History Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II Advanced Higher

Transcription

1 History Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II Advanced Higher 7897

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3 Autumn 2000 HIGHER STILL History Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II Advanced Higher Support Materials *+,-./

4 CONTENTS Course Requirements Using this Unit Chronological Study PART ONE Theme 1 Theme 2 Theme 3 Theme 4 COURSE ISSUES: A FRAMEWORK FOR STUDENTS The Creation of the Weimar Republic A Period of Relative Stability The Collapse of Weimar The Transformation of Post-Weimar Society PART TWO Section One CURRENT RESEARCH Introduction Section Two Historiography of the Weimar Republic: Section Three Historiography of the Third Reich: PART THREE Section One Section Two Section Three Section Four Section Five THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC: SOURCES The Foundations of the Republic: Foreign Policy: Republican Stability: The Collapse of the Republic: Nazism in the Weimar Republic: History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) i

5 CONTENTS (CONTINUED) PART FOUR THE THIRD REICH: SOURCES Section One Politics and Economics: Section Two The Nazi Social and Racial Revolution: Section Three Hitler s Foreign Policy: History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) ii

6 COURSE REQUIREMENTS General Aims This Advanced Higher context has to fulfil the overall aims for this level of historical study i.e.: to acquire depth in the knowledge and understanding of historical themes. to develop skills of analysing issues, developments and events, drawing conclusions and evaluating sources. Course Content The content to be covered is described in the following terms: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II A study of the changing nature of political authority, the reasons for changes and the consequences of the changing character of political authority, focusing on the themes of ideology, authority and revolution. The creation of the Weimar Republic, including: military defeat, the November Revolution and the Treaty of Versailles; social and political instability; economic crisis and hyper-inflation. A period of relative stability, including: currency reform and the Dawes plan; social welfare provision; the Stressemann era in foreign affairs. The collapse of Weimar, including: economic depression and mass unemployment; the weakening of democracy, Bruning to Schleicher; the rise of Nazism; Hitler and the Nazi takeover of power. The transformation of post-weimar society, including: Nazi consolidation of power in Germany; Nazi economic policy; Nazi social and racial policies; the impact of foreign policy on domestic circumstances. Assessment Course requirements describe the criteria that students are expected to meet as consisting of the ability to: handle detailed information in order to analyse events and their relationship thoroughly use this analysis to address complex historical issues including consideration of alternative interpretations draw a series of judgements together by structured, reasoned argument reaching well-supported conclusions. History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 1

7 Learning Experiences The kinds of activities expected of a student who is taking an Advanced History course are outlined as follows: Students should: engage in wide-ranging, independent reading relevant to their historical studies interpret and evaluate historical source material, relating it precisely to its context in order to show awareness of the complexity and elusiveness of historical truth become aware of different interpretations of history by different historians and the reasons for these record systematically information derived from a variety of sources, such as books, notes, lectures, audio-visual materials make use of historical terms and concepts encountered in the study of complex primary and secondary evidence take part in formal and informal discussion and debate based on and informed by historical evidence and knowledge develop the skills of extended communication for a variety of purposes including descriptive and analytical essays or oral responses, responses to source-based questions and a Dissertation; opportunities should be provided for revision and redrafting of extended writing following critical review develop individual and independent learning skills, especially those relating to the preparation and production of a Dissertation. It is important that the students should understand the historical themes that run through the chosen topic and not simply learn about a series of discrete historical issues. History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 2

8 USING THIS UNIT The material in this unit is intended to support students work on this course by: expanding the course content to provide a more detailed framework for student study providing stimulus material to encourage debate and discussion providing source handling exercises appropriate to the course requirements making reference to suitable texts. Teachers may wish to: provide an introductory lecture for an aspect of the course, this introduction to be followed by purposeful note-taking by students investigating the relevant aspect more fully raise a question/problem/issue to be discussed, followed by note-taking, and concluded with further discussion raise an issue for students to explore, given an assigned case to argue, to be followed by formal debate provide stimulus materials in any appropriate form, to be followed by detailed research of the issue through student note-making select essay titles for collaborative planning of an essay outline use sources for collaborative work on handling sources effectively. Sources It is essential that sources are used regularly and are drawn from all parts of the course. Sources should include extracts from the works of historians. Where appropriate, differing interpretations by historians should be used and the reasons for these differences carefully considered. Students study of historians works should include identifying and describing historians viewpoints. The student material which follows is structured to: provide a framework for the course which students can use to develop more detailed notes raise issues to form the basis for student research and to use for discussion, debate and essay/practice provide a selection of primary sources provide appropriate activities. History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 3

9 History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 4

10 CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY January William I becomes Emperor of the German Empire 1914 August Germany at war with Russia, France and Britain August Hindenburg and Ludendorff form new Supreme Army Command (OHL) April William II promises reform of voting system. 19 July Peace Resolution passed by the Reichstag (SPD Centre and left liberals) March Germany and USSR sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. 27 September Army High Command calls for an armistice. 3 October Request for an armistice sent to President Wilson. 4 October Prince Max of Baden becomes Chancellor at the head of a majority government including Socialists (SPD), and Centre and liberal politicians. 26 October Germany becomes a constitutional monarchy by an Act of Parliament. 3-9 November Revolution spreads throughout Germany. 9 November Abdication of William II. Republic proclaimed. Ebert becomes Chancellor in SPD-USPD Coalition. 10 November Ebert and Groener agreement. 11 November Armistice signed with the Allies January Spartacist Rising in Berlin. 19 January Election of National Assembly. 11 February Ebert elected National (Reich) President. 28 June The Treaty of Versailles signed. 11 August Weimar Constitution comes into force February The Nazi (NSDAP) Party founded in Munich June Right-wing Kapp Putsch fails. 6 June First elections to the Reichstag. History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 5

11 January French proposal that Germany pay reparations for the sum of 269,000,000,000 gold marks. (In May 1921 the figure was set at 132,000,000,000 gold marks, and for Germany to pay 26% of her export earnings and the costs of the Allied occupation.) 26 August Erzberger murdered by right-wing extremists April Germany and USSR sign the Treaty of Rapallo during Genoa Conference on reparations and reconstruction. 24 June Rathenau murdered by right-wing extremists. 22 November Cuno becomes Chancellor January French and Belgian troops enter the Ruhr. 13 January German government under Cuno proclaims passive resistance in the Ruhr. July November Hyperinflation at its peak. 13 August Stressemann becomes Chancellor. 26 September Stressemann s government abandons passive resistance unconditionally in the Ruhr. 8-9 November Hitler Putsch in Munich. 15 November Rentenmark introduced to stabilise the currency August Reichstag accepts Dawes Plan on reparations February Death of Ebert. Hindenburg elected President in April October Locarno Conference Germany becomes a member of the League of Nations July Law on Labour Exchanges and Unemployment Insurance provides progressive welfare legislation. History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 6

12 May Reichstag Elections: Nazis win 12 seats. 29 June Grand Coalition formed. SPD re-enter government. 27 August Kellogg-Brand Pact outlaws war October Death of Stressemann. 29 October Crash on Wall Street Stock Exchange March Reichstag accepts Young Plan on reparations. 29 March Bruning appointed Chancellor following the resignation of Muller as head of Weimar s last majority government. 14 September Reichstag Elections: significant Nazi gains. They become the second largest party with 107 seats July Moratorium (suspension) on reparations April Hindenburg re-elected President after a second ballot. Hitler takes second place. 30 May Von Papen appointed Chancellor. 27 July Von Papen suspends Prussian government and introduces direct rule in Germany s largest state. 31 July Reichstag Elections: Nazis become the largest party with 230 deputies. 6 Nov Reichstag Elections: significant Nazi losses. They remain the largest party with 196 deputies. 3 Dec Schleicher succeeds von Papen as Chancellor. 30 Dec. Official unemployment figure of 4,380, January Hitler appointed Chancellor in a coalition cabinet. 27 February Reichstag fire. 28 February Presidential decree suspends civil liberties. 5 March Last Reichstag Elections. The Nazis win 288 seats out of 647 seats. 13 March Goebbels becomes Minister for Propaganda. 23 March Enabling Act passed which effectively ended parliamentary government in Germany. History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 7

13 1 April National boycott of Jewish shops May Free trade unions dissolved. 10 May Burning of books throughout Germany. 14 July Nazi Party becomes the only legal political party. 14 October Germany leaves the League of Nations January German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact signed. 30 June SA Chief of Staff Ernst Rohm arrested and killed along with other colleagues in Night of the Long Knives. 19August After the death of Hindenburg, Hitler becomes President as well as Chancellor of Germany January Plebiscite in Saar votes for reunion with Germany. 16 March Reintroduction of conscription. 18 June Anglo-German Naval agreement signed. 15 September Nuremberg Race Laws passed March German troops enter the Rhineland. September Four Year Plan announced to make German economy capable of war. 1 November Rome-Berlin Axis announced by Mussolini November Hossbach Memorandum records Hitler s plans for territorial expansion. 26 November Schacht resigns as Minister of Economics February Resignation of leading German generals announced. 12 March Anschluss with Austria. 30 September Munich Agreement cedes Sudetenland to Germany. 9 November Kristallnacht. Organised pogroms against the Jews. History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 8

14 March Hitler seizes Prague. This is followed by a Franco-British guarantee to Poland on 31 March. 23 August Nazi-Soviet Pact signed. 1 September Germany invades Poland. 3 September Britain and France declare war on Germany June France signs an armistice with Germany June Germany invades the Soviet Union January Wansee Conference in Berlin on the Final Solution January German Sixth Army capitulates at Stalingrad June Allied invasion of Normandy. 20 July Stauffenberg Bomb Plot to assassinate Hitler February Big Three conference at Yalta. 30 April Adolf Hitler commits suicide in Berlin. 8 May Unconditional surrender of Germany to the Allies. History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 9

15 History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 10

16 PART ONE: COURSE ISSUES - A FRAMEWORK FOR STUDENTS THEME 1: THE CREATION OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC This first main area of the course involves the study of the creation of the Weimar Republic including: military defeat the November Revolution and the Treaty of Versailles social and political instability economic crisis and hyper-inflation. This is the crucial base on which the course is built. It requires an appreciation of military, political, social and economic matters. It needs a grasp of the wider context surrounding events in Germany, including the attitudes of Allied leaders who shaped the Treaty of Versailles, and events in Russia. This section of the course therefore deals with the key concepts of: ideology authority revolution. From careful study of this theme, an understanding of the inter-action between these concepts will be developed. Issues for investigation/discussion There are many questions to think about in this section e.g. Were the circumstances in which Weimar was born a burden that was impossible to overcome? Was the Versailles Treaty so unfair to Germany as to leave the Weimar Republic an impossible legacy? Was political opinion in Germany so completely divided that uniting behind the Weimar Government was never going to be possible? Was the Weimar Constitution fundamentally flawed? Did the way the war ended leave Germans with the illusion that they had not been properly militarily defeated? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 11

17 Part A: Military Defeat From August 1914, Germany had waged total war. As one historian has commented, The amount of blood and treasure invested in the First World War made it difficult for Germans to contemplate a future in which the German Reich was not victorious. AJ Nicholls, Weimar and the Rise of Hitler, MacMillan, 2000 The apparently sudden coming of setbacks that threatened defeat was therefore a profound shock that had enormous political consequences. Notes will be required on the following dimensions: 1. From Success to Failure from the German Army, 1918 (i) German victory over Russia (ii) The Treaty of Brest Litovsk (iii) The Ludendorff Offensive in the West (iv) Allied counter-offensives, July-August (v) German retreat (vi) The collapse of Germany s allies. 2. Where did power lie? (i) The character and government of Kaiser William II (ii) The German political systems; Reichstag and Bundesrat (iii) The power and influence of Army leaders (iv) The main political parties, their leaders, supporters and policies. 3. Revolution from above? (i) Ludendorff s views on the need for an armistice (ii) His views on the need for a parliamentary democracy (iii) Prince Max of Baden and the forming of a parliamentary cabinet (iv) The request by Germany for an armistice. Issues to discuss Was Ludendorff simply trying to avoid being blamed for defeat? Should the Social Democrats have agreed to enter the Government? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 12

18 Part B: The November Revolution This section covers a remarkable series of events in later October and November 1918 that include Germany becoming a republic and the First World War finally coming to an end. The Historian, William Carr, argues that The German Revolution, like the March Revolution in Russia, was spontaneous in its origins..it was also a bloodless revolution. Notes will be required on the following aspects: 1. Problems of peace-making (i) The German request for an armistice (ii) President Wilson s demands (iii) Ludendorff s resistance and resignation. 2. Constitutional monarchy is established (i) Limitations on the Emperor s powers (ii) The establishment of government responsible to the Reichstag (iii) Controls over the military. 3. Conditions in Germany (i) The effects of the allied blockage (ii) The shock of defeat (iii) Evidence of differences between classes and between regions; tensions in society (iv) Evidence of anti-semitism. 4. Naval Mutiny (i) The mutiny in two cruisers and the reasons for this (ii) The spread of the mutiny in Kiel (iii) The widening of protest to include workers and soldiers in Germany (iv) The setting up of workers and soldiers councils. 5. Political Revolution (i) Different left-wing political groups (ii) The setting up of the Bavarian Republic (iii) The Kaiser s abdication (iv) Ebert becomes Chancellor. History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 13

19 6. A Troubled Government (i) The Ebert-Groener Pact (ii) Signing the armistice (iii) Forming a new government (iv) Workers and Soldiers councils; the Berlin Congress (v) Limits on Government control of Germany. 7. The Far Left Fails This involves the following: (i) The Spartacists, their leaders and their beliefs (ii) How the Rising came about (iii) Its failure; Noske s use of Freikorps, the death of their leaders (iv) The issue of workers councils, the miners strike (v) Resentment at the use of controls and central planning. Issue to debate Ebert s aim was to avoid a real social revolution in Germany. What can be said for and against this view? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 14

20 Part C: The Treaty of Versailles With the First World War over, the new Weimar Government not only had to struggle to impose its authority in Germany, it also had to face the consequences of the peace treaty that was being worked out by the victorious Allies. It is therefore important to build up detailed knowledge of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the motives and concerns of the men who created the Treaty, the reactions in Germany to the terms of the Treaty, and the consequences for the Weimar Government of accepting the Treaty. The war had not been fought on German soil and only months earlier German forces had ended Russia s part in the war and advanced west as far as the River Marne. It is not surprising that defeat was difficult to accept. Notes will be required on the following dimensions: 1. The peace aims of the Allies (i) The USA, President Wilson and the 14 Points (ii) Lloyd George, Britain, and naval and imperial and economic concerns (iii) France and Clemenceau and French concerns for security. 2. The Treaty of Versailles This involved considering: (i) Territorial arrangements including a ban on uniting with Austria (ii) Military restrictions on Germany and the army of occupation in the Rhineland (iii) Financial arrangement including war guilt, reparations and overseas instruments (iv) Overseas arrangements including colonies and the fleet. 3. German Responses (i) Popular expectations of the peace (ii) The attitudes of leading politicians (iii) The arguments against the Treaty (iv) An evaluation of the justice of German complaints (v) The decision to sign the Treaty (vi) Attitudes in Germany towards the Treaty (vii) The emergence of the stab in the back view. History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 15

21 Issues to consider and discuss The historian A J Nicholls states that the Versailles Treaty still left the Germans considerably more territory than united Germany has today. How justified was German hostility to the Treaty of Versailles? How far is it fair to argue that The only treaty acceptable to the Germans was one drawn up as if they had won the war? The historian William Carr argues What the German Nationalists could not do.was bring themselves to accept the fact of Gemany s military defeat. Why was it possible for them to do this? What might be the results of such an attitude? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 16

22 Part D: Social and Political Instability This part of the course deals with the years , a time when the new Republic struggled to become established and faced threats to its stability from both the left and right wings. The Treaty of Versailles was signed by two ministers of the Weimar Government on 28 th June 1919; reactions to this Treaty therefore form a factor in the problems of this period. Some historians believe the kind of political system that was created by the new Weimar Constitution of 1919 was itself partly to blame for the troubles that developed in the following years. Notes will be needed on the following: 1. The New Constitution (i) Elections and the drafting of the constitution (ii) The Länder and their powers; the Reichsrat (iii) The President and his authority; Ebert the first President (iv) The Reichstag; the chancellor and his responsibilities (v) The electoral system; people s rights (vi) Problems and tensions in the constitution. 2. Political Parties and their Policies (i) The Social Democrats and Independent Social Democrats (ii) The Democrats (iii) The People s Party (iv) The Centre (v) The National People s Party (vi) The Communists. 3. Supporters and Opponents of the Weimar Government This involves considering the attitudes of: (i) Trade Unions (ii) The Army (iii) The Civil Service (iv) The Judiciary (v) The Educational Systems (vi) A series of Chancellors in office (vii) The murders of leading politicians. 4. The Kapp Putsch (i) The causes of and supporters of the Putsch (ii) The seizure of control in Berlin; army attitudes (iii) The general strike (iv) The end of the Putsch (v) Why sympathiseres were not dealt with firmly. History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 17

23 5. The Nationalist Socialist German Works Party (i) Drexler and the German Workers Party (ii) Aspects of Hitler s early life shaping his beliefs (iii) The Party s principles (iv) The importance to Hitler of racial views (v) Hitler s rise in the Party and the reasons for this (vi) To whom did the Party appeal? Issues to discuss Do you agree that the Weimar Constitution provided a recipe for tension, quarrels and instability? Why did not those wholly committed to the Republic deal more firmly with their opponents? How true is it to state that the Army managed to become a state within a state? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 18

24 Part E: Economic Crisis and Hyper-inflation 1923 proved to be a very troubled year for the Republic, a year in which troubles in Germany and foreign pressure combined to being about a major crisis. The reactions of political parties and the Army to the crisis showed how insecure the Republic s foundations were. The crisis was weathered and brought to the fore the man who was to be Weimar s leading statesmen - Gustav Stressemann. Events included Adolf Hitler s first bid for power. Notes should be made on the following aspects: 1. Trying to meet Allied demands? (i) The final reparations bill presented to Germany (ii) Economic problems in Germany i.e. - Debates - Wartime losses - The need to tackle post-war problems - The difficulty of enforcing a strict taxation policy - Signs of inflation (iii) The Wirth Government and the policy of fulfilment (iv) Von Seeckt and the Army policy of avoiding military restrictions (v) The Treaty of Rapallo and avoidance of restrictions. 2. The occupation of the Ruhr (i) German inability to meet reparation demands (ii) Poincaré and the Franco-Belgian occupation (iii) The Cuno Government and passive resistance (iv) The use of French workers; violence, strikes and sabotage. 3. Inflation (i) How the Ruhr occupation worsened the state of the economy (ii) Price rises and the fall in value of the Mark (iii) Who benefited (iv) Damage done to wages, savings and attitudes to the Republic. 4. Reactions in Germany (i) Bavaria as a shelter for Patriotic League paramilitaries (ii) Von Kahn s policies (iii) Army attitudes to events in Bavaria (iv) Army intervention to remove left-wing governments in Saxony and Thuringia (v) Stressemann, his career and personality (vi) Stressemann resumes reparation payments (vii) Hitler s Munich Putsch and its consequences. History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 19

25 Issues to consider Why did Britain and France press so hard for reparations? Did their reasons differ? Should the French be blamed for their actions? Why was Bavaria so important a centre of right-wing activity? Why did not Hitler s failure simply make him a figure of ridicule? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 20

26 THEME 2: A PERIOD OF RELATIVE STABILITY During the years 1924 to 1929, the Weimar Republic seemed to flourish. Living standards rose, industrial production increased, exports grew. These developments took place amid a background of international negotiations that helped to stabilise the German economy and seemed to have sorted out the question of reparations agreements. In foreign affairs too, Germany moved back into a world of better relations with the countries that had so recently been her enemies. French troops left the Ruhr and Allied troops began to leave the Rhineland. Germany s changed status was marked by her entry into the League of Nations. Yet all was not entirely well. Foreign money poured into Germany, attracted by high interest rates, and might just as easily leave. Extremist political parties on left and right continued to denounce the Republic and its policies. Those who accepted the Weimar political system were fragmented in different political parties and did not find it easy to co-operate with one another. The Army continued to fail to offer enthusiastic backing for the Weimar Republic. The concepts of ideology and authority pervade this part of the course as people with differing political beliefs clashed and the government continued to struggle to assert really effective and generally accepted authority. Issues to consider / investigate / discuss How soundly-based was Germany s economic recovery of ? How ready were Germans at this time to now accept the territorial arrangement made in the Versailles Treaty? How secure and stable was the Weimar political system? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 21

27 Part A: Currency Reform and the Dawes Plan During 1923 runaway inflation had caused great harm to many in Germany. This problem was tackled by Stressemann when he became Chancellor in August. The Reichstag gave him full power to try to solve the problem. The reforms that followed worked well. In August 1924 the Reichstag accepted a plan to settle the problem of fixing reparations repayments at a figure acceptable to Germany. These events show how intertwined foreign and domestic policies had come to be in deciding the effectiveness of the Weimar Government s authority. Notes will be required on the following aspects: 1. Currency Reform (i) The use of land and industrial values as a base on which to secure the currency (ii) The loan provided for the Reichsbank (iii) The creation of the Rentenbank and a new currency (iv) Luther as Finance Minister (v) The importance of Schacht as Currency Commissioner. 2. Cutting Costs (i) Cutting expenditure in Government (ii) Tax increases (iii) Restoration of confidence. 3. The Dawes Plan (i) The importance of Herriot and MacDonald s elections to office (ii) US pressure to sort out reparations (iii) The Dawes Committee (iv) The proposed reparation repayment system (v) Security for repayment from revenues: a loan from the West (vi) German critics of the Plan (vii) Its successful passage through the Reichstag. What do you think. Were the key reasons why these economic reforms were successful? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 22

28 Part B: Social Welfare Provision and Problems The recovery of the mid to late 1920s allowed the Weimar Government to improve living conditions for many people in terms of better transport, housing, schools and hospitals. However, the opponents of the Republic continued to be very active whilst its supports failed to combine together in reply. The tensions and differences finally led to the end of what had been a reasonably stable Government over the issue of the provision to be made for the unemployed. Notes will be required on the following: 1. Areas of complaint (i) Farmers and their reasons for complaint (ii) The complaints of small businessmen, craftsmen etc. (iii) The growth of small parties representing them (iv) The attitude of Army, Civil Service and University (v) The forming of an alliance between far right parties. 2. Problems of Government (i) The death of Ebert and the election of Hindenburg (ii) The dependence of German prosperity on foreign loans (iii) Confirmed tensions between pro-weimar parties (iv) The death of Stressemann. 3. Success and Failure (i) The electoral achievements of moderate parties (ii) The setting up of the Reichsbanner (iii) The Young Plan to scale down reparations (iv) The 1927 reform of social insurance (v) Opposition to this and the end of the Müller Government, Issue to clarify Why were pro-weimar political parties unable to work better together? Was it personalities or policies that separated them? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 23

29 Part C: The Stressemann Era in Foreign Affairs From 1924 to 1929 Stressemann dominated German foreign policy-making. His formidable skills brought Germany a whole range of benefits in terms of her status and helpful to bring a reduction in her reparations bill. His death in October 1929 was a serious blow to the Republic. Historians have been careful to point out that Stressemann was very much a German Nationalist, however. Notes will be required on the following aspects: 1. Gustav Stressemann (i) His personality, beliefs and skills (ii) His early career (iii) The aims of his foreign policy. 2. His Circumstances (i) British foreign policy aims (ii) French foreign policy aims (iii) Russian foreign policy aims (iv) His attitude to eastern frontiers. 3. A Deal in the West, 1925 (i) The Geneva Protocol (ii) Negotiations with Britain and France (iii) The Treaty of Locarno (iv) His attitude to eastern frontiers. 4. Skilful Progress (i) The evacuation of the Ruhr (ii) Partial evacuation of the Rhineland (iii) Entry to the League of Nations (iv) The Treaty of Berlin (v) The Kellogg Briand Pact (vi) The evacuation of the rest of the Rhineland (vii) The Young Plan and the removal of further Allied controls. History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 24

30 Issues to consider There has been considerable debate about Stressemann, his motives, his aims, his skill in building an image as a diplomat in search of a peaceful settlement of German frontiers. In 1926 he won the Nobel Peace Prize. How accurate is this image? What can be said against it? Does he deserve to be known as a good European? What contacts and connections did he build up with German minorities living in other lands? How seriously did he regard the Treaty of Locarno? Was it just a tactic? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 25

31 History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 26

32 THEME 3: THE COLLAPSE OF WEIMAR The third area of the course requires the study of: Economic depression and mass unemployment The weakening of democracy; Bruning to Schleicher The rise of Nazism Hitler and the Nazi take over of power. Between 1930 and 1933 the Weimar Republic was hit by the economic depression that had a severed impact on many countries of the world. This section of the course deals with the Republican Governments attempts to deal with the crisis and with the political consequences of the events of the period. By spring of 1933, parliamentary government had effectively ended, swept aside by the country s recently appointed Chancellor, Adolf Hitler, the leader of the National Socialist Party. Nazi beliefs differed sharply from those of the parliamentary parties; Nazi strategies fed down from the authority of their leader. In this section of the course; therefore, the three key concepts are all central to understanding i.e. Ideology Authority Revolution. Issues to consider / investigate / discuss A great deal is concentrated in this short period including: Could the Weimar Republic have avoided the collapse of parliamentary government? What made it possible for Hitler to rise so rapidly to the post of chancellor? Who supported the Nazi Party? Was it primarily the economic crisis that destroyed the Weimar Republic? What was the role of the Army in the events of these years? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 27

33 Part A: Economic Depression and Mass Unemployment The world economic crisis that developed rapidly from the collapse of the USA s Wall Street Stock Exchange in October 1929 soon made its impact on Germany. In March 1930 Bruning of the Centre Party had become Chancellor and for two years he struggled no deal with the crisis that hit German farming, industry, trade and finance. In the election that Bruning called in September 1930 pro Weimar parties did badly, extreme parties (especially Nazis and Communists) did well. It is against this background, and heavily dependent on President Hindenburg s support, that Bruning tried to cope with the economic crisis. Notes will be required on the following aspects: 1. World Depression This involves considering the background to the crisis in Germany including: (i) Wall Street Crash and the stock market crisis (ii) Bank failures (iii) Crisis in farming and industries and price falls (iv) World trade problems and increasing tariffs. 2. The Depression in Germany (i) German dependence on foreign loans and the withdrawal of loans (ii) Business failures and problems of trade (iii) Farming crisis (iv) Banking troubles (v) Rising unemployment. 3. Government policies under Bruning (i) Falling government tax revenues (ii) Government cuts and their consequences (iii) The problem of sustaining the Mark s value (iv) Tax increases (v) The unsuccessful attempt at customs union with Austria. 4. The End of Reparations (i) Bruning s aim of ending reparations (ii) Hoover and US readiness to end inter-allied debts (iii) British and French responses (iv) The virtual end of reparations. History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 28

34 Issues to consider / investigate / discuss What criticisms were made in Germany of Bruning s policies? Were they justified? Should he have acted differently? How far were Germany s deep problems, , the result of mistaken policies pursued ? Was the economy in an unsound condition anyway? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 29

35 Part B: The Weakening of Democracy; Bruning to Schleicher Bruning became Chancellor in March At the end of January 1933, Adolf Hitler became Chancellor. The period between these dates is a critical time in understanding why the parliamentary democracy that had survived since the war finally came to an end. Political dealing between parties took place against the background of the economic depression and the effects that this had on Germany s voters. The 1930 election saw big gains for the extremes of left and right yet the remaining parties still seemed to fail to collaborate to resist movements determined to end parliamentary democracy. Running through this section is the key question of how far the Weimar Republic brought about its own downfall. Once Hitler became chancellor the parliamentary system was rapidly dismantled. Notes will be needed on the following aspects: 1. The Bruning Government (i) The influence of Schleicher (ii) Bruning s political beliefs, qualities, etc (iii) Why Bruning replaced Müller (iv) His reliance on Hindenburg (v) His budget proposals and clash with the Reichstag. 2. The 1930 Election (i) The election results and the reasons for them (ii) The problems facing the Socialists (iii) How the Government survived. 3. The Crisis of 1932 (i) The Presidential campaign (ii) The failure of constitutional supporters to effectively organise (iii) Army attitudes (iv) The fall of Bruning and appointment of von Papen (v) The July and November elections and the reasons for the results (vi) Von Papen s attack on the Prussian Government (vii) The replacement of von Papen by Schleicher. Issue to debate What can be said for and against the view that: The real turning point in the collapse of Weimar democracy was the fall of Bruning not the fall of Müller? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 30

36 Part C: The Rise of Nazism The rapid rise of the Nazi Party during the early 1930s to become the largest party in the Reichstag deserves careful consideration. The character and polices of the Party, its power structure, its methods and its leadership all require attentions. Notes will be needed on the following aspects: 1. Who supported the Nazis? There is no simple answer to this; areas of particular strength should be considered including: (i) Nazi strength in the provinces (ii) Nazi appeal to the middle classes (iii) Nazi strength in Protestant areas (iv) Attitudes in the Army (v) Where Nazi finances came from. 2. What were Nazi policies? There are shifts here, but aspects to consider include: (i) Nationalism (ii) Anti-Marxism (iii) Racialism (iv) Hostility to Versailles (v) Strong government and strong leader (vi) Ideas for reform. 3. What were Nazi methods? Aspects to include: (i) Marches and rallies (ii) The SA and the use of violence (iii) Propaganda (iv) The skilful exploiting of circumstances including the Young Plan and the economic crisis. 4. Adolf Hitler Aspects to include: (i) His control over the Party (ii) His oratory (iii) His skill as a political opportunist (iv) Other key figures in the Party. Issue to discuss Was Hitler s support strongest in Protestant provincial Germany? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 31

37 Part D: Hitler and the Nazi Take-over of Power Having become Chancellor, General von Schleicher lasted just two months in office. He lacked a secure political base and had earned the enmity of von Papen. Although it did not prove easy to persuade Hindenburg to appoint Hitler, he eventually agreed to do so. Right wing nationalist parties celebrated believing that they had won the ability to control Hitler. Events rapidly showed them that they were wrong. Notes will be required on the following aspects: 1. The Fall of Schleicher (i) His attempt to secure the backing of a section of the Nazis led by Strassen (ii) His plans for reforms and the hostility they met (iii) Von Papen and the right wing deal with Hitler (iv) The fall of Schleicher. 2. Hitler arrives in office This includes: (i) His appointment as Chancellor (ii) His Cabinet (iii) Calling an election (iv) Using the power of the state in the campaign, including Goering s authority in Prussia. 3. Democracy is Overturned This includes: (i) The Reichstag Fire (ii) The use of it to suspend basic political rights (iii) The electoral results (iv) The Enabling Law. Issue to discuss There was nothing inevitable about Nazi success. Do you agree? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 32

38 THEME 4: THE TRANSFORMATION OF POST-WEIMAR SOCIETY The last main area of the course requires the study of: Nazi consolidation of power in Germany Nazi economic policy Nazi social and racial policies The impact of foreign policy on domestic circumstances. The means used to assert power and the use made of power mean that all three key concepts are of relevance i.e. Ideology Authority Revolution. Issues to consider / investigate / discuss The nature of Nazi rule and Hitler s own intentions have been the subject of much debate among historians. As you build up notes consider the following issues: Is Hitler s role absolutely central to all that happened in these years? What difference did Nazi rule make to the lines of ordinary Germans? What opposition did the Nazis face inside Germany? How do you explain the German economic recovery? Was it due to Nazi policies? Is it possible, in any way, to see Nazi policies as a continuation of what had been happening before 1933? The historian Ian Kershaw notes: More than half a century after the destruction of the Third Reich, leading historians are far from agreement on some of the most fundamental problems of interpreting and explaining Nazism. Ian Kershaw, Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, Arnold, 2000 History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 33

39 Part A: Nazi Consolidation of Power in Germany Once installed as Chancellor and with the powers provided by Hindenburg s declaration of a state of emergency as well as the Enabling Law, Hitler moved swiftly to assert full control over the political system. The death of Hindenburg enabled him to gather in presidential power too. However, his political skills also showed themselves in a refusal to push through too rapid a revolution; he was determined to carry the Army and big business with them rather than alarm them by a rush of radical measures. Those (among whom SA leaders loomed large) who did not agree with this caution were dealt with brutally. Notes will be required on the following: 1. The Elimination of Democracy (i) The dissolution of other parties; Germany as a one party state (ii) A one party election; the use of plebiscites (iii) The destruction of Länder democracy and abolition of the Reichsrat (iv) Death of Hindenburg and Hitler as Führer (v) The Cabinet empowered to pass laws. 2. The Elimination of Enemies (i) Reasons for tension between Hitler and the SA leaders (ii) Reasons for action (iii) The Night of the Long Knives (iv) The elimination of other potential enemies (v) Why this brutality was accepted. 3. The Assertion of control over the Army (i) The Army oath of loyalty to Hitler (ii) The removal of Blomberg and other leaders (iii) The appointment of new leaders (iv) The absolution of the War Ministry; Hitler as Commander in Chief. 4. The Spread of Nazi Organisations (i) The end of free trade unions; the Labour Front (ii) The creation of a unified police; Himmler, Heydrich and the Gestapo (iii) Himmler and the growth of an independent SS (iv) The use intimidation, violence, concentration camps (v) Nazi organisations for the young, teachers, doctors, civil servants, etc. 5. Propaganda (i) The importance of Goebbels (ii) The use of the media (iii) The use of rallies and marches. History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 34

40 Issues to consider How effective was the very centralised Nazi state? Did it work smoothly? Did it contain rivalries, feuds, etc, and if so, was this deliberate? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 35

41 Part B: Nazi Economic Policy Between 1933 and 1939 the German economy recovered, unemployment fell, public works (like road building) were much in evidence and there were strong Nazi claims that a major achievement had been accomplished as a result of their policies. This has been questioned by historians and it is important to gather information not only on what the Nazis did in terms of economic policy but also to consider whether they were, in any way, creating original policies that actually delivered results. Notes will be needed on the following aspects: 1. Tackling Unemployment (i) The use of labour in public works (ii) Conscription (iii) Encouraging women not to work (iv) Manipulating statistics. 2. Economic Revival (i) The rearmament programme (ii) Subsidies to farmers (iii) Construction work roads, houses, etc (iv) Encouraging the motor industry (v) Export subsidies (vi) World trade revival. 3. Economic Management (i) Schacht and the banking system (ii) Central control of wages and prices (iii) Trying to make Germany more self-sufficient (iv) Economic agreement with other countries. Issue to investigate and discuss How far was economic recovery a Nazi achievement? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 36

42 Part C: Nazi Social and Racial Policies Nazi control over German society made it possible for an attempt to be made to reshape peoples ideas and beliefs. This involved control over the school curriculum and over teaching staff. It also included control over what adults read and heard. The churches, whose ministers and priests preached rather different beliefs, found this a difficult situation and one that led to conflict. The Nazi racial views could now be enforced in an increasingly cruel manner. This section of the course will require notes on a number of aspects: 1. Serving the State (i) Service on public works for young people (ii) Nazi organisations for the young (iii) Re-shaping the school curriculum (iv) Purging the teaching profession (v) Nazi views on women s roles in society. 2. Controlling the Churches? (i) The Nazi Concordat with the Pope (ii) Breaking the Concordat Nazi interference in the Catholic Church (iii) Clashes with clergy (iv) The attempt to control the Protestant Churches (v) Niemoller and protest (vi) The Confessional Church and Nazi attacks on it. 3. Racial Policy (i) The nature of Nazi beliefs (ii) Early restrictions on Jews (iii) The Nuremberg Laws, 1935 (iv) Crystal Night (v) Further anti-jewish measures. Issue to discuss Why was Nazi policy against Jewish people so little resisted? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 37

43 Part D: The Impact of Foreign Policy on Domestic Circumstances An overall knowledge and understanding of Nazi foreign policy up to the outbreak of the Second World War is essential for this section but should be seen not just in its own right but in terms of what is says about Hitler, about the nature of Nazism. This foreign policy tackled one of Hitler s main causes the desire to end the Treaty of Versailles and his success here helped sustain his popularity in Germany. The needs of foreign policy affected the economy very directly. This section of the course will require notes on several aspects: 1. The Main Episodes in Foreign Policy (i) Leaving the League and the disarmament conference (ii) Non-aggression pact with Poland (iii) Recovery of the Saar (iv) Naval treaty with Britain (v) Occupation of the Rhineland (vi) Deals with Italy and Japan (vii) Union with Austria (viii) Sudeten Crisis and Munich (ix) Danzig, Poland and the Nazi-Soviet Pact. 2. The Impact of foreign Policy in Germany (i) Its effects on employment and the economy in terms of conscription and rearmament (ii) Effects on popular acceptance of the Nazi regime and its methods (iii) Its effects on the Army s attitudes to Hitler (iv) Its effects on Hitler s personal standing. Issue to debate The historian Tim Mason has argued that Hitler was worried by the fear that if the period of peace and relative prosperity of the late 1930s were to continue for too long, the German people would lose what he imagined to be their sense of aggressive discipline, militarism and ideological fervour. From Re-evaluating the Third Reich ed T Childers and J Caplan, 1993, Holmes and Meier What can be said for and against this view of Hitler s aggressive foreign policy? History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 38

44 PART TWO: CURRENT RESEARCH SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION Twentieth century German history in general and the history of Germany between 1933 and 1945 specifically continue to hold a collective fascination for many people. Indeed at school level in Scotland the Advanced Higher the German history context is by far the most popular option. The out-pouring of literature, most notably on the Third Reich, makes it a difficult and time consuming exercise for even the most conscientious of classroom teachers to keep pace with and assimilate the available literature. Any student of the Advanced Higher German history course will quickly become aware that in the last three decades there has been a massive outpouring of historiographical material on Germany between 1918 and It is no longer sufficient, if it ever was, for any student of the period to simply explain and analyse what happened. Anyone looking at the German past must have a historiographical understanding of what has happened in the twentieth century. Three excellent historiograpical essays which collectively deal with the period 1918 to 1939 have been written by Eberhard Kolb, John Hiden and John Farquharson as well as Ian Kershaw. The historiography of the Weimar Republic is well-documented by Eberhard Kolb (The Weimar Republic, 1990) in a book in which the author gives a relatively up-to-date detailed explanation of the state of research on the period from 1918 to John Hiden and John Farquharson (Explaining Hitler s Germany, 1983) have written a thorough and detailed guide of what historians have said about the Third Reich in the last fifty years. An excellent guide to recent debates on the Third Reich is by Ian Kershaw (The Nazi Dictatorship, 1993). Even at the school textbook level an author like Jane Jenkins (Hitler and Nazism, 1998, p.49, p.51 and pp ) makes reference to key historiographical debates and arguments. SECTION 2: HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC 1970s Even with the passage of time, many books published in the last thirty years on the Weimar Republic continue to be implicitly as well as explicitly influenced by the darkening shadow of the Third Reich. As recently as 1993 E. J. Feuchtwanger (From Weimar to Hitler: Germany, , 1993), in the Preface to his general history of the Weimar Republic, states The history of the Weimar Republic is overshadowed by the catastrophic consequences of its collapse. Feuchtwanger goes on to admit it is difficult to prevent the question of ultimate failure from being too dominant. And yet it is worth remembering that, in simple arithmetic, the Weimar Republic lasted for fifteen years whilst the Third Reich lasted for only twelve years. A wide variety of books are available, especially in German, on the history and the historiography of the Weimar Republic. The 1980s and 1990s saw a significant growth in the number of English language books on the history of Germany between 1918 and The history of the Weimar Republic can be conveniently divided into three distinct periods. Firstly came the establishment of the Republic between 1918 and This was a relatively neglected period of study until the late 1960s and early 1970s which saw a growth of research on the Republic s early years and re-examined the political History: Germany: Versailles to the Outbreak of World War II (AH) 39