The Effect of Pre-Task and Online Planning Conditions on Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency on EFL Learners Written Production

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1 Po r t a Li n g u a r u m 20, junio 2013 pp The Effect of Pre-Task and Online Planning Conditions on Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency on EFL Learners Written Production Mae d e h Gh a v a m n i a, Ma n s o o r Ta v a k o l i a n d Ma s o o d Es t e k i University of Isfahan, Iran Received: 26 September 2011 / Accepted: 10 March 2012 ISSN: ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to investigate how pre-task and online could have impact on three dimensions of language production. Language performance and proficiency are believed to be multi-dimensional in nature, and that ir principal dimensions can be examined through notions of complexity, accuracy and fluency (Skehan, 1998; Ellis, 2008; Ellis &Barkhuizen, 2005). To conduct study, forty intermediate EFL learners from a language center in Iran were selected to participate in this study. They were homogenized in terms of gender, age, nationality, L1, and English proficiency. They were randomly assigned to eir pre- or online conditions and were required to complete a written narrative based on a series of pictures. Ten of participants in pre-task condition were randomly selected to participate in a retrospective interview following task to see what y did during 10 minute time. Independent samples t-tests were run in order to see if any significant difference existed in writing performance of participants under two conditions in relation to complexity, accuracy, and fluency. The findings of this study showed that pre-task group produced more complex and fluent writings, whereas online group produced more error free clauses indicating a more accurate writing performance. Keywords: Online, pre-task, complexity, accuracy, fluency. El efecto de la pre-tarea y la planificación en línea en la complejidad, precisión y fluidez en la producción escrita de estudiantes de inglés como lengua extranjera RESUMEN: El propósito de este studio fue investigar cómo la pre-tarea y la planificación en línea pueden tener un impacto en las tres dimensiones de la producción del lenguaje. La actuación lingüística y la competencia se cree que son multi-dimensionales en la naturaleza, y que sus principales dimensiones pueden ser examinadas a través de las nociones de complejidad, precisión y fluidez (Skehan, 1998; Ellis, 2008; Ellis y Barkhuizen, 2005). Para realizar el estudio, cuarenta estudiantes de ingles como lengua extranjera de nivel intermedio de un centro de idiomas en Irán fueron seleccionados para participar en este estudio. Que se homogeneizaron en términos de género, edad, nacionalidad, L1, y el dominio de inglés. Los participantes fueron asignados al azar a la pre-planificación o las condiciones de planificación en línea y se les pidió que completaran un relato escrito sobre la base de una serie de imágenes. Diez de los participantes en la condición de pre-planificación de tareas fueron seleccionados aleatoriamente para participar en una entrevista retrospectiva después de la tarea para ver lo que hicieron durante el tiempo de planificación de 10 minutos. Muestras independientes de t-tests se llevaron

2 Po r t a Li n g u a r u m Nº 20, junio 2013 a cabo con el fin de ver si existía alguna diferencia significativa en el rendimiento de escritura de los participantes en las dos condiciones de planificación en relación con la complejidad, precisión y fluidez. Los resultados de este estudio mostraron que el grupo de planificación previa a la tarea produjo escritos más complejos y de forma má fluida, mientras que el grupo de planificación en línea produjo más frases sin errores lo que indica un rendimiento de escritura más preciso. Palabras clave: la planificación en línea, pre-tarea de planificación, la complejidad, precisión, fluidez. 1. Int r o d u c t i o n One way of accounting for language performance is by examining complexity, accuracy, and fluency of language produced. According to Skehan (2009), successful performance in task-based contexts include: complexity, defined as more advanced language, accuracy, in which performer tries to make as few errors as possible, and fluency, rate of speech production. Since speaking and writing are seen as complex and multi-faceted phenomenon involving a series of interrelated stages, attention to one aspect of production is likely to be at expense of or. Depending on situation, an L2 learner s attention might be focused on one of three aspects of performance while jeopardizing or two. For example, L2 learners who are more concerned with correctness of what is said might not pay much attention to how something is said or vice versa. Therefore L2 learners, especially those at lower levels of proficiency, find it difficult to attend to meaning and form at same time. L2 learners problems in production may be lessened if y are given time to plan before y produce an L2 utterance or composition. When learners are given opportunity to plan linguistic and propositional content of an upcoming task, y can make up for drawbacks in ir language production and as a result quality of linguistic output is improved. In relation to providing learners with opportunities for, a number of studies have investigated impact of on language production over last past decade (e.g. Ellis, 1987; Mehnert, 1998; Ortega, 1999). In contrast to number of studies that have investigated effects of on speaking production (Ahmadian & Tavakoli, 2011), few studies have undertaken effects of different types of on written narratives. As thus, this study was designed to examine effects of pre-task and online on EFL learners written narratives. Furr, study sought to investigate through a follow up interview, what participants in pre-task condition did prior to starting writing task. 2. Li t e r a t u r e r e v i e w Planning has attracted considerable attention and has been shown to produce relatively consistent effects on L2 production (Ellis, 2005). Studies (e.g. Foster & Skehan, 1996) have shown that when learners are provided with an opportunity to plan a task before executing it, language y produce is more fluent and more complex than when no is possible (Ellis, 2005). As a result complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) have turned into major research variables in field of applied linguistics. 32

3 Maededh Ghavamnia, Mansoor Tavakoli and Masood Esteki The Effect of Pre-Task... Skehan (1996) has distinguished se three aspects of linguistic performance; Fluency concerns learner s capacity to produce language in real time without undue pausing and hesitation (Skehan, 1996, 22). Speech rate, length of run, and pause length are only a few ways of measuring fluency. Complexity concerns elaborate or ambition of language that is produced (Skehan, 1996, 22). Complexity can be measured based on subordination or lexical complexity. Accuracy is extent to which language produced is correct. In or words, it is amount of separation from a norm. Bearing this in mind that L2 learners usually find it difficult to pay simultaneous attention to form and meaning, it is perfectly understandable that study of potential benefits of in language production have become a relevant area of concern in language learning studies. Researchers have distinguished two major types of pre-task and within-task (online ). These are distinguished based on when takes place eir before task itself or during performance of task (Ellis, 2005). Pre-task is furr divided into rehearsal and strategic. According to Ellis (2005): Rehearsal entails providing learners with an opportunity to perform task before main performance. In or words, it involves task repetition with first performance of task viewed as a preparation for a subsequent performance. Strategic entails learners preparing to perform task by considering content y will need to encode and how to express this content. In pre-task, learners have access to actual task materials. Within-task can be differentiated according to extent to which task performance is pressured or unpressured. This can be achieved most easily by manipulating time made available to learners for on-line of what to say/write in a task performance. When this is unpressured participants have opportunity to conceptualize, formulate and articulate ir messages with some care. Moreover, Yuan and Ellis (2003) define online as process by which speakers attend carefully to formulation stage during speech and engage in pre-production and post-production monitoring of ir speech acts. In case of pre-task, learners plan propositional content and isolated chunks of language to encode it. As name suggests, online takes place during performance of a task, whereas pre-task examines how prior to performance influences production. A number of studies have investigated effects of on L2 learners oral performance. Research lends general support to claim that in advance impacts positively on language production, mostly fluency and complexity (Ortega, 1999). Studies by Crookes (1989), Foster and Skehan (1996), Skehan and Foster (1997), Wendel (1997) and Mehnert (1998) report that pre-task results in increased fluency. In addition, pre-task has a positive effect on complexity, in that more complex language is produced by planners than non-planners (Ellis, 2004). Foster and Skehan (1996) found that detailed planners used significantly more subordination than undetailed planners. Wigglesworth (1997) reports that one-minute of time only led to more complex language use in high proficient learners on difficult task. Yuan and Ellis (2003) found that pre-task had a positive effect on complexity. As thus, it has been found that pre-task has a 33

4 Po r t a Li n g u a r u m Nº 20, junio 2013 positive effect on fluency and complexity. When it comes to accuracy, however, effects of strategic are less certain. Similar to research in speaking contexts, few studies in L2 writing contexts that have been conducted also employed different variables in terms of conditions, task types, and aspects of L2 learners writing performances that were analyzed (Kroll, 1990). What can be interpreted from research on written narratives to date is that advanced time itself does not seem to have much effect on L2 learners output in writing. This is different from research on speaking, which generally shows that learners oral production may improve by simply allowing m time to plan before speaking. Since writing processes can involve longer time for both pre-task and online than speaking processes, effects of extra time for pre-task can easily blur in sequence of time for composing. Learners in se studies may also have revised ir produced text and corrected ir mistakes while writing, and thus effects of pre-task on accuracy may not be evident in ir writing performance. Up to now, a number of studies have examined and its effect on L2 performance. In sum, studies have found that giving learners time to plan prior to executing a task (speech production) resulted in more fluency and complexity. However, results for accuracy are not consistent in different studies. According to Ellis and Yuan (2004) pre-task aids fluency and complexity but not necessarily accuracy in L2 learners oral narratives. Despite considerable amount of oretical and empirical evidence that supports importance of giving learners opportunity to plan in oral performance, role that pre-task and online play in written production remains unclear (Ellis & Yuan, 2004). As thus, additional examination of conditions in writing performance of EFL learners is needed. Accordingly, this study tries to catch up to studies conducted on speech production by investigating effects of on written narratives. The present study attempted to explore if any significant difference existed among written narratives of EFL learners in pre-task and online conditions in relation to CAF. In addition, since few studies have examined how students manage ir time under pretask condition, this study aimed to cover this gap by conducting a retrospective interview with EFL learners after completion of ir written narratives. 3. Re s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s / h y p o t h e s e s 34 This study was designed to answer following research questions: 1. Is re a significant difference in accuracy of EFL learners writings in pretask and online conditions? According to literature, online condition will result in more accurate performance 2. Is re a significant difference in fluency of EFL learners writings in pretask and online conditions? According to literature, pre-task condition will result in greater fluency.

5 Maededh Ghavamnia, Mansoor Tavakoli and Masood Esteki The Effect of Pre-Task Is re a significant difference in complexity of EFL learners writings in pre-task and online conditions? According to literature, pre-task condition will result in greater complexity. 4. How did EFL learners manage ir time in pre-task condition? 4. Me t h o d This study was a single-factor, between-subjects design with two levels of condition (pre-task and online ). The forty participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups. Each group produced a written narrative elicited by means of a set of related pictures in one of two conditions. The participants textual products were n analyzed in terms of complexity, accuracy, and fluency Participants The participants under study included forty EFL learners who were enrolled in a language center in Isfahan. The students met 3 times a week for one and a half hour for a total number of 25 sessions. The book y worked on Top Notch book level 3A. They were all male, between 20 and 24 years old. All were native speakers of Persian, learning English as ir second language. None of participants had been to any English speaking country prior to study. The participants in this study had learned ir English in an instructed setting. The rationale behind selection of participants was ir teacher s judgment based on previous writing activities completed in class. From among 70 students enrolled in intermediate courses, forty were recognized by instructors as having an intermediate writing ability. These were students who had received 65-75% on mid-term exam. According to language center writing scores ranging between 65-75% indicates an intermediate writing ability. The mid-term and final exam at language institute consisted of structure, vocabulary, reading, and writing sections. The writing section which was our concern consisted of 3 topics given to students. From among topics two were chosen by students to write about. The criterion for marking EFL learners writings was uniform among all instructors. Next, students were divided randomly into two groups; each condition consisting of twenty EFL learners. The participants were considered homogeneous in terms of ir gender, age range, first language (L1), nationality, and writing ability which was evaluated based on instructors judgment and ir mid-term writing scores Task In this study participants in both pre-task and online groups were required to write a picture compositions based on a picture story. They were supposed to make interpretations about what would happen throughout picture story. The story y had to 35

6 Po r t a Li n g u a r u m Nº 20, junio 2013 write was about a girl who was taken to train station by a man and a woman, probably her relatives. But once she got onto train, ones who had driven her to railway station noticed she had forgotten to carry her suitcase onto train. So y got into ir car and followed train up to next station and returned suitcase to her Task Conditions In this study, was operationalized at two levels: pre-task and online. The participants worked on writing tasks in two classroom sessions. In pre-task condition, students were first given 10 minutes to think about what y wanted to write and to jot down any notes. The choice of time was based on Crookes (1989), Foster and Skehan (1996), and Wendel s (1997) studies. The teacher collected ir notes before y started writing task in which y were given 20 minutes to complete. According to Ellis and Yuan (2004), reasons for this were that First, removing notes ensured that language elicited by all participants was produced within specified time limit. Second, notes could be used as evidence regarding how individual students undertook (P. 70). In online condition, based on Ellis and Yuan s (2004) study, participants were not restricted in amount of time y had for completing ir writing task. They were told not to worry about any time limitations and could take as much time as needed Retrospective interview Ten of participants from pre-task condition were randomly selected to take part in a retrospective interview after completing writing task. The think-aloud procedure was not used in this investigation because time was one of our variables. In contrast, through retrospective method one can identify cognitive processes after task completion. The data from interview were used to see if re were any relationship between what learners did while y planned for writing composition and how y actually performed on task. The participants in pre-task condition were provided with 10 minutes time to plan ir writing. They were allowed to take notes or jot down anything y wanted during this time. Then, prior to commencing writing task ir notes were collected. In retrospective interview, researchers provided subjects with ir notes. They were asked, using ir notes as reminders to what y had done during time, to explain what y were up to in time slot. The subjects were asked to explicitly explain all notes y had jotted down during time prior to execution of actual task Measurement of variables Planning, which was independent variable in this study, was estimated in terms of amount of time that each participant took to complete writing task. This measure is similar to one Yuan and Ellis (2003) used to measure independent variable in ir study, namely. Measures of accuracy, fluency, and complexity were developed to examine participants written production (Table 1). Following previous research, se measures were same as 36

7 4.5. Measurement of variables Planning, which was independent variable in this study, was estimated in terms of amount of time that each participant took to complete writing task. This measure is similar to one Yuan and Ellis (2003) used to measure independent variable in ir study, namely. Maededh Ghavamnia, Mansoor Tavakoli and Masood Esteki The Effect of Pre-Task... Measures of accuracy, fluency, and complexity were developed to examine participants written production (Table 1). Following previous research, se measures those used were in studies same as of those oral used production in studies (e.g., of oral Ahmadian production & Tavakoli, (e.g., Ahmadian 2011; & Foster Tavakoli, & Skehan, 1996; 2011; Wendel, Foster 1997; & Skehan, Yuan & 1996; Ellis, Wendel, 2003). 1997; However, Yuan & changes Ellis, 2003). to However, fluency measures changes were made to make fluency m measures appropriate were for made written to make production. m appropriate The fluency for written of production. writings was measured The fluency according of to writings number was measured of dysfluencies according to total number of dysfluencies of words a participant reformulated total number (crossed of words out a and participant changed) reformulated divided by (crossed total out and number changed) of words divided produced. by Complexity total was number measured of words based produced. on Complexity syntactic complexity was measured of based written on syntactic tasks ratio of clauses complexity to T-units of in written participants tasks ratio production. of clauses Accuracy to T-units measures in participants were gared in accordance production. to Accuracy number of measures error-free were clauses gared in percentage accordance of to clauses number that did of errorfree clauses percentage of clauses that did not contain any errors. All errors in not contain any errors. All errors in syntax, morphology, and lexical choice were considered. Lexical syntax, morphology, and lexical choice were considered. Lexical errors were defined errors as were errors defined in lexical as form errors or in collocation. lexical form or collocation. Table 1:Variables Table 1. Variables. Variables Type of variable Measured Complexity Dependent Syntactic complexity Accuracy Dependent Number of error free clauses Fluency Dependent Number of dysfluencies Planning time (Pre and Online ) Independent Amount of time needed to complete writing task In order to provide plausible answers to research questions posed above, first, In order to provide plausible answers to research questions posed above, first, time in two conditions are compared. Then, independent sample t-tests are time in two conditions are compared. Then, independent sample t-tests are performed separately for three dependent variables (CAF). Finally, data performed obtained separately from for retrospective three interviews dependent are variables analyzed. (CAF). Finally, data obtained from retrospective interviews are analyzed. 5. RESULTS 5. Re As s u l it t was s mentioned previously, difference between pre-task and online condition was that in former participants were given 10 minutes to plan, and 20 minutes to write actual written narrative. Whereas in latter As participants it was mentioned took as much previously, time as y difference needed to complete between writing pre-task task and without online any condition was that in former participants were given 10 minutes to plan, and 20 minutes to write actual written narrative. Whereas in latter participants took as much time as y needed to complete writing task without any time limitations. The table below shows difference in time spent on writing task under two conditions. According to t-test (table 2 and 3), difference in amount of time two groups spent on writing task was significant with online group taking longer. The online group took longer to complete task (M=31.00 min.) than those in pre-task group (M=20.00 min.). 37

8 time limitations. The table below shows difference in in time spent on on writing task under two conditions. According to to t-test (table 2 and 3), 3), difference in in amount of of time two groups spent on on writing task was significant with online group taking longer. The online group took longer to to complete task (M=31.00 min.) than those in in pre-task group (M=20.00 min.). Po r t a Li n g u a r u m Nº 20, junio 2013 Table 2: 2: Group Statistics Table for for 2. Group time Statistics for time. Planning Group N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Pre-task Online Table 3: 3: Independent Table Samples 3. Independent Test for for Samples time Test for time. Levene's Test for for Equality of of Variances F Sig. t t df df Equal Equal not not t-test for for Equality of of Means Sig. 95% 95% Confidence Interval (2- (2- Mean Std. Error of of Difference tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper The writings of of participants were corrected by by two raters based on on criterion The available writings for for measuring of participants complexity, were accuracy, corrected and fluency. by two The raters inter-rater based reliability on criterion available was for calculated measuring based complexity, on on Cronbach s accuracy, alpha which and fluency. was 0.89 The for for inter-rater compositions reliability was calculated completed based in in on Cronbach s pre-task alpha time which and was was for for compositions completed in pre-task in in online time and time was conditions for This compositions indicated that completed re was a a in positively online high time conditions. correlation among This indicated two raters that decisions. re was a positively high correlation among two raters decisions. In In order to to answer first three research questions, independent-samples t-tests were In order to answer first three research questions, independent-samples t-tests estimated and reported separately for for complexity, accuracy, and fluency in in tables were estimated and reported separately for complexity, accuracy, and fluency in tables below. below. Table 4 and 5 show results for accuracy variable. The online group obtained a higher mean (M=0.786). There was a significant difference between two conditions in terms of accuracy, with online group providing more error-free clauses. 38

9 Table Table 4 4 and and 5 5 show show results results for for accuracy accuracy variable. variable. The The online online group group obtained Table obtained 4 a and higher a higher 5 show mean mean (M=0.786). (M=0.786). results for There There accuracy was was a significant a significant variable. difference The difference online between between group two two obtained conditions a conditions higher mean in in terms (M=0.786). terms of of accuracy, accuracy, There with was with a significant online online difference group between group providing providing two more more error-free error-free conditions clauses. clauses. in terms of accuracy, with online group providing more error-free clauses. Maededh Ghavamnia, Mansoor Tavakoli and Masood Esteki The Effect of Pre-Task... Table 4: Group Statistics for accuracy Table 4: Group Statistics for accuracy Table 4: Group Statistics for Table accuracy 4. Group Statistics for accuracy. Planning Planning N N Mean Mean Std. Deviation Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Std. Error Mean Accuracy Accuracy Planning pre-task pre-task N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Accuracy pre-task online online online Table 5: Independent Table Samples 5. Independent Test for accuracy Table 5: Independent Samples Test for accuracy Samples Test for accuracy. Table 5: Independent Samples Test for accuracy Levene's Test Levene's Test Levene's for Equality for Equality Test of Variances t-test for Equality of Means of for Variances Equality t-test for Equality of Means of Variances t-test for Equality of Means 95% Confidence 95% Confidence Sig. Interval of Sig. Interval 95% Confidence of (2- Mean Std. Error Difference (2- Sig. Mean Std. Error Difference Interval of F Sig. t df tailed) Difference Difference F Sig. t df tailed) (2- Difference Mean Difference Std. Error Lower Difference Upper Lower Upper Accuracy Equal F Sig. t df tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper Accuracy Equal l16395 Accuracy Equal l l Equal Equal - Equal not not not Tables 6 and 7 show difference among two conditions in relation to fluency. Tables Tables The 6 6 and total and 7 number 7 show show of difference words difference reformulated among among two by two pre-task conditions conditions in relation group relation to was to more statistically fluency. Tables fluency. significant 6 The and The total 7 total show number number than difference of of words words online reformulated among reformulated two by group. by pre-task pre-task The results conditions indicate group relation group was that was to pre more fluency. more statistically group statistically The had total significant a significant higher number mean than of than words (M=0.1010) online reformulated online than by group. group. online pre-task The The results results indicate indicate group. that was that more pre- pre- statistically group group significant had had a higher a than higher mean mean online (M=0.1010) (M=0.1010) than than group. online The online results indicate group. group. that pre- group had a higher mean (M=0.1010) than online group. Table 6: Group Statistics for fluency. Table 6: Group Statistics for fluency Table 6: Group Statistics for fluency Table 6: Group Planning Statistics for fluency Planning N N Mean Mean Std. Deviation Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Std. Error Mean fluency fluency Planning pre-task pre-task N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean fluency pre-task online online online

10 Po r t a Li n g u a r u m Nº 20, junio 2013 Table Table 7: 7: Independent Samples Table Test 7. Test Independent for for fluency Samples Test for fluency. Levene's Test Test for for Equality of of Variances t-test t-test for for Equality of of Means 95% 95% Confidence Sig. Sig. Interval of of (2- (2- Mean Mean Std. Std. Error Error Difference F F Sig. Sig. t t df df tailed) tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper Upper Fluency Equal Equal Equal Equal not not Table Table 8 8 and 8 and and 9below 9below show show show results results for for for complexity complexity of of writing of narratives writing narratives produced by by by two two groups under different different conditions. conditions. Table Table 8: 8: Group Group Statistics for Table for complexity 8. Group Statistics for complexity. complexity N N Mean Mean Std. Std. Deviation Std. Std. Error Error Mean Mean pre-task online online Table 9: Independent Table Samples 9. Independent Test for complexity Samples Test for complexity. Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F Sig. t df t-test for Equality of Means Sig. (2- tailed) Mean Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of Difference Difference Lower Upper Complexity Equal Equal not In this study syntactic variety was measured to assess complexity of language produced in written narratives. Overall, differences among two groups were statistically significant in that pre-task group produced more clauses. These results indicated that opportunity for pre-task resulted in more fluent and complex written production. Whereas online group outperformed or group in terms of number of error free clauses produced. The data obtained from interviews revealed how subjects in pre-task condition managed ir time prior to actual writing performance. All of

11 Maededh Ghavamnia, Mansoor Tavakoli and Masood Esteki The Effect of Pre-Task... In this study syntactic variety was measured to assess complexity of language produced in written narratives. Overall, differences among two groups were statistically significant in that pre-task group produced more clauses. These results indicated that opportunity for pre-task resulted in more fluent and complex written production. Whereas online group outperformed or group in terms of number of error free clauses produced. The data obtained from interviews revealed how subjects in pre-task condition managed ir time prior to actual writing performance. All of m had started by looking at pictures and trying to figure out what had happened in story. The majority of subjects reported that y started out by telling story to mselves in Persian (L1). Then most of m had planned L2 vocabulary y wanted to use in writing task. Most of subjects mentioned that y tried to think of a way to make story more interesting; thinking of what pictures might have come before and after selected pictures of task. All of m had jotted down some linking words to use in going from one picture to or. This showed us how pre-task group organized ir time. 6. Di s c u s s i o n This study was primarily aimed at examining effects of pre-task and online conditions on complexity, accuracy, and fluency in EFL learners written production. In this section we will summarize findings of study and discuss our findings in relation to or studies. It was shown in results section that participants in online group spent more time on task completion than those in pre-task group. Therefore, it could be argued that careful online has been successfully operationalized. Regarding first research question posed, examining effect of pre-task and online on accuracy, it was found that participants in online group outperformed pre-task group in number of error-free clauses produced. In a way, this finding is consistent with results that Hulstijn and Hulstijn (1984), Ellis (1987), and Yuan and Ellis (2003) obtained. These three studies suggest that time learners are given for online improves accuracy of ir production. Our finding lends support to Skehan s (1998) dual-mode system proposal. Skehan states that rule-based system is likely to be parsimoniously and elegantly orga nized, with rules being compactly structured (p. 89). In order to be accessed performers of tasks need more time and attention. Therefore, when learners are given as much time as needed and are not pressured for time y may draw on ir rule-based system. Making use of this rule-based system in oral production explains higher level of accuracy (Ahmadian & Tavakoli, 2011). In terms of second research question results of present study indicate that pre-task positively affects fluency. In pre-task participants are given time prior to writing performance. During this time participants in most cases try to understand story illustrated in pictures, organize information that needs to be conveyed, establish setting and describe characters without feeling any pressure. In line with our findings, a number of studies have confirmed that giving learners opportunity 41

12 Po r t a Li n g u a r u m Nº 20, junio 2013 to plan results in greater fluency (e.g., Foster & Skehan, 1996; Skehan & Foster, 1997; Wigglesworth, 1997; Wendel, 1997; Mehnert, 1998; Ortega, 1999). Pre-task also has some effect on complexity. The pre-task planners used more syntactic complexity in ir written narratives. Our finding regarding complexity is in a way in line with Wendel s (1997) claim and Yuan and Ellis s (2003) finding that complexity in language production is closely linked with pre-task. In summary, pre-task has a marked effect on written fluency, a relatively strong effect on linguistic complexity; whereas online has an effective impact on accuracy. According to Ellis and Yuan (2004: 81) it is clear that pre-task enhances learner output in a written task. This is manifested in greater quantity, fluency, and complexity of language, although such appears to have little effect on accuracy. 7. Co n c l u s i o n The purpose of this article was to explore effects of two types of (pretask and online) on textual output. Although re have been studies investigating what L1 writers do during, few have focused on effects of on L2 writing performance (Ellis & Yuan, 2004). This study, being in line with Ellis and Yuan s (2004) study, suggests that pre-task has a positive effect on fluency and complexity of written output, whereas online has an influential impact on accuracy of written product. This has important implications for writing pedagogy. Depending on purpose of writing tasks teachers assign EFL learners, different aspects of writing performance can be emphasized by altering type of conditions. Akn o w l e d g m e n t The authors are grateful to participants of study and anonymous reviewer(s) for ir constructive comments. 8. Re f e r e n c e s Ahmadian J. and Tavakoli, M. (2011). The effects of simultaneous use of careful online and task repetition on accuracy, complexity and fluency in EFL learners oral production, in Language Teaching Research, 15, 1: Crookes, G. (1989). Planning and interlanguage variation, in Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 11: Ellis, R. (1987). Interlanguage variability in narrative discourse: Style in use of past tense, in Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 9: Ellis, R. (Eds.). (2005). Planning and Task Performance in a Second Language. John Benjamins. Ellis, R. (2008). The Study of Second Language Acquisition.2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 42

13 Maededh Ghavamnia, Mansoor Tavakoli and Masood Esteki The Effect of Pre-Task... Ellis, R. and Barkhuizen, G. (2005). Analyzing Learner Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R. and Yuan, F. (2004). The effects of on fluency, complexity, and accuracy in second language narrative writing, in Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26: Foster, P. and Skehan, P. (1996). The influence of on performance in task-based learning, in Studies in Second Language Acquisition,18, 3: Hulstijn, J. andhulstijn, W. (1984). Grammatical errors as a function of processing constraints and explicit knowledge, in Language Learning, 34: Kroll, B. (1990). What does time buy? ESL student performance on home versus class compositions, in B. Kroll (Ed.), Second language writing. New York: Cambridge University Press, Mehnert, U. (1998). The effects of different lengths of time for on second language performance, in Studies in Second Language Acquisition,20: Ortega, L. (1999). Planning and focus on form in oral performance, in Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21: Skehan, P. (1996). Second-language acquisition research and task-based instruction, in J. Willis and D. Willis (Eds.): Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Oxford: Heinemann, Skehan, P. (1998). A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Skehan, P. (2009). Modeling second language performance: Integrating complexity, accuracy, fluency, and lexis, in Applied Linguistics, 30, 3: Skehan, P. and Foster, P. (1997). Task-type and task processing conditions as influences on foreign language performance, in Language Teaching Research, 1, 3: Wendel, J. (1997). Planning and second language narrative production. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Tokyo: Temple University Japan. Wigglesworth, G. (1997). An investigation of time and proficiency level on oral test discourse, in Language Testing, 14: Yuan, F. and Ellis, R. (2003). The effects of pre-task and on-line on fluency, complexity and accuracy in L2 oral production, in Applied Linguistics, 24: