Evaluation of Battery End-of-Life Strategies
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1 Evaluation of Battery End-of-Life Strategies Elsa Olivetti Jeremy Gregory, Randolph Kirchain Massachusetts Institutes of Technology
2 What are the net environmental impacts of different end-of-life strategies for alkaline batteries in the United States? Landfill Car or Truck Transport Consolidation Materials recovery
3 Alkaline battery landscape Total US Sales in 2007: 5.4 billion batteries (w/rechargeable) 85% of total battery sales are alkaline < 1% of MSW Concern over landfill of materials in batteries End-of-life battery directives in Europe and Canada California landfill ban - universal waste rule prohibits CA throwing batteries in the trash Slide 3
4 Bill of materials for an alkaline battery Dominant materials: Manganese ~25 wt% Steel ~20 wt% Zinc ~20 wt% Functional Unit: 1 kg Weighted Average Alkaline Batteries Material Mass (g) 1 kg batteries Mn 250 Steel 190 Zn 190 K 26 Graphite 36 Copper 20 Nickel 4 PVC 15 Nylon 15 Paper 15 Moisture content ~6 wt% Positive cap Cathode current collector Anode current collector Vent Outer sleeve Cathode Separator Anode Negative Slide 4
5 Full life cycle impacts: Cumulative Energy Demand Examine materials Examine production Slide 5
6 Full life cycle performance: Relative impact of end-of-life CED (MJ/1 kg WAAB) GWP (kg CO 2 eq./1 kg WAAB) Human Health (DALY/1 kg WAAB) Ecosystem Quality (PDF*m 2 yr/1 kg WAAB) Resources (MJ surplus/1 kg WAAB) Production x End-of-Life x TOTAL x % EoL contribution 4% 13% 8% 29% 4% Slide 6
7 End-of-life focus: System boundary description and methods Life cycle assessment Quantify VMT Landfill Quantify burden/benefit Car or Truck Transport Consolidation Materials recovery Impact assessment methods: CED (MJ), GWP (kg CO 2 ), Eco-indicator 99 Slide 7
8 Evaluating end-of-life environmental impact: When does benefit outweigh burden? Environmental Burden Collection Burden Associated with truck (car) transport: fuel consumption Materials Benefit Associated with recovery process: avoided resource extraction and Processing Burden Associated with landfill contamination or recycling process: energy use Environmental Benefit Landfill Benefit for a Material Benefit for another Material Benefit for a Material Benefit for another Material Materials Recovery Note: schematic only, not real results Slide 8
9 End-of-life scope details Focus on California Avg. battery distance traveled vary with population density Disposal Collection: MSW Based on fuel consumption from CA MSW vehicles Treatment: landfill Recycling Collection: Retail/municipal drop-off & MSW curbside pickup 600 existing Call2Recycle CA sites Treatment: pyrometallurgical 3 North American recyclers, Electric Arc Furnace (hypothetical), EU recyclers Excluded items: Sorting facility, collection container Slide 9
10 Transportation scenarios: Drop-off details Car Delivery Truck Truck Leg 1 Leg 2 Leg 3 Leg 1: Consumer take to drop-off location Challenge: Allocation (degree of dedication) change depending on whether retail or municipal Mileage based on modeling and literature Leg 2: Fedex/UPS to take to hub on backhaul from retail store Mileage based on modeling and literature Leg 3: Truck from hub to recycler Recycler distances Slide 10
11 Challenge: Recycling technologies Pretreatment and postreatment Feedstocks added Energy used, emissions generated Materials recovered Scenario Materials recovered A Zinc (metal value) Steel and Manganese (cement) B Steel & Zinc (metal value) Manganese (part metal value part cement/road material) C Steel (metal value) Zinc/Manganese (micronutrient) D Steel, Zinc and Manganese (metal value) E Steel, Zinc and Manganese (metal value) Sampling of current technologies Hypothetical scenario European scenario Slide 11
12 Challenge: Disparate leachate information How much will leach from a landfilled battery? Tracking: Zn, Mn, Cu, Ni, Fe, and K Range of results in the literature that vary depending on oxide vs. metallic form, assumptions about landfill conditions, etc. Finneveden, Int. J. of LCA, 1996 Rydh, Resource, Conserv. and Recycling, 2002 SWANA, 2004 O Brien et al., MSW management, 2005 Slack et al., Science of the Total Environment, 2005 Karnchanawong, Waste Management, 2009 Slide 12
13 Net results aggregate: Collection & processing burden and materials benefit Steel/Zn credited for market mix: 40% recycled and 60% converter steel 30% recycled and 70% primary zinc Slide 13
14 Results of end-of-life treatment: Cumulative Energy Demand Burden from materials disposition of 1 kg of batteries Using CED, the majority of current US technologies alkaline battery recycling may not be beneficial Slide 14
15 Results of end-of-life treatment: Global Warming Potential Burden from materials disposition of 1 kg of batteries Global warming potential reflects the carbon intensity of fuel used in processing Slide 15
16 Global Warming Potential: Common electrical grid US electrical grid assumed in all scenarios Slide 16
17 Global Warming Potential: Common electrical grid & transportation US electrical grid & average transportation assumed in all scenarios Slide 17
18 Results of end-of-life treatment: Ecosystem Quality Burden from materials disposition of 1 kg of batteries Recovery of zinc dominates ecosystem quality metrics Using Ecosystem Quality, the majority of current US technologies for alkaline battery recycling may be beneficial Slide 18
19 Results of end-of-life treatment: Human Health Burden from materials disposition of 1 kg of batteries Using Human Health, the US technologies for alkaline battery recycling can either be beneficial or burdensome Slide 19
20 Results of end-of-life treatment: Resources Resources metric results are similar to CED and GWP Slide 20
21 Hypothetical EAF Scenario: Sensitivity to zinc recovery CED: cumulative energy demand GWP: global warming potential HH: human health R: resources Recycling with less than 30-40% zinc recovery exceeds the impact of landfilling. Slide 21
22 Summary and conclusions Concern over materials in landfills Recycling reduces that concern, collection creates burden Alkaline battery recycling impact sensitive to Transport distance, energy intensity of recycling scenario Materials recovered Recovering more than Zn important Less than 40% Zn recovery problematic Impact assessment method Energy or GWP strongly recovery dependent Considering toxicity less ambiguous for base case Significant uncertainty: More primary data on processing technologies Further collection scenario analysis Customer behavior Slide 22
23 Study outcome: Multi-stakeholder process examining US battery recycling lead by industry Slide 23
24 Summit details Appreciative inquiry design by Blu Skye Battery council (subset of whole) who helped design process 5-6 April 2011 Location: Dallas, Texas Summit attendees 75 representing numerous categories Engage with non-industry stakeholders for optimum outcomes Conduct trials to optimize system Roll-out national program starting 2013 Courtesy of Marc Boolish, Energizer Slide 24
25 Council recommendations to board Courtesy of Marc Boolish, Energizer Slide 25
26 Slide 26
27 Slide 27
28 Images from the summit Courtesy of Marc Boolish, Energizer Slide 28
29 Lithium battery recycling Umicore - Belgium Toxco British Columbia Transportation challenges Smelting exothermic Constituent Steel casing Al casing Nickel Co 2 O 3 LiO Graphite Ending up in Alloy Slag Alloy Alloy Slag Reducing agent Pistoia, et al. Used Battery Collection, 2001; Slide 29
30 Considerations of LiCoO 2 technology Recovering steel and cobalt Slide 30
31 Lithium battery chemistry challenges Cumulative Energy Demand Cobalt Manganese Iron 1, Real Price $1998/kg Cobalt Lithium Manganese Iron usgs.minerals.gov Slide 31
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