Hybrid loans: a study of English loanwords transmitted to Korean via Japanese

Transcription

1 The 4 th Seoul International Conference July 18-19, 2007 on Phonology and Morphology Hanyang University Hybrid loans: a study of English loanwords transmitted to Korean via Japanese Yoonjung Kang (University of Toronto) Michael Kenstowicz (MIT) Chiyuki Ito (Tokyo University of Foreign Studies) 1. Overview During the period of massive borrowing from Japanese (late 19 th century ~ mid 20 th century) many Western words, English in particular, were transmitted to Korean through Japanese. Such Japanese-style English loans are marked by various phonological characteristics that are unexpected in loans directly borrowed from English to Korean. Many of these Japanese loans were subsequently modified or replaced to reflect the direct influence of English 1 and often there are multiple loan forms for a single English word showing various degrees of remnants of Japanese influence. (Song 1989, Kwon 1995, Tranter 1997, Heo and Lee 2005) English /mit r/ meter Japanese /meetaa/ Korean /meta/ /met a/ /mit / We conducted a survey of loan forms that are considered Japanese-style gathered from published sources (Kwon 1995, Kim 1997, NAKL) and two native speakers and examined the distribution of various Japanese characteristics. The result shows that some Japanese characteristics are more resistant to change than others. 1 This is a simplifying assumption; it is quite possible that at the initial stage of borrowing from Japanese, the Korean adaptation was influence by both the Japanese and the English input. Also possible is that the English loanwords in Japanese have phonetic properties different from native Japanese words such that the Japanese input alone can cause what looks like a shift to a direct-english-loan pattern.

2 2. Phoneme inventories Vowels i u e o a Japanese i u e o a Korean Consonants p t k p t c k b d p* t* c* k* p t c k s h s h z s* m n m n r r/l w j w j Japanese Korean 3. Characteristics of Japanese-style loans 3.1. Consonantal characteristics A. Adaptation of /f/ English /f/ Korean /p / (1) English Korean fusion p juc n fashion p s*j n Ford p ot coffee k p i office op is* golf kolp offline op rain English /f/ Japanese /h/ ([ ]) Korean /h/ 2 (2) English Japanese Korean fry hurai hurai fluke hurokku hurok*u fuse hjuuzu hjuc 2 For discussion of general English to Japanese segmental mapping, readers are referred to Katayama (1998) among others. See Ito et la. (2006) for an analysis of native Japanese loanwords in Korean. 2

3 (3) Doublet English Japanese Korean mu[f]ler mahuraa mahur m p ll Coined in Japanese but shifted to the direct English loan pattern (4) English Japanese Korean inflation i hure inp re B. Laryngeal adaptation of voiceless stops English /p t k/ Korean /p t k / (as long as they end up in an onset position) (5) English Korean tank t k percent p sent kick k ik check c ek ~ c ek English /p t k/ Japanese /p t k/ (sometimes geminated) Korean /p t k/ ~ /p* t* k*/ (depending on the context, POA) (see Ito et al. 2006) (6) English Japanese Korean fluke hurokku hurok*u concrete ko kuriito ko kurit*o k o k rit tile tairu tairu t ail brake bureeki purek*i p reik Coined in Japanese but shifted to the direct English loan pattern (7) English Japanese Korean remote control rimoko rimok on crayon pastel kurepasu k rep as* C. Laryngeal adaptation of /s/ English non-preconsonantal /s/ Korean /s*/ (8) English Korean sale s*eil sign s*ain bus p* s* dance t* ns* 3

4 English /s/ Japanese /s/ Korean /s/ (9) English Japanese Korean soda sooda sota sailor suit seeraa (huku) sera(pok) gasoline asori asori salad sarada sarata s* ll t Coined in Japanese but shifted to the direct English loan pattern (10) English Japanese Korean salaried man sarariima s* ll rimen spinster (old miss) oorudomisu olt mis* Hypercorrection: /s/ /s*/ is overapplied to preconsonantal /s/ of English, where /s*/ adaptation is unexpected regardless of the path of borrowing. (11) English Japanese Korean slipper surippa s* rep*a D. Adaptation of intervocalic /l/ Background (12) Korean has a single liquid phoneme, which is realized as [l] if licensed by coda and as [r] elsewhere. - Preconsonantal or word-final (i.e., coda): VL#, VL.CV nol sunset m lko is far and - Intervocalic (i.e., onset): V.LV nor song m r is far - Intervocalic geminate: VL.LV noll be surprised m lli far (Adv.) English /l/ that ends up in intervocalic position in Korean [ll] (13) English Korean dollar *talla slump s ll mp 4

5 English /l/ Japanese /r/ Korean [r] (14) English Japanese Korean sailor suit seeraa sera(pok) gasoline asori asori slab surabu s rab salad sarada sarata s ll t chocolate tjokoreeto c*ok*oret c ok ollet Coined in Japanese but shifted to the direct English loan pattern (15) English Japanese Korean salary man (salaried man) sarariman s* ll rimen melo(drama) mero mello E. Coda /n/ English coda /n/ Korean /n/ English coda /n/ Japanese / / Korean / / (~ /n/) 3 Cf. ode ote 'traditional dish' udo uto 'noodle' kobu k*opu 'adherent' (16) English Japanese Korean gasoline asori asori apron epuro ep ro eip r n cushion kussjo k us*jo k us*j n 3 In fact, many Japanese loans (native or Sino-Japanese words) in Korean maps Japanese coda nasal as /n/ not / /. However, it is plausible that such Japanese coda nasal to /n/ adaptation is due to the Sino- Korean cognates (see Ito et al 2006 for discussion), a factor that should not affect English loans. So, we will make a simplifying assumption here that Japanese to Korean mapping maps coda nasal of Japanese to Korean / /. 5

6 3.2. Vocalic characteristics F. Extra epenthetic vowel Korean allows independent [p t k m n l] in the coda position, while Japanese does not. English Korean: no epenthetic vowel just to avoid [p t k m n l] coda (17) English Korean 4 cf. Japanese ham h m hamu divi[ ] t*aipi daibi u goal k*ol ooru kick k ik kikku tip t ip [t ]ippu helmet helmet herumetto English Japanese Korean: extra epenthetic vowel following a potential coda [p t k m n l] (18) English Japanese Korean back bakku p*ak*u rejection p*æk connection tile tairu tairu t ail vinyl biniiru piniru pinil panel paneru panneru p annel Coined in Japanese but shifted to the direct English loan pattern (19) English Japanese Korean old miss oorudomisu olt mis* back mirror bakku miraa p*æk mir (rearview mirror) 4 For some English words ending in a post-vocalic stop, a vowel is inserted after the final stop in Korean adaptation but the insertion is conditioned by various factors such as tenseness of the preceding vowel and place of articulation and voicing feature of the stop not due to syllable structure restriction (Kang Y. 2003). 6

7 G. Quality of epenthetic vowel English Korean: default epenthetic vowel is / / (20) English Korean tank t k jump c* mp bus p* s* drama t rama English Japanese /u/ ~ /o/ Korean /u/ ~ /o/(except in post-sibilant context, where Japanese /u/ maps to Korean / /) (21) English Japanese Korean catalogue kataro u kataroku k at allok drum doramu toramu t r m curve kaabu k aapu k p Coined in Japanese but shifted to the direct English loan pattern (22) English Japanese Korean old miss oorudomisu olt mis* H. Quality of non-epenthetic vowels English / / / / Korean / / English /æ/ Korean / / (23) English Korean cf. Japanese sh[ ]ttle sj t l sjatoru zipp[ r] cip zippaa h[æ]m h m hamu English / / / / /æ/ Japanese /a/ Korean /a/ (24) English Japanese Korean over(coat) oobaa opa error eraa era er dr[ ]m doramu toramu t r m b[æ]ck bakku p*ak*u rejection p*æk connection 7

8 English /ej/ Korean /ei/ English /ej/ Japanese /ee/ Korean /e/ (25) English Japanese Korean sailor suit seeraa sera(pok) sandpaper (sando)peepaa p*ep*a cake keeki k*ek*i k eik ~ k eik brake bureeki purek*i p reik Coined in Japanese but shifted to the direct English loan pattern (26) English Japanese Korean back mirror bakku miraa p*æk mir (rearview mirror) Hypercorrection: The change of Japanse style [ ] English style [ ] is overapplied to a case where [ ] is not expected in Direct English pattern (27) English Japanese Korean button bota pot n (found on a lamp at a hospital, Summer 2006) I. Adaptation of schwa English / / Korean / / or /i/ English / / Japanese /a e i o u/ based on spelling Korean /a e i o u/ (28) English Japanese Korean salad sarada sarata s*æll t veneer benija penija apron epuro ep ro eip r n carburetor kjaburetaa k japuret a 8

9 4. Differential retention of Japanese traits When a word contains more than one potential Japanese feature, there are often hybrid forms that have shed some Japanese features but not others. But, not all features are equally likely to be replaced Within-item variation meter [mit r] Japanese style: [meta] English style: [mit ] Vowel quality (VQ) [i] [e] [ r] [ ] [i] [i] [ r] [ ] Laryngeal feature of the stop [t] [t] [t] [t ] Variants for meter VQ Stop laryngeal meta J J : Japanese style met a J E : Hybrid, attested *mita E J : Hybrid, not attested mit E E : Direct mapping from English catalogue [kæt l ] Vowel quality (VQ) Japanese style: [kataroku] English style: [k æt llok ] Intervocalic l (L) Epenthetic vowel quality (EPQ) Laryngeal feature of the stops (StLar) [æ] [ ] [ ] [l] [r] [u] [k] [t] [k] [t] [æ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [l] [ll] [ ] [k] [t] [k ] [t ] Not all of the 16 (2*2*2*2) logically possible renditions of catalogue are attested. 9

10 Google search (January 5, 2007) 5 VQ L EPQ StLar a. kataroku J J J J 21 b. k at aroku J J J E 46 c. katarok J J E J 38 d. katalloku J E J J 0 e. kæt roku E J J J 0 f. k at arok J J E E k at alloku J E J E 13 h. katallok J E E J 14 i. k æt roku E J J E 0 j. kæt rok E J E J 0 k. kæt lloku E E J J 0 l. k at allok J E E E m. k æt rok E J E E 3 n. k æt lloku E E J E 5 o. kæt llok E E E J 0 p. k æt llok E E E E 1230 (i) Number of Japanese features replaced: 0 VQ L EPQ StLar a. katarok J J J J 21 (ii) Number of Japanese features replaced: 1 VQ L EPQ StLar b. k at arok J J J E 46 c. katarok J J E J 38 d. katalloku J E J J 0 e. kæt loku E J J J 0 - b.-c. vs. d.-e : VQ, L > EVQ, StLar - b vs. c: EVQ > StLar (weak) 5 katarok*u: 2 10

11 (iii) Number of Japanese features replaced: 2 VQ L EPQ StLar f. k at arok J J E E k at alloku J E J E 13 h. katallok J E E J 14 i. k æt lloku E J J E 0 j. kæt rok E J E J 0 k. kæt llok E E J J 0 - f. vs. g-k.: confirms VQ, L > EVQ, StLar - g-h. vs. i-j.: VQ > L (iii) Number of Japanese features replaced: 3 VQ L EPQ StLar l. k at allok J E E E m. k æt rok E J E E 3 n. k æt lloku E E J E 5 o. kæt llok E E E J 0 - l. vs. m-o. : VQ > L, EPQ, StLar - l-n. vs. o.: VQ, L, EPQ > StLar (iv) Number of Japanese features replaced: 4 VQ L EPQ StLar p. k æt llok E E E E 1230 Resistance hierarchy: VQ > L > EPQ > StLar 4.2. Across-item variation The hierarchy is also visible not only within variants of a single English word but also in the variation over the entire hybrid lexicon. We need a way to quantify the relative degree of resistance to change for individual features. 6 6 A raw percentage? - not an accurate measure of relative degree of resistance to change as some features may just happen to be found in words that are overall conservative. - For example, there are 7 words in our survey that contain English /f/ and in 6 of the cases, the /f/ shows up as [h] and only once as [p ]. As a raw percentage, this may indicate that the /f/-related Japanese trait is highly resistant to change. But, this goes against native speaker (YJK) s intuition that [h] forms sound very Japanese and can readily be changed to an English pattern. 11

12 Relative measure of resistance to change (Resistance Index) - For all words that retain a particular Japanese trait (A), I calculated the rate of shift to English pattern in all traits other than A. For example, o There are 47 words in our corpus that show the Japanese style mapping for laryngeal adaptation of voiceless stops. o We calculated how all other Japanese traits are retained/replace for these words 47 words. In only 6 out of 92 cases, other traits have shifted over to English pattern (=6%). o In other words, the laryngeal feature for voiceless stops is one of the first feature to shift over to the English pattern, if the word is conservative enough to retain the Japanese pattern for voiceless stops, other features are likely not have shifted over to the English pattern. o The adaptation of / r/, on the other hand, have a fairly high resistance index. There are 61 words in our corpus that show the Japanese style mapping for / r/ adaptation. o In these 61 words, the rate of shift to English pattern in all other features is 37 % (34 out of 91). - We can do the same calculation but for words showing the English pattern for a given feature. For words showing the Japanese pattern for the given feature For words showing the English pattern for the given feature Consonantal /f/ 0.00 (N=12) 0.33 (N=3) Consonantal Laryngeal feature of voiceless stops 0.06 (N=93) 0.33 (N=210) Epenthetic vowel Extra epenthetic vowel 0.11 (N=19) 0.45 (N=65) Epenthetic Epenthetic Vowel vowel Consonantal Quality 0.22 (N=115) 0.54 (N=79) Laryngeal feature of /s/ 0.27 (N=30) 0.50 (N=34) Consonantal Coda /n/ 0.33 (N=27) 0.53 (N=49) Consonantal Intervocalic /l/ 0.29 (N=106) 0.58 (N=28) Vocalic 0.29 (N=76) 0.75 (N=8) Vocalic r 0.37 (N=91) 0.88 (N=17) Vocalic ej 0.38 (N=42) 0.88 (N=8) Vocalic ae 0.36 (N=91) 0.95 (N=22) Vocalic schwa 0.46 (N=154) 1.00 (N=17) 12

13 The index hierarchy matches the hierarchy found for individual words catalogue, meter. Overall, consonantal features and Epenthetic vowel related features are more likely to be replaced than vocalic features. Resistance index: Rate of shift to an English pattern in all other features /f/ Stop Lar /s/ Lar Coda /n/ Intervocalic /l/ Extra Ep. V Ep V Quality uh vowel schwa r ej ae schwa Consonantal Epenthetic Vowel Original Vowel For words showing the Japanese pattern for the given feature For words showing the English pattern for the given feature 5. Explaining the hierarchy 5.1. Salience? (cf. Steriade 2001) Assumption: The more noticeable the perceptual difference between the Japanesestyle pattern and the innovative English-style pattern, the more likely it is retained. Constraints - Two conflicting requirements o be like the Japanese-style loan : IO-Faith IO-Faith constraints have a fixed hierarchy reflectiong the perceptual salience of the prohibited change. o be like the expected English form : OO-Faith Deriving the three variants of meter - By varying the ranking of the OO-faith constraint relative to a hierarchy of IOfaith constraints, variants are derived. 13

14 Input: [meta] IO-FAITH (a- ) IO-FAITH (t-t ) OO-FAITH cf. English-style output: [mit ] [meta] ** [met a] *! * [mit ] *! * [mit ] *! * Input: [meta] IO-FAITH (a- ) OO-FAITH IO-FAITH (t-t ) cf. English-style output: [mit ] [meta] **! [met a] * *! [mit ] *! * [mit ] *! * Input: [meta] OO-FAITH IO-FAITH (a- ) IO-FAITH (t-t ) cf. English-style output: [mit ] [meta] **! [met a] *! *! [mit ] *! *! [mit ] *! * Full hierarchy IO-faithfulness constraint Japanese feature maintained a. IO-FAITH (a - ) Adaptation of English [ r] as [a] b. IO-FAITH (e - ei) Adaptation of English [ej] as [e] c. IO-FAITH (r - ll) Adaptation of English [l] as [r] in intervocalic position d. IO-FAITH (n - ) Adaptation of English word-final [n] e. IO-FAITH (s - s*) Adaptation of English non-preconsonantal [s] as lax [s] f. IO-FAITH (u - ) Epenthetic vowel as [u] or [ ] g. IO-FAITH (u - ) Extra epenthetic vowel that is unexpected in direct loans from English h. IO-FAITH (T/T* - T ) Adaptation of English voiceless stops as lax or tense stops i. IO-FAITH (h - p ) Adaptation of English [f] as [h] Admittedly speculative; requires more experimental and typological support 14

15 5.2.Alternation in Native phonology and subterranean ranking? - Zuraw (2000): Alternations in native phonology shape the constraint ranking such that the end-result reflects the frequency of the alternations in the native data and the hierarchy reveals itself when novel forms are run through the grammar. - Current case: The differences between the Japanese-style and the English-style patterns are better tolerated if the two related elements are involved in frequent native alternation. o Frequent native alternation relatively low ranking of faithfulness constraints change from the Japanese to English style is more easily tolerated. - No obvious correlation o [a] [ ]: very frequent native alternation (vowel harmony in verbal suffix); but very resistant in hybrid formation o [u]/[o] [ ]: no frequent native alternation; but quick to change over in hybrid formation 5.3.Compatibility or Confidence? Those Japanese traits that are more resistant to change may be ones that are plausible/compatible under a direct English-to-Korean mapping. - Orthography-based schwa adaptation - Mapping of intervocalic /l/ o phonemic [r], phonetic [ll] o Orthography l [r], ll [ll] (Oh and Steriade 2005) The Resistance Hierarchy might indicate the relative degree of confidence the Korean native speaker has concerning the adaptations that operate in the direct-english style. The less certain the English-style sound substitution, the more reluctant the speaker is to change the loan from the original Japanese style. (Steriade, pc) Selected references Heo, Young-Hyon and Ahrong Lee Extraphonological regularities in the Korean adaptation of foreign liquids. LSO Working Papers in Linguistics 5: Proceedings of WIGL 2005, Ito, Chiyuki, Yoonjung Kang, and Michael Kenstowicz The adaptation of Japanese loanwords into Korean. Feng-fan Hsieh and Michael Kenstowicz, eds. Studies in Loanword Phonology, MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 52,

16 Kang, Yoonjung Perceptual similarity in loanword adaptation: English postvocalic word-final stops in Korean. Phonology 20, Katayama, Motoko Optimality Thoery and Japanese Loanword Phonology. University of California, Santa Cruz PhD dissertation. Kim, Min-Swu Korean Etymological Dictionary [In Korean]. Seoul: Thayhaksa. Kwon, Young-ju A study on the difference between the standard writing and the customary writing. [In Korean]. Sookmyung Women s University MA thesis. National Academy of Korean Language. List of Japanese-Style words. Oh, Mira and Donca Steriade Poster on Korean Loan Adaptation at conference From Sound to Sense: 50+ Years of Discoveries in Speech Communication. Song, Min The issue of Japanese words in Korean [In Korean]. Japanese Studies 23, Steriade, Donca The phonology of perceptibility effects: the P-Map and its consequences for constraint organization. Unpublished UCLA ms. Tranter, Nicolas Hybrid Anglo-Japanese loans in Korean. Linguistics 35, Zuraw, Kie Exceptions and Regularities in Phonology. UCLA Ph.D. dissertation. 16