beginning of pubescence in 11-year- 98

100 Puberty phase in girls key questions in connection with sport mastery old girls with RBW was twice as intensive as in girls with optimal body weight (OBW) was. At the same time development of mammary glands in girls with DBW was decelerated comparing to girls with OBW. Menstrual function of the investigated girls with RBW begins at the age of ± 0.1 on average, i.e. statistically reliably earlier than in girls with OBW ± 0.8 years of age. The average age of menarche in girls with DBW is reliably subsequent ± 0.15 years of age. According to Bogdanova [20], menstruation in girls begins when they gain 45.5 ± 1.6 kg body weight, i.e. close to optimal body weight ± 0.77 kg. Above mentioned allows to consider the dependence of starting of a menarche on the indices of body weight and to name the body weight minimal, critical, menstrual. Vichlyaeva [16], Bogdanova [8], Kokolina [21] and others adhere to such an opinion. It is known that together with the deficit in body weight the content of adipose tissue (in which an extragonadal synthesis of estrogens takes place) is decreased. Pubertal leap of growth begins when the quantity of adipose tissue is no less than 16% of total body weight; development of sex hair distribution is on the 19% level; menarche in the 22 24% range [22]. The first menstruation begins with participation of leptine a hormone formed in an adipose tissue. It goes with blood into the hypothalamus, stimulates the release of a gonadoliberine, which promotes the release of luteinizing hormone and pholithropine. The loss of quantity of an adipose tissue during pubescence in the 10 15% range leads to the pubescence delay (PD) [8, 18]. More than 15% body weight loss in girls with the purpose of figure correction, quite frequent in female athletes in the entertainment sport disciplines (rhythmic and artistic gymnastics, track-and-field jumping and running), causes the termination of menstruations the secondary amenorrhea in completely healthy and continuous menstruating before this girls. In some months before menarche, there are short- -term light monthly appeared pains in stomach in the most girls. The average age for menarche beginning is years. Appearance of menarche in girls before the age of 10 and after 15 years of age is without doubts alarming and highly recommended to examine. It is typical for most girls (after the first menstruation menarche a little girl becomes a girl) the day duration of menstrual cycle; the phase of menstruation (blood flow) usually lasts for 3 7 days. First menstrual cycles are often irregular (in months), anovulatory. But in years after menarche the coordination correlations are gradually formed in the system hypothalamus hypophisys ovaries inherent to the mature reproductive system. The result of this process is the optimal conditions for follicles development, ripening of ovum and ovulation. After ovulation the created yellow body in a pubertal-aged girl can be functionally inefficient active [23, 24, 25]. The evaluation of sexual development, intensity of the secondary sexual characters is held with analyzing the growth of mammary glands Ма, pilosis on the pubis Р, pilosis on the axillary crease Ах, the beginning of the first menstruation Me, and calculated on the sexual formula using generally accepted abbreviations. Sexual formula and its generally accepted abbreviations [25]: Р (from pubis) pilosis on the pubis; Ах (from axilla axillary space) pilosis on the axillary crease; F (from fades face) pilosis on the face; С (from cartillago cartilages) growth of the thyroid cartilage (the Adam s apple), change of the larynx structure; V (from vox voice) voice mutation; Ма (from mamma mammary gland) growth of mammary glands; Me (from menses menstruation) the age of beginning of a menarche and characteristics of regularity of an ovarian-menstrual cycle. The assessment of an intensity of the secon dary sexual characters is held by the gradation marked by Tanner [25]. Each character has its own coefficient: the mammary glands 1.2 balls; pilosis on the pubis 0.3 balls; axillary pilosis 0.4 balls; menstruation 2.1 balls. The following sexual formula is made: Ма + Р + Ах + Me, and summary ball of sexual development is calculated. Examples: sexual formula for 12-year-old girl: Ма 3 Р 2 Ах 1 Ме 0 = = 4.6 balls it is about the norm or increase in tempo of sexual development; sexual formula for 17-year-old girl: Ма 3 Р 3 Ах 3 Ме 2 = = 12 balls it is about the norm; sexual formula for 13-year-old girl: Ма 1 Р 0 Ах 0 Ме 0 = = 1.2 below the norm, evident delay of sexual development [2]. 99

101 Larysa G. Shakhlina, Teresa Socha The following phases of the sexual development have been defined in Table 1. The character of sexual development and its stages could be determined on the ground of evaluation of development of the secondary sexual characters. Evaluation of the secondary sexual characters in girls (according to Tanner) [25]: Pilosis on the pubis and the axillary crease: Ах 0 Р 0 absence of hair on the pubis and the axillary space; АХ 1 Р 1 singular hair; Ах 2 Р 2 sparse straight hair in the central areas of the pubis and the axillary crease; Ах 3 Р 3 thick curly hair in the whole pubis on the whole triangular; Ах 4 Р 4 pilosis on the adult type. Characteristics of the menstrual function: Ме 0 absence of the menstruations; Me 1 immature menstrual cycle; Ме 2 regular menstrual cycle. Development of the mammary glands: Ма 0 mammary glands do not protrude at chest; Ма 1 areola with the nipple has a single cone protruding at the chest; Ма 2 areola has a big size, nipple is not big one, gland is increased on the limits (stage of a bud); Ма 3 complete development of mammary gland, but nipple is not differentiated from areola; Ма 4 mammary gland like in adult woman, nipple protrudes over areola. Definite sequence of appearance of the secondary sexual characters is the description of evaluation of pubescence of girls. The sequence of pubescence of girls (according to Medvedev and Kulikov, 1999) [19]: hyperemia and pigmentation of areola, growth of bones of pelvis (9 10 years of age); growth of mammary glands, beginning of pilosis of the pubis (10 11 years of age); growth of internal and external genitals, following growth of mammary glands, beginning of sexual pilosis (10 12 years of age); pigmentation of nipples, beginning of menstruation (12 13 years of age); ovulation (13 14 years of age); decrease of voice timbre, acne vulgaris (14 15 years of age); stoppage of skeleton growth (16 17 years of age). Although the period of pubescence has been finishing up to the age of years, and female organism can realize genital function, not all of the organism systems, including reproductive one, has achieved the full maturity to that age. It is stated that formation of the hypophysial-ovarian relations and menstrual cycle have not been finished before the end of pubertal period. Kobozeva et al. [19] have determined that the hormonal status even with ovulatory cycles is considerably lower in teenage girls than in pubertal women. Thus, the characters of incomplete balance of body supporting systems with sexual hormones are evidential in girls at the end of teenager period. For achieving the harmony in interrelations between links of the system the additional time cell youth (boys the age of years, girls the age of years) is necessary. Manifestation of inadequacy between chronological and biological age in some teenagers is a very im- Table 1. Phases of the pubescence of girls (according to Tanner) [25] Phase I II III IV V Mammary glands are not developed, nipples are raised. There is no sexual pilosis. Mammary glands are swelled, areolas are grown. Hair is sparse, long, weakly pigmented. Girls The following growth of mammary glands and areolas. Hair become darker, has coarsened, and spread over the symphysis pubis. Areola and nipple protrude over the mammary glands circuit. Sexual pilosis on the female type but not over whole pubis. Mammary glands are like in adult woman, areola doesn t protrude over the gland. Hair covers whole pubis. 100

102 Puberty phase in girls key questions in connection with sport mastery portant feature of pubescence period. In pedagogical practice, particularly during sporting selection and the following preparation, meeting with a child is held using passport age and that s why the definition of conformance of passport and biological age is one of the crucial questions for sports medicine, pediatrics, agespecific physiology and for trainer as well. As Gurkin [2] underlines, unfortunately, parents, teachers and even physicians are used to focus only on chronological age of teenagers, whereas biological, mental and psychological reactivity is mostly defined exactly with biological age [2, 8, 13, 42]. Authors underline that the main complication for a physician lies in fact that biological age of girl can be lightly delayed from passport one or be passed ahead in pubertal period, and a physician has to decide whether such difference is normal or it is some delay or leading in somatic development. Biological age has surely great importance, as far as it depicts the ontogenetic maturity, working capacity, character of adaptive abilities of teenager (see Fig. 1). Biological age can be defined on the base of dental maturity, development of the secondary sexual characters, and maturity of skeleton (a degree of ossification of wrist, hand and forearm of left hand radiography, densitometry). Physiological features are characterized by the expressed instability of mechanisms of an endocrine and vegetative regulation that conditions the lability of somatic functions. As a result the decrease of endurance for physical loads, increase of the vulnerability to mental factors are very typical for teenage girls. Tobacco smoking, alcohol, toxic substances harm girl s organism much stronger than the organism of adult woman [2, 13, 26]. With reference to girls in pubertal period specialists in the teenage endocrinology [2, 8, 18] have observed that in girls in pubertal period (of the same passport age) particular body length not always goes with the specific stage of pubescence (from II to IV). Therefore a physician of any specialty is highly recommended to check the correspondence of an individual biologic age of a girl to her passport age characteristics while evaluating physiological maturity. Due to acceleration of tempo of physical and sexual maturity, when it happens during 2 3 years, the bigger prevalence of the arterial hypertension, functional abnormalities of internals are observed in girls of that kind as compared to the population. Abnormalities of the musculoskeletal system are often more evident in the developing of scoliosis, platypodia and osteochondropathia [2, 9]. Emotional instability, hypercriticism and opposition to adults, demonstrative striving for independence, manifestation of sensivity and staleness to people around are typical for this teenage period. Ignoring the psychological features of teenagers leads the adults to misunderstand what hinders the optimal psychological maturation of girls by possible complications in their health and social communication [2, 8]. Teenage girls are characterized with high emotionality and rapid change of behavior. But after the age of years psychological processes have emotionaldetermined direction. Attention, perception and memory reach the highest level. During the growth and development of an organism the pubertal period in boys is more prolonged as compared to girls one, the pubertal leap of growth is strongly pronounced. Criteria of evaluation of biological age of teenagers physiologacal somatical morphological sexual Figure 1. Biological age of teenagers criteria of evaluation 101

103 Larysa G. Shakhlina, Teresa Socha Therefore special attention should be paid to all above mentioned, especially to a fact that somatic development in girls, who take up sports, decelerates in approximately two years from the corresponding indices of other girls of the same age, who are not engaged in any sporting activity [2, 8, 13], due to big physical and mental-emotional loadings. Sexual development delay (SDD) SDD should be considered as immaturity or the absence of secondary sexual characteristics at the age of years, or the absence of menstruation in year-old girls. In % of population the frequency of SDD increases to 14 33% and this plays important role in the structure of gynaecological diseases in teenagers [8]. Bogdanova considers that special attention must be paid to SDD forms without somatic abnormalities. Underlining the fact that exactly this contingent of girls is recommended by physicians to wait for investigation up to the age of years, Bogdanova suggests at the same time that such an approach can result in late diagnostics of SDD reasons, stressing that these symptoms should be under control in the period of sexual development [8]. Two forms of SDD central and ovarian genesis are defined. SDD of central genesis is connected with the lack of secretion of gonadotropin by adenohypophysis. Tonsillitis, rheumatism, virus influenza, pneumonia, tuberculosis and family propensity are the most frequent factors of SDD appearance as well as stressful situations, extreme physical loads in the practice of sports preparation [2, 18, 27]. A delay in sexual development of ovarian genesis is a different form of structural abnormality of ovaries, connected with such genetic defects as severe gonad damage either at the embryonic stage or in earlier postnatal periods. Ovarian insufficiency hereditary character, after parotid and German measles are the SDD appearance factors [8, 16, 28]. Clinical manifestations of above mentioned are amenorrhea, narrowing of size of the pelvis, lagging in skeletal maturity, immaturity of the secondary sexual characters, especially mammary glands, sexual infantilism. During ovarian genesis, SDD is evident mostly in lagging in biological age from passport one, decreasing of the working capacity of a girl; that is bigger than having central forms of SDD. SDD prophylactic is fight with infections, wise alternation of work and rest, conditioning to the cold. Earlier diagnosis, timely call for a doctor when symptoms of deviation in growth and development are appeared in girls is especially important [2, 16, 20]. Nowadays it is acknowledged that the intensity of oxidation processes in a child organism is higher than in adult one. From the age of 2 years the growth and development of a child slow down. Extension of general body size is accompanied with the growth of total amount of body oxygen consumption and segregated carbon dioxide gas, and these parameters grow in proportion to the age of the child [5, 11]. According to Kolchinskaya et al. [5], Mischenko finds out that oxygen consumption significantly rises at the age of years in response to the greatest tempo of growth and accumulation of body weight. The tempo of oxygen consumption growth increases in year-olds during their pubescence period due to greater intensity of its consumption and at the age of years this index decreases. The demand of pubescent body for oxygen is met by the growing functional respiratory system (FRS): external respiration, blood circulation, oxygen delivery into lungs, alveolus, blood transportation of oxygen to tissues, and forming the mechanisms that regulate the correspondence between the delivery of the oxygen and its necessity in tissues. During the pubescence period the lungs and chest capacity is being increased, the forth of respiratory muscles is being enhanced in boys up to the age of 17 years, in girls up to the age of years. Heavy growth of the external respiratory organs in pubertal age leads to a significant change of some functional parameters. At the age of 14 years total lung capacity (TLC) makes ¾ of that typical for adult, residual volume is almost the same as in adult (20 24% TCL). Sexual differences in TCL appear at the age of years. In juveniles at years of age lung volume and its ratio are the same as in adult [5]. If there is no big difference in the vital capacity of the lungs (VCL) in childhood, sex-related differences are shown at the beginning of pubescence. The lower level of VCL is observed rather in girls and women than in boys and men. Its maximal index is reached up to the age of years. During the growth and development of organism maximal lungs ventilation (MLV), which has reached the parameters of an adult person up to this point of time, is increasing in the pubertal period together with the increase of the reserve of inhalation and reserve 102

104 Puberty phase in girls key questions in connection with sport mastery of exhalation. In year-old girls for this parameter it is ml min 1, similar to the same parameter in untrained women. However, from the age of years MLV becomes lagging in girls as compared to boys. MLV in 14-year-old girls is at the average lower of l min 1 than in boys [5, 29, 30]. Satisfaction in the increased body oxygen demand during the ontogenesis is provided with the development of FRS and its element blood circulation system [3, 32]. During the growth and development of a child or a teenager together with the increase in mass and volume of a heart the position in chest and proportions of its parts are being changed, the histological structure of a heart and vessels is being differentiated, the nervous regulation of a heart-vessels system is being perfected. These parameters are the same as compared with body mass of boys and girls, the absolute indices of weight of a heart in boys are bigger than in girls. The thickness of a heart muscular wall is increased up to the age of 14 years [33]. With the age the absolute heart volume increases, while the relative one (comparing to body weight) decreases. Relative indices of a heart in children (as compared to body weight) are bigger than in adults, and made up to 0,63 0,80% of body weight, in adult organism 0,48 0,52%. In the early years of life heart weight in boys is higher than in girls. At the age of years, the period of intensified growth of heart has come in girls and its weight becomes higher than in boys. Up to the age of 16 years heart weight in girls (193 g) again falls behind from boys one [6]. In boys and girls of years of age, heart weight is the same as in adults ( g in men, g in women). Heart volume of year-olds is at the average 460 ml; increasing with the age it reaches 666 ml in 19-year- -olds [5, 34]. First of all, more frequent and less regular rhythm of heartbeats is among the functional features of the teenager heart. Gelman and Braun [3] observed right fixed heartbeat in teenager s organism only in 16% cases. Respiratory arrhythmia is more evident in teenagers comparing to adults. Normally the heart rate of an adult untrained person is beats min 1. In newborn baby it reaches about 140 beats min 1, and it continues reducing intensively during age-specific development. Before the age of 8 10 years child has beats min 1, up to the age of 16 years when it is close to the adult heart rate. Heart rate in girls in the quiescent state is higher of 2 6 beats min 1 than in boys [4,11, 35]. In the 13 to 20 age bracket the maximal oxygen volume (MOV) is being changed to a little: at the age of 12 years it is at the average of 4,04 l min 1 with some individual variations from 2.9 to 5.3 l min 1 ; in 14 years of age 4.8 l min 1 ( l min 1 ); at the age of 16 years 4.6 l min 1 ( l min 1 ); in the 20 to 30 age bracket 4.6 l min 1 ( l min 1 ) [5, 29]. MOV in girls, which is being increased rather evenly up to the age of 10 years, grows intensively from the age of 11 years, reaching the maximum at the age of 13 years. Systolic heart volume in 12-year-old girls is 52.3 ± ml, expressed growth of this index is observed only up to the age of 11 years (in 10-year-olds it reaches the level of ± ml; at the age of 11 years 48.8 ± ml). Mischenko [29] notices that the biggest growth of systolic volume is observed in the period between years of age. At the age of 12 years it is 57.0 ± 1.8 ml (44 67 ml), at the age of 14 years 70.3 ± 2.1 ml (64 70 ml), in the period of years it is close to a volume of an adult person. Arterial pressure in girls and boys up to the age of years is almost the same as in adults. Pulse pressure in 15-year-old girls is lower than in boys of the same age, and it is accordingly and mm m.c. [15]. Age-related increase of MOV is generally linked with the necessity for satisfaction of growing total oxygen need and decrease in the intensity of blood circulation with the reduction of oxygen consumption intensity [5, 34, 36]. The respiratory function of blood is known as providing with hemoglobin. It happens due to its active surface connected with the size, form and quantity of erythrocytes in blood, ability of hemoglobin to transport oxygen that depends on the oxygen partial pressure (ро 2 ) in blood, its temperature and partial pressure of carbon-dioxide gas (рсо 2 ) influencing the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen. The quantity of hemoglobin per 1 kg of body weight in the girls at the age of years and boys aged of years is lower than in adults. Calculated [37] quantity of hemoglobin per 1 kg of body weight in girls at the age of years is lower than in boys of the same age. The quantity of erythrocytes and hemoglobin concentration in blood is higher in boys from the age of 5 up to 19 years, but together with the age these differences become less evident. As the investigations of Kolchinskaya have shown [5, 34], the oxygen capac- 103

105 Larysa G. Shakhlina, Teresa Socha ity of blood due to the lower hemoglobin concentration in it is lower in children than in adults. In 8 11-year-olds it varies from 17 to 18% (turns) [7, 29, 38]. At the end of pubertal period the quantity of hemoglobin and erythrocytes reaches the lowest norm limits for healthy adult. In pubescence there is a direct correlation between the hemoglobin concentration in blood and the level of physical development of a man. The definition of functional changes, taking place in teenage girls organism while doing physical loads, is covered in relatively small number of investigations [39, 40]. Working capacity of girls depends mainly on their physical development. There is a line of formation of motor abilities, which are dissimilar in girls and boys in different age periods. An active growth of motor abilities happens in the period coming before pubescence [5, 47, 19]. Motor activity and motor abilities of children and teenagers are tightly connected with the degree of their biological maturity. Especially it concerns the quality of force and endurance. Muscle strength is among the indices of physical growth in development in which bone and muscle system formation plays great role. It is determined that the greatest growth of strength in various muscle groups in girls is at the age of years, and boys at the age of years. Muscle strength increases with the years of age. With the age of years, girls become more endurable for dynamic work and static efforts. Up to 14 years of age muscle endurance in teenage girls is 50 70% and until 16 years of age it increases to about 80% of adult women s endurance. In the age bracket the tempo of growth in muscle endurance are slowed down [41, 42]. The quality of rapidity (speed) of movement is considerably increased in children from 4 5 years of age and between years it reaches the level of adult c [41, 50]. Organism s growth goes together with the increase in speed of single movements. In year-olds it is approximate to the level of adult (!), and it reduces in year-olds. Some enhancement of speed qualities is observed up to the age of years. The frequency (tempo) of movements is a very (!) important component of the rapidity. The maximal random frequency of movements in year-old girls is higher than in boys. The growth in frequency of movements slows down up to the age of 15 years, and after reaching the age of 15 years it is almost stopped. The interrelation in growth of strength and rapidity is fullexhibited in speed-strength exercises (long jumps and high jump) [43, 44]. Dexterity is a motor quality that is characterized by the ability to perform quick, precise and coordinated movements. The greatest growth of dexterity is observed in the 7 to 10 age bracket. In year-olds it is decreased a little, and in subjects at the age of years the indices of motor orientation are on the level similar to adults [45, 46]. Endurance grows later than other abilities. There are aged-specific sexual and individual differences of this ability. Intensive growth of endurance to dynamic work has been observed in year-old girls; at the age of years it and makes 85% of adult women level. Endurance to static and dynamic work is less expressed in girls comparing to boys [4, 11, 47]. Flexibility is being changed unequal in growing organism. Flexibility of spinal column is evidently increased in girls from the age of 7 to 12 years of life, and in boys in the 7 to 14 age bracket. High indices of flexibility are shown in 14-year-old girls and 15-yearold boys [46]. The development of motor abilities in the ontogenesis is characterized with heterochrony sexual differences are shown starting with the second childhood period. The formation of motor function up to adult organism level is in progress from the birth till the age of years [47, 33, 44]. Systematic training loads enhance and perfect motor abilities. In girls and boys the growth of these abilities varies in different age periods. While investigating the physical working capacity of boys and girls in loads of different intensity, Astrand [37, 40] has shown that the oxygen intake cannot be enhanced to such absolute indices in teenage girls during muscle activity as compared to teenage boys. The differences in the maximal speed of oxygen intake in girls and boys are determined to be shown until the age of 16 years. At the age of years the maximal oxygen consumption (MOC) is lower on 15 20% in girls than in boys, and it is l min 1 ; at the age of years in girls this index is l min 1 (35 45% lower than in boys). According to the authors data, the MOI intensity is lower in girls than in boys. At the age of 14 years it is 38.8 ± 4.33 ml min 1 per 1 kg. If we recalculate it for 1 m 2 of body surface, the maximal speed of oxygen intake is 12.4 ± 1.28 ml min 1 per 1 m 2 in 14-year-old girls, that differs a little from the indices of boys (14.9 ± 2.33 ml min 1 per 1 m 2 ). 104

106 Puberty phase in girls key questions in connection with sport mastery In teenage girls the index of lungs ventilation upon load at MOC is lower than in boys of the same age. It is l min 1 in 12-year-olds and it is l min 1 in boys of the same age. It is l min 1 in 15-year-old girls and it is l min 1 in boys of the same age. The enhancement of lungs ventilation upon the loads in teenagers is realized mainly due to the acceleration of breath. The respiratory volume is increased in a lower degree [5] and consequently the efficiency of functions of respiratory system decreases [30]. In 1952 Astrand [37, 40] defines the lack of differences in the maximal respiratory volume (MRV) in boys and girls upon the load with MOC. Expressed differences are exhibited since the age of 15 years, when MRV in girls is about 80% of its size in boys. The author also shows that upon the load MRV is correlating not only with the age and sex but also with the length and the surface of body, mass and size of MOC. Blood circulation system is also characterized with specific abilities in teenage girls upon maximal physical loads. In connection with small cardiac output and its functional features the possibilities of enhancing the stroke output in children and teenagers are limited. By its maximal enhancing it is more than 2 times in teenagers and 2.5 times in adults exceeds the indices in the state of rest. The load upon MOC has been shown by Radzievskij [49] to cause considerable increase in heart rate in year-old girls, meanwhile the systolic volume was 1.3 times lower than in adults. The respiration and the blood circulation are less effective in teenager girls as to supplying tissues with the oxygen. The worst ratio between the speeds of oxygen intake into lungs, alveolus, and its transportation by arterial and mixed venous blood, and oxygen consumption, lower efficiency of the body oxygen regimes (the ventilation and the hemodynamic equivalents are bigger in girls than in women) are the evidence of it. Lower level of oxygen consumption upon the load at MOC and huge figures of the respiratory rate and the heart rate stipulates smaller figures of the oxygen effect of respiratory and heart cycles in teenager girls [5, 48]. Limited possibilities of external respiration, especially blood circulation, limit the enhancing of speed of the oxygen delivery to tissues and stipulate its inadequacy to oxygen intake. Therefore the oxygen tension is considerably reduced in the venous blood and tissues in teenagers; hypoxia of load becomes noncompensated for them in such conditions that results in refusal from work. The oxygen value of 1 kilogram-meter (kgm) of work at MOC in year-old girls is about 32 36% higher than in untrained women. Conclusions Taking into account the above mentioned, we could conclude that functional abilities of a person are depended on sex and age. To evaluate and compare the indices of the functional state of boys and girls during rest and physical loading is necessary not subject to a passport age but a biological age. It is important to be aware that teenager period, during which a child becomes a juvenile, is one of the most critical periods in human life. In this period pubescence is started, the growth of functions of the endocrine systems is in progress, the intensified growth and development of all organs and systems is continued, the intensity of metabolism is enhanced, the neurohumoral regulation of somatic and vegetative functions is formed and considerably rebuilt. The extreme physical and mental influences on a teenager organism could result in imbalance in regulation of the vegetative functions, changing the efficiency and economy of all systems activity. Thus, each stage of the age-specific growth of a human is considerably defined by the previous morph- -functional changes and tied with all processes, which currently take place. Thinking about female sport we should bear in mind that all problems appearing at the prime stage of sports preparation are concerned the girls that have not reached neither social nor physical maturity. They are in the phase when human is being formed as an individual and defines his or her life position. A coach plays very important role in the female athlete s life he is the highest authority in all that concerns the private life and sports activity. Track and field career and sometimes the whole life of a female athlete are dependent largely on the compatibility of views, humanity and good relations with the coach the teacher. Girls practicing athletics draw profit from professional knowledge, erudition, and such social skills of their coaches as patience with specific emotional coloring of female athletes behavior. 105

107 Larysa G. Shakhlina, Teresa Socha LITERATURE PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Sharapova OV: Introducation into teenage medicine; in Sharapova OV (ed.): Health of teenagers. Manual for physicians. St. Petersburg, 2007: [2] Gyrkin YuА: Teenager gynecology. St. Petersburg, Foliant, [3] Gelman EG, Braun SB: Materials of clinics on the agespecific path-physiology. Moscow, 1937: [4] Archanskij EA: Essay on the age-specifi c physiology. Moscow, Medicine, 1967: [5] Kolchinskaja АZ, Tsyganova ТN, Ostapenko LА: Normopressure-fi eld interval hypoxic training in medicine and sports. Manual for physicians. Moscow, Medicine, [6] Chtetcov VP: The content of a body and human constitution. Human Morphology, 1990: [7] Nikityuk BА: Human constitution. The finals of science and technology. Anthropology, 1991; 4: 152. [8] Bogdanova ЕА: Gynecology of children and youth, Moscow, Medinformagenstvo, [9] Medvedev VL, Kulikov АМ: Anatomic-physiological features of teenagers (youth medicine): Levin LE (ed.): Manual for physicians. St. Petersburg, Spetclit, 1999: [10] Miklashevskaja NN, Solovjeva VS, Godina ЕZ: Height processes in children and youth. Moscow, Moscow University Publ., [11] Archanskij EA: Physiological mechanisms and laws of an individual development. Moscow, Science, [12] Markosian АА: Development of human and reliability of biological system. Moscow, Medicine, 1969: [13] Medvedev VL, Gurkin YuА: Gynecology of teenagers. Features of teenager girls organism; in Gurkin YuA (ed.): Gynecology of teenagers. St. Petersburg, Foliant, 2000: [14] Tichvinsij SB, Hruschov SV: Child sports medicine. Moscow, Medicine, [15] Drzhevetckaja IА: Basis on physiological metabolism and endocrine system. Moscow, Higher school, 1983: [16] Vichliajeva EM (ed.): Manual on endocrine gynecology. Moscow, Municipal. Informagensy, [17] Hripkova АG, Antropova МV, Farber DA: Age-specifi c physiology and school hygiene. Moscow, Prosveschenie,1990: [18] Sharapova OV: The health of teenagers. Manual for physicians. St. Petersburg, [19] Kobozeva NV, Kuznetcova МN, Gurkin YuА: Gynecology of children and youth. Medicine, 1981; [20] Kulakov VE, Bogdanova EA: Manual on gynecology of children and youth. Moscow, Triada-Х, 2005; 8 69: [21] Kokolina VF: Gynecological endocrinology of children and youth. Manual for physicians. Moscow, Medinformagency, [22] Bondar PN (ed.): Endocrinology. Vinnitca, Nova Knyga, 2007: [23] Krupko-Bolshova YuА, Kornilova АМ, Egorov АС, Bolshova ЕV: Pathology of development of girls. Kyiv, Health, [24] Paraschuk YuS: Reproductive health of teenage girls. Kyiv, Health, [25] Stroev YuE, Churilov LP: Endocrinology of teenagers. St. Petersburg, ELBI, [26] Gramusic V, Ratman SS (ed.): Clinical approach to paediatrie and adolescent gynaecology. Singapore, Oxford Univ. Press, [27] Karr F, Riziotti Х, Froynd К: Obstetrics, gynecology and health of women. Moscow, Medpress-inform, [28] Savelieva GM, Sichinava LG: Obstetrics and gynecology. Moscow, Medicine, 1997: [29] Mischenko VS: Changing of respiration in teenagers and youth upon infl uence of sport training. Abstract of dissertation on candidate in biology sciences. Kyiv, [30] Lauer NV, Kolchinskaja АZ: Respiration and age. The age-specifi c physiology. Science, 1975: [31] Butchenko LА: Electric demonstration of the heart activity. Moscow, Medicine, 1968: [32] Lichnitckaja I, Klement E, Valiaeva ТА: The age-specifi c dynamics of maximal indices of the external respiration and aerobic working capacity. Kyiv, Naukova Dumka, 1979; 3: [33] Malyshenko NМ, Popova NS: Gormons and neuropeptids in the integrative processes. Achievements of Physiologic Science, 1990; 21 (2): [34] Lauer NV, Kolchinskaja АZ: About the body oxygen regime. Kyiv, Naukowa Dumka, 1966: [35] Tichvinskij SB, Hruschov SV: Child sports medicine, 2 nd ed., Moscow, Medicine, [36] Gurevich ME: About the correlation of central and local mechanisms of the geodynamics regulation. USSR Physiologic Magazine, 1978; 64 (5): [37] Astrand PО: Aerobic capacity men and women. With special reference is age. Acta Physiol. Scand, 1960; 49 (suppl.): [38] Koveshnikov VG, Nikityuk BА: Medical anthropology. Kyiv, Health, [39] Dembo AG: Actual problems of modern sports medicine. Moscow, Physical Culture and Sport, [40] Astrand PO, Rodahl K: Texbook of work physiology. New York, McGraw-Hill, [41] Bulgakova NZh, Chebotareva IV: Girls in sports swimming. Theory and Practice of Physical Culture, 1999; 5: [42] Shakhlina LG: Medical-biological basis of sports training of women. Kyiv, Naukova Dumka, [43] Volkov LV: Sporting preparation of children and youth. Kyiv, Vezha, [44] Yankauskas E, Logvinov E: Motility of the growing female organism. Vilnus, Mokslas, [45] Volkov LV: Theory of the sports selection: abilities, endowments, talent. Kyiv, Vezha, [46] Kotz YaМ: Physiological features of muscle activity of female athletes. Moscow, GCOLIFK, [47] Koveshnikov VG, Nikityuk BА: Medical anthropology. Kyiv, Health,

108 Puberty phase in girls key questions in connection with sport mastery [48] Radzievskij PА: Features of the respiratory system functions and the oxygen regimes of female and teenage girls organism upon muscle activity. Dissertation on candidate in biology sciences. Kyiv, [49] Radzievskij PА: Features of hypoxia of load in women and teenage girls. The secondary tissue hypoxia, by Kolchinskaja AZ. Kyiv, Naukova Dumka, 1983: [50] Verchoshankij YuV: Basis on specifi c physical preparation of athletes. Moscow, Physical Culture and Sport,

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110 ANNOUNCEMENTS INFORMACJE

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112 NR AN TRO PO MO TO RY KA MY REVIEW ON THE 6th WORLD AGEING & GENERATIONS CONGRESS ST. GALLEN, AUGUST 2010 MOJA OCENA OBRAD 6. ŚWIATOWEGO KONGRESU STARZENIA SIĘ POKOLEŃ ST. GALLEN, SIERPNIA 2010 Waldemar Makuła* * PhD, Theory and Methodology of Physical Education Department, University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland The idea of world ageing and generations congresses, organized since 2005, is to monitor the real situation of seniors in populations all around the world and to look for new solutions to serve elderly people in their life requirements. That is why the door of the Congress has been opened for the seniors representatives, researchers, members of organizations, governments and people of business and politics. Dr Jolanta Perek-Białas and the author of this review 1 were the representatives from Poland. As in previous years, the participants representing these sectors have stressed that all efforts should be put together to search for helpful solutions dedicated to seniors. The 6th World Ageing & Genetations Congress began on 25 August with the solemn dinner at the Einstein Hotel, where the Congress promoters welcomed the invited guests, representing the Congress participants from more than forty countries of the world. During the official beginning of the Congress, which took place on 26 August, Prof. Ilona Kickbush, the initiator and organizer of these world meetings, Prof. Ernst Mohr, the president of the University of St. Gallen and Prof. Alexandre Kalache, the head of the WHO Global Programme on Ageing at the Geneva Headquarters in years , presented their speeches. President Mohr focused on numerous differences in approach towards consumption, which had differenti- 1 Thanks to the courtesy of the Congress Organizers, I have had a great opportunity to take part for the second time in the meeting this year. ated the members of younger and silver generations, suggesting at the same time that all these dissimilarities put together should be regarded not only as an indicator of quality of human life but also as a result of different life experience of both generations. However, Spezial Session: Product Development & Design 6 TH WORLD AGEING & GENERATIONS CONGRESS August 25-28, 2010 University of St. Gallen, Switzerland Demographic Change Challenges and Opportunities for Business, Politics and Society Organised by the World Demographic & Ageing Forum 111

113 Waldemar Makuła in his opinion, currently we had to do with the characteristic way of seniors consumption, so that the solution of the problem of the reconciling the consumption expectations in ageing and younger generations should be aimed at realizing the needs in this matter of both populations. Prof. Kickbush accented in her withdrawal the role of common investigating the demographic issues and problems connected with human ageing. From her viewpoint, ageing in essence is not a trouble the core issue is how the societies deal with human ageing. All these problems are reflected in past discussion on political agenda. According to Prof. Kickbush the results of the last five congresses had proved hitherto the validity of this approach towards numerous crucial issues e.g. ageing, poverty and justice in developed and developing countries. Such a situation, she informed, was caused by the demographic changes ongoing in the world and by shifting the economic world centre financial capital had been accumulating in bigger degree in China. These facts inclined to take into consideration how to reconcile the issues of human development and social security, and what social initiatives, including health problems, ought to be undertaken by politicians in this area. Moreover, the intergenerational dialogue seemed to be of great importance. In the light of above considerations, the problem of an effective measurement related to the occurrences signaled was seen. The proposal of the 6th Congress centered upon four fundamental debate fields in which reflected the basic dilemmas to solve: (1) demography meets development; (2) demography meets geopolitics; (3) demography meets dementia; (4) demography meets quality of life & health. In my opinion, such an approach towards constructing the whole Congress issues skeleton allowed to group in the plenary panels the basic interests areas, introduced by the keynotes and followed by the summary discussions. On the other hand it enabled international participants to present in the special sessions their own research findings or views and to discuss them. Among the lecturers there were such well-known scientists as Prof. Kalache, who spoke in the memory of Professor Robert Butler, one of the best US geriatricians, till his death actively involved into ageing problems the congresses collaborator. In the plenary panel Demography meets Development, chaired by Dr. John Beard, the head of the Department of Ageing and Life Course at the WHO in Geneva, the keynote speech was made by sir Richard Jolly, Professor at the University of Sussex. Among the other key speakers there were Prof. Frances Lund from the University of Kwa-Zulu Natal in Durban, Dr. Rob Vos from United Nations, Mr. Atanas Keya, representing the government of Kenya. Sir Richard Jolly accented the meaning of the humanistic approach to the seniors development, focused not on average but on different situations of ageing people and stated that human development was not just a slogan. He indicated on the positive role of grandparents in families, and appealed for strengthening the capabilities of the people in silver age, providing suitable and flexible working conditions for seniors, expanding opportunities and choices for the older people (for instance their active participation in all aspects of social and economic life) as well as protecting the human rights of them. In his opinion, it seemed important to involve the older people in exploring new opportunities, while on the other, to prepare human development reports on seniors internationally and for individual countries. Rob Vos paid attention to the fact that the increasing process of ageing had an impact on seniors inclining them to be permanently active, although they were characterized by smaller labour force and health. Additionally, the depth of these differences depended on the fact, whether they were related to seniors in the developed or developing countries accordingly to the data eighty percent of the world population had no social security carriage and the low social security carriage was associated with high age poverty. That was why, in his opinion, the multi-layered old age-income security systems, tailored to any country conditions, should be done. Atanas Keya presented the situation of Kenyan seniors and characterized chosen enterprises of Kenyan government addressed to the elderly. Frances Lund drew the problem of ageing people in South Africa in the context of informal economy, defined as the diversified set of economic activity enterprises and workers that are not regulated and protected concerned both generations younger and older. The solution to meet the seniors needs in Africa, as Lund proved, was a special policy-based program. Involved into comparative study of the occupational health and safety support to poor informal workers (including seniors from Africa and South America) developed in chosen countries, she ensured the audience that the strategy in actions directed at those people should consider the visibility of statistics ratios. In her opinion, the data of comparative studies in that field led to recognize the issue of providing human social security as a gradual process, 112

114 My review on the 6th World Ageing & Generations Congress, St. Gallen, August 2010 in which the first step should concern ensuring the minimal level of social coverage, the following ones ought to build the programmes combined. Since everyone in societies should have an access to social guaranties, human health needed to be handled as an extremely important aspect of social protection. In my opinion, the latter statement of the lecturer opens a wide perspective for attending by seniors, such physical culture basic forms as rehabilitation and recreation. In the further part of this debate, the audience had an opportunity to hear out the lecture of Prof. Robert Vogel 2 telecasted from Chicago. The main theses of the Prof. Vogel s lecture focused on the historical basis for forecasting human longevity and health. The speaker was concentrated, among others, on the estimation of global population in chronological perspective, life expectancy in the selected countries (USA, UK, France, Japan, India, China), secular trends in the daily caloric supply, finally estimating the average final height of men who had reached maturity in the period of years After the lecture, the participants could ask Prof. Vogel about problems they were keen on, and they took that opportunity willingly. The possibility of providing such dialogue with the Nobel Prize laureate given to the Congress participants representing different areas in science, business and politics was not only a splendour moment for them, but also a big challenge they just could confront in the realistic frames their opinions presented with the views of Prof. Vogel. During the plenary panel Demography meets Geopolitics, chaired by Dr. Richard Jackson representing the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) in Washington D.C., the leading speakers concentrated on the global tasks resulting from the problems of possible implications of global demographic trends on the world s geopolitical situation in this century. The core problems such as rapid population ageing with its global consequences, as for example new relations between North-South and East-West parts of the globe in coming decades, should be expected. Summing up all above mentioned, the speakers of plenary sessions brought up widely spread and interconnected topics. While the first session dealt with dilemmas targeted on both the characteristic and different needs of seniors populations in the world, the second one was aimed at seeking the solutions of those problems, proper for the older people in the frames of 2 Together with Douglas North, he was awarded in the year 1993 the Nobel Prize in Economics. the world politics, going down to countries, regions and local societies. In this sense one can say not only about distinguishing separate fields of important intergenerational and interregional dialogue but rather about putting them together with respect to those generations and regions. Meanwhile, the following two plenary Congress panels were centered on challenges dealing with seniors population, illnesses and quality of life and health. The plenary panel Demography meets Dementia was conducted by David Shenk, the author of the awarded book entitled The forgetting. Alzheimer s portrait of an epidemic, who had literary introduced the participants into the core problem of this session. Dr. Daisy Acosta, Chairman of Alzheimer Disease International (ADI) informed about the data on dementia in the world. She tried to answer the question how the challenges of a growing ageing population and the increasing prevalence of dementia could be confronted. According to the worldwide prognoses showing the actual range of dementia in the world (36 million people in the year 2010) would be increasing in coming decades (66 million people in the year 2030 and 115 million people in the year 2050). Prof. Christoph Hock, representing the Medical Faculty at the University of Zurich, described an interesting portrait of biological factors of dementia. According to the amyloid cascade hypothesis presented by him the illness changes lead biologically to synaptic disfunction and then to the progress of dementia. However, as Prof. Hock stated, healthy lifestyle played a role of a big importance in protecting dementia, because it help to keep a very active defense system protecting patients during their life. Prof. Alastair Gray, director of the Health Economic Research Centre in the Department of Public Health at the University of Oxford showed the data relating to healthcare system financial costs, including the costs of dementia in Europe. Taking into account the range of dementia in comparison to other severe diseases and the costs of healthcare system in its specified sectors, the author proved that in a case of dementia those costs were too low than in other analyzed examples, although there were not any rational foundations alerting that reduction of healthcare system economic costs was necessary. Dr. Steve Romano, when analyzing the situation of American seniors at the age of 65 and above with Alzheimer s disease, paid attention to the fact that therapy of people with dementia was more suitable to the symptoms of the disease. 113

115 Waldemar Makuła The plenary session: Demography meets Quality of Life & Health was conducted by Dr. Albert Jovell, representing the Royal Academy of Medicine of Catalonia. Prof. Janet McElhaney from the University of British Columbia concentrated her interest on the issues of seniors health and physical condition, seen from the perspective of previous decades (starting with 1980s) and connected with preventive actions, in which physical activity of seniors with different health status and functional possibilities played a very important role. As she stressed, to measure the level of wellbeing of healthy and disabled seniors a clinical frailty scale could be helpful. Physical exercises should be adjusted to seniors frailty. To protect seniors against dynamic frailty she recommended health-related exercises, adapted to their needs and provided as well as good nursing, when necessary. As important factor in the fundamental actions of care, she also mentioned the importance of taking responsibility for elderly by their surroundings. Prof. Myron Levin from the University of Colorado School of Medicine and the Children s Hospital spoke about pain and its debilitating consequences. Prof. Hans Dirk-Henke, a scientist of economy at the Technical University of Berlin, presented an interesting view concerning healthcare system changes in the contemporary world. His proposal related to the idea that the social policy provided in the distinguished sectors of healthcare system demanded to be changed into health politics covering all human life fields. Prof. Desmond O Neil, a geriatrician and stroke physician at Trinity College in Dublin indicated on the need for treating the care of seniors in the aspect of human rights. In this context he reminded the main proposals of Madrid Action Plan, including such areas of its usefulness in geriatrics as, for instance, seniors nursing, prime care, geriatric medicine or old age psychiatry. Finally, while her lecture ending this session, Dr. Theresa Stutz Steiger paid attention to health literacy concerning the leading issues in that debate. While analyzing the contents of these two panel sessions, outlined above, it seems, first of all, that the problems undertaken touched crucial aspect of human life, which was human health status. The dilemmas explored during the health panels have inclined me to state the following reflections: 1. The picture of dementia drawn during the debate, like other neurological diseases, seems to be in a big degree the answer by previous lack of possible responsibility in many basic areas of human life, which hits mainly the personality of the sensible people. 2. Based on my own work (with multiple sclerosis patients) and research (conducted by myself on seniors in Poland, Czech Republic and Great Britain in order to be qualified as assistant professor) and experience, I have to fully agree with the opinions, which accented the role of suitable physical exercises addressed both to the disabled and healthy seniors. In the first case, the role of suitable exercises provided is to improve the treatment processes, taking place in human organism, because of the necessity of biological stimulations of the tissues by adequate movement. In the second one, movement available for seniors enables them to keep good physical and psychological condition, protecting them, in that way, against frailty and diseases. The Congress plenary panels determined the directions for more specified topics, explored during special sessions. Put together in thematic fields, these topics focused the participant s interest on such problems as: policy to practice; seniors portraits in media; the supportive role of business community in seniors long-term care; design in products for seniors, advocacy to policy; demographic ageing and pension system; retirement and intergenerational solidarity in Central and Eastern Europe; seniors healthcare reform in USA and chosen European Union countries; silver innovation, the role of international organizations in global ageing; vaccination in the silver population; business models for independent life. The range of the lectures given by the experienced chairs at special sessions was wide and interesting (there was even a chance of listening a lecture in Chinese). The participants could attend most of them as well as to visit the exhibition presenting the products of leading world firms designed especially for seniors (e.g. TV sets with large icons, mobile phones suitable for seniors with hearing problems, gardening tools adapted to the movement possibilities of elderly, kitchen and toilet facilities and the project of a car interior design). On the last day, the organizers of the 6th World Congress in St. Gallen gave the participants an op- 114

116 My review on the 6th World Ageing & Generations Congress, St. Gallen, August 2010 portunity to chose one from the list of professionally prepared and given lectures (the set of three master classes): Healthcare Challenges in Ageing Society, led by Prof. Jean-Pierre Michel from Geneva University; Psychological Consequences of Demographic Change, led by Prof. Hans-Werner Wahl from University of Heidelberg; Business Implications for Demographic Change: Lessons from the World s Most Mature Market in Japan, led by Dr. Florian Kochlbacher, representing German Institute for Japanese Studies in Tokyo. These lectures were in my opinion the additional scientific attraction dedicated by the organizers to these participants who was interested in the thematic fields proposed. Given for smaller groups of listeners the classes in medicine, psychology and business directed at seniors requirements around the world enabled the listeners not only to gain the newest world scientific data and information on literature from the areas distinguished but also to take part in discussing the problems with the lecturers. These factors have surely enriched the scientific background of the master classes listeners. From my point of view the 6th Congress was a successful event because of analyzing the core problems of ageing in many basic stages of oldness. Seniors, in spite of the fact that they are inhabitants of the developed or developing countries, are interested in the conditions concerning their life aspects. Moreover, they really wait for practical solutions and enterprises such opinions of the participants were officially presented at sessions while lasting the Congress. Ageing is accelerating in the developed countries it is even described as hyper ageing and becomes intergenerational problem, as Prof. Kickbush noticed while closing the Congress, it meant the challenge for the following congresses debates. Bearing in mind thematic fields of future meetings, she picked up briefly such problems as, the explanation of physical and psychological disability, familiarizing with the novelties in the seniors and their families care, new approach towards their needs in medicine and prohealth policy, change of health care paradigm even in the developed countries, search for new workplaces for ageing people. She also put forward the developing index of active ageing together with the fact that nowadays women form the majority of world s population. All these subjects still require research explorations and analyses, leading to practical solutions. Prof. Kickbush underlining these core points and summing up the debates of the 6th World Ageing and Generations Congress showed the future paths of the forthcoming Congress, truly hoping for meeting the participants in the year

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