Assessing Work Values Among Students in American and Taiwanese Business Schools

Transcription

1 第 2 卷 第 1 期 澳 門 科 技 大 學 學 報 Vol.2 No 年 6 月 30 日 Journal of Macau University of Science and Technology June 30, Assessing Work Values Among Students in American and Taiwanese Business Schools JOHN A. PARNELL 1, Ting YU 2, ALEXANDER Nai-Chi CHEN 3, Qing TIAN 4 (1. School of Business, University of North Carolina at Pembroke, Pembroke, North Carolina, US) (2. School of Finance and Economics, Ling Tung University, Taichung, Taiwan,China) (3. Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China) (4. Faculty of Management and Administration, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau,China) Abstract: Work values have been identified as critical variables in the career development process and have influence in job tenure. Many of the problems associated with foreign joint ventures in Asia over the past two decades have been concerned with employee motivation and retention. The purpose of this research is to examine whether there are significant differences in work value among business students in the United States and Taiwan. The American business students were found to be concerned more with competence and growth than Taiwanese business students, but no differences were found along comfort and security, and status and independence. Key words: Work values; American culture; Chinese culture; China; Taiwan. 美 國 和 台 灣 商 學 院 學 生 的 工 作 價 值 評 估 JOHN A. PARNELL 1, 余 霆 2, 陳 迺 驥 3 4, 田 青 (1. 北 卡 羅 萊 納 大 學 彭 布 魯 克 分 校 商 學 院, 彭 布 魯 克, 北 卡 羅 來 納 州, 美 國 ) (2. 嶺 東 科 技 大 學 財 經 學 院, 臺 中, 臺 灣 ;3. 澳 門 科 技 大 學, 澳 門 ) (4. 澳 門 科 技 大 學 行 政 與 管 理 學 院, 澳 門 ) 摘 要 : 工 作 價 值 被 認 為 是 影 響 職 業 發 展 過 程 的 關 鍵 變 數 並 對 員 工 工 作 的 長 久 性 產 生 影 響 過 去 二 十 多 年 來 在 亞 洲 的 外 國 企 業 發 現 了 許 多 有 關 於 員 工 工 作 動 機 和 留 住 員 工 之 問 題 此 研 究 目 的 在 於 檢 驗 美 國 和 台 灣 商 學 院 學 生 中 是 否 存 在 明 顯 的 工 作 價 值 差 異 性 研 究 成 果 顯 示, 美 國 商 學 院 學 生 相 較 台 灣 學 生 更 關 注 於 職 業 具 有 的 競 爭 性 與 發 展 前 景 在 工 作 價 值 所 包 含 的 舒 適 性 和 安 全 性, 以 及 工 作 中 的 地 位 和 獨 立 性 這 兩 種 工 作 價 值 方 面, 美 國 和 台 灣 的 學 生 之 間 並 沒 有 差 異 關 鍵 詞 : 工 作 價 值 ; 美 國 文 化 ; 中 國 文 化 ; 中 國 ; 台 灣 00 Introduction Work values have been identified as critical variables in the career development process and have influence on job tenure [1-2]. Indeed, many of the problems associated with foreign joint ventures in China over the past two decades have been concerned with motivation and retention for both employees and managers [3-8]. Western firm success in China depends on improvements in these areas and requires 收 稿 日 期 : ; 修 回 日 期 : 通 訊 作 者 : 田 青, 女, 助 理 教 授, 主 要 研 究 興 趣 為 商 業 理 論 人 力 資 源 qtian@must.edu.mo

2 ,2(1) an understanding of the differences in work values between managers and workers in China and those in the West. The situation is the same in areas such as Taiwan where the nature of work values is assumed to be similar to those in the Chinese mainland, but is not always the case [9]. Given the shortage of managers in emerging regions of Asia and scarce research focusing on work values among Taiwan Chinese and Americans, examining the work values of Taiwan Chinese is important for multinational corporations wishing to implement more effective international management programs both in Mainland China and Taiwan. In addition, understanding how national culture may influence people s perception of work value becomes important as business organizations adopt an international perspective. While examining the work values of American and Taiwan business students from a comparative perspective, this study also attempts to ask whether such situations as economic prosperity and globalization might mitigate the impact of national cultures on work values. 11 Theoretical Background and Hypotheses The term work values has been used interchangeably with term such as work goals and job orientations [10-11]. Work values have been identified as qualities of people s desire from their work and are the values that individuals believe should be satisfied as a result of their participation in the work role. They guide individuals work achievement, responsibility, their life and wealthy expectations and also influence individuals work commitment and job satisfaction [12-14]. As such, work values are identified as critical determinants in job development and retention. Measuring work values across cultures has been an arduous task. Some researchers suggest that Western notions of motivation and work values may not be applicable in China [15] and Chinese applications of western survey instruments such as scales utilized in the present study might have their limitations or restrictions [16-17]. However, significant differences were found in values using the Chinese Value Survey developed by Bond (1987) among managers in the USA, Mainland China and Hongkong, with only Confucian dynamism as the only non-matching dimension [18]. Recent evidence also suggests that Chinese workers in some industries give high importance to such matters as high earnings and pleasant working conditions [19] like Westerns, and to other extrinsic work values as well [20]. Study of Elizur noted that Taiwanese managers cultural values reflect a Western influence on traditional Chinese values [21]. In this regard, our study adopted Manhardt s three dimensions of work values to measure the job orientation differences based on different cultures: working environment, competence and growth, and status and independence. The first dimension, working conditions including job security, ample leisure time off the job and comfortable working conditions were considered as physiological and safety needs in Maslow s [22] five needs taxonomy and as extrinsic factor leading to job dissatisfaction in Herzberg s two-factor theory [23]. The second dimension, competence and growth, includes such items as feeling of accomplishments, autonomy, creativity provided by the job, self-actualization, and achievement. This dimension relates to job satisfaction according to Herzberg s intrinsic rewards, including such characteristics of work are autonomy, creativity, and responsibility. The third dimension, status and independence, refers to career success factors such as esteem, salary and upward striving, factors related to extrinsic motivating factors [23]. Extrinsic work values are in the form of rewards such as salary, opportunity for promotion and extrinsic social conditions, such as supervisory relationship [24]. An individual s attitudes and values are all, to a large extent, shaped by culture. To clarify the differences between America and Taiwan, we will refer to Hofstede s [25] cultural dimensions (see table 1). Where countries differ on one or more of these dimensions, work value of the members of these cultures may be expected to differ.

3 JOHN A. PARNELL,et al. Assessing Work Values Among Students in American and Taiwanese Business Schools 51 Table 1 Cultypol typology: Taiwan vs. U.S. Country Power Distance Individualism Masculinity Uncertainty avoidance Confucian Dynamism Score Score Score Score Score Score Taiwan U. S Source: Hofstede, Work Environment On Hofstede s Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) dimension, America has a low index value and Taiwan has a high index value. In a society of low uncertainty avoidance such as the United States, people feel less threatened by ambiguity. They are more willing to take more risks in life and realize that the future is unpredictable. Individuals within a high UA culture like Taiwan are more concerned with security in life, however, preferring clear hierarchical structures in organizations. They also feel a greater need for written rules and procedures, and are less tolerant of deviations from standard practices. In high UA countries, various rules and norms that reduce this uncertainty are to be expected. Its members prefer rules and long-term stable situations. Furthermore, Taiwanese students appear to have a stronger need for task simplicity and predictability, which is not surprising considering the fact that Taiwanese culture has a much greater tendency to avoid uncertainty than American culture [26]. This suggests that in a culture of high level of uncertainty avoidance such as Taiwan, people are more likely to work in an organization with clear-cut rules and procedures to follow. They tend to accept such jobs permit a regular routine in time and place of work. Thus, we propose: H1: Taiwanese students will place a greater emphasis than American students on comfort and security Self-actualization In comparison to Taiwan, America culture is strong in individualism (see table 1). The individualism collectivism cultural dimension is used to measure the extent to which a culture values individual achievement rather than emphasizing the interests of the group [27]. In American societies, personal achievement is recognized culturally with rewards for competing within the groups. In American value systems, greater emphasis is placed on competition and achievement. In more collectivist societies such as Taiwan, however, people are more likely to see themselves as benefiting from the group and are recognized for sacrificing personal interest for collective goals [28]. These differences suggest that Americans tend to think of themselves as I and tend to classify themselves and each other by individual characteristics, rather than by group membership. Individualists believe that the self is the basic unit of survival and have high needs for autonomy [29]. According to the scales measuring work value by Manhardt [11], Americans are more likely to choose a job that requires originality and creativity, satisfies aesthetic interests and permits people to develop their own methods of doing the work. High individualistic groups manifest greater assertiveness in meeting personal objectives and need, such as the desire to actualize one s gifts and abilities [27]. The dimension of intrinsic rewards contains items related to autonomy and self-actualization [26]. Employees in individualistic cultures like the United States tend to emphasize individual career success and the satisfaction of the intrinsic need for self-actualization, while employees in collectivistic cultures, such as Taiwan, tend to focus more on work atmosphere or environments [26][30-32]. Hence, we thus propose: H2: American students will place a greater emphasis than Taiwanese students on competence and growth.

4 ,2(1) 1111 Career Success The item Status and Independence is also classified by Manhardt as career success [11], including esteem, promotion opportunities and high income, which is more a measure of career success by many university graduates. The Masculinity Index measures the extent to which the dominant values in a society are masculine, such as assertiveness, high career earnings, and the acquisition of money and things; it is also associated with caring less for others and the quality of their lives, factors typically associated with the opposite feminine pole of the index [11 [33]. Masculinity in Taiwan is lower than that in the United States, suggesting that American business students tend to place more emphasis on personal goals such as advancement and high income. In the Chinese culture, people tend to show greater concern for personal goals such as a friendly atmosphere and getting along well with managers and coworkers. As to independence, individuals in high Power Distance (PD) cultures like Taiwan are more willing to behave in accordance with their position and respect within a chain of commend, accepting orders without applying their personal ethical beliefs [25]. In contrast, individuals in the U.S. may be more inclined to question a superior and less likely to accept his or her questionable practices than those in Taiwan. Hence, we propose the following hypothesis to measure the subscale of Status and Independence: H3: American students will place a greater emphasis than Taiwanese students on status and independence. 22 Methodology 2222 Measures The 21 statements about work goals utilized in the present study were derived from Manhardt s (1972) classic work values scale and were changed only slightly to measure job orientation of the business students from America and Taiwan [26] [34]. The survey was administered in English to American students and in Chinese to students Taiwan. The Chinese questionnaire was translated into English by bilingual professionals from American and Chinese business schools. Work values were measured via Manhardt s (1972) three-dimensional scale encompassing are comfort and security, competence and growth, and status and independence. A 5-point Likert scale ranging from 5 (very important) to 1 (unimportant) was used to evaluate the work values of American and Chinese business students. Per Manhardt s (1972) work values scale, separate factor analyses were applied to the first five items (comfort and security), the next nine items (competence and growth), and the final seven items (status and independence) Sample and Data Collection Data for the present study were collected from advanced undergraduate and graduate students in American and Taiwanese business schools. The target respondents were junior, senior, and postgraduate. A total of 518 business students 192 from universities in Taipei, Taiwan and 326 from four public universities across the southern and southwestern United States were surveyed about their work values and attitudes related to their interest in international job assignments. Respondents completed the questionnaires at their universities. Eleven respondents were excluded from further analysis because they were not junior, senior, or postgraduate students. 33 Findings The average age of the respondents was 21.9 years for Taiwanese students and 24.5 years for American students. Fifty-five percent of the American respondents were male, compared to 41 percent of the Taiwanese respondents. Ninety percent of the American respondents were juniors and seniors, compared to 95 percent of the Taiwanese respondents. Factor loadings for the American students support the reliability of the scale with only two marginal items. Provides ample leisure time off the job produced a loading of.478 and requires supervising others produced a loading of.455. Coefficient alphas

5 JOHN A. PARNELL,et al. Assessing Work Values Among Students in American and Taiwanese Business Schools 53 were.651,.829, and.713 respectively (see table 2). Factor loadings were equally strong for the Taiwanese students. In the status and independence subscale, permits working independently produced a loading of only.340, however. Coefficient alphas were.686,.839, and.698 respectively (see table 3). Table 2 Results of factor analyses, American students (n=326) Item Subscale factor loading Comfort & Security Subscale (alpha=.651) Permits a regular routine in time and place of work.677 Provides job security.711 Has clear-cut rules and procedures to follow.746 Provides ample leisure time off the job.478 Provides comfortable working conditions.639 Eigenvalue Percentage of Variance Explained 43.1% Competence & Growth Subscale (alpha=.829) Requires meeting and speaking with many other people.598 Is intellectually stimulating.613 Requires originality and creativity.732 Makes a social contribution by the work you do.659 Satisfies your cultural and aesthetic interests.668 Encourages continued development of knowledge and skills.705 Permits you to develop your own methods of doing the work.634 Provides a feeling of accomplishment.662 Provides change and variety in duties and activities.603 Eigenvalue Percentage of Variance Explained 42.8% Status & Independence Subscale (alpha=.713) Permits advancement to high administrative responsibility.742 Provides the opportunity to earn a high income.594 Requires supervising others.455 Permits working independently.499 Is respected by other people.695 Requires working on problems on central importance to the organization.706 Gives you the responsibility for taking risks.663 Eigenvalue Percentage of Variance Explained 39.7%

6 ,2(1) Table 3 Results of factor analyses, Taiwanese students (n=181) Item Subscale factor loading Comfort & Security (alpha=.686) Permits a regular routine in time and place of work.609 Provides job security.677 Has clear-cut rules and procedures to follow.578 Provides ample leisure time off the job.740 Provides comfortable working conditions.744 Eigenvalue Percentage of Variance Explained 45.2% Competence & Growth (alpha=.839) Requires meeting and speaking with many other people.541 Is intellectually stimulating.775 Requires originality and creativity.704 Makes a social contribution by the work you do.708 Satisfies your cultural and aesthetic interests.539 Encourages continued development of knowledge and skills.756 Permits you to develop your own methods of doing the work.692 Provides a feeling of accomplishment.683 Provides change and variety in duties and activities.650 Eigenvalue Percentage of Variance Explained 45.8% Status & Independence (alpha=.698) Permits advancement to high administrative responsibility.589 Provides the opportunity to earn a high income.570 Requires supervising others.597 Permits working independently.340 Is respected by other people.732 Requires working on problems on central importance to the organization.771 Gives you the responsibility for taking risks.589 Eigenvalue Percentage of Variance Explained 37.4% Table 4: Anova results Scale American Mean Taiwanese Mean F-value Sig. Level Comfort & Security Competence & Growth Status & Independence p <.05

7 JOHN A. PARNELL,et al. Assessing Work Values Among Students in American and Taiwanese Business Schools 55 Factor scores were computed to serve as composite measures for the comfort and security scale and the competence and growth scale to test the first two hypotheses. Results of the analysis of variance test indicate significant differences in two variables comfort and security, and status and independence between American and Taiwanese business students (see table 4). No significant differences were found along competence and growth between American and Taiwanese students. Hence, the first and third hypotheses were supported, but the second one was not. 44 Conclusions and Future Directions The present study supported two of Manhardt s (1972) three work value factors, comfort and security, and status and independence. The third factor, competence and growth, was not supported. These mixed findings lend credence to suggestions from the literature that using survey instruments for work values across cultures can be challenging [17]. In addition, the general support for the instrument with the Taiwanese sample is promising and lends support to studies that employ culturally-based scales validated in the West in Eastern societies. It was somewhat surprising to find that there were no differences on the competence and growth between American and Taiwanese students. This finding supplements that of Chiou (2001), who noted that it may be too simplistic to categorize Taiwan as a collectivist society and the United States as an individualistic society [35]. Work values in Taiwan may be changing because of their broad exposure to Western culture. This phenomenon is intriguing and may explain why cultural distinctions tend to diminish as societies are exposed to different cultures [36]. Further examination and exploration about this factor is strongly encouraged. Several research directions are worthy of further exploration. First, the application of Western scales to non-western samples remains a difficult process [37], and the present study was no exception. Specifically, Western models and instruments typically do not measure the constraints in which Chinese employers function [38] [39]. As a result, Chinese applications of Western survey instruments such as the scales utilized in the present study have their limitations. When scales are translated or modified to address cultural differences as was the case with the present study then direct comparisons between distinct cultural groups can be difficult. Although results from the present study lend support to the application of a given scale across languages and cultures, additional work is needed to develop and refine measurement scales that are reasonably reliable and valid for cross cultures comparison. Second, additional assessments of differences between America and Taiwan along other factors can help build a framework that extends beyond work values to other factors. In addition, Chinese ethical perspectives can also be considered, especially with regard to the numerous Chinese subcultures that exist, including Mainland Chinese, Taiwanese, Hong Kong Chinese, Macao Chinese, Singapore Chinese and other oversees Chinese populations. Because ethical beliefs are part of the cognitive structure and personality of individuals, major changes in the meditating factors through which social forces create and sustain individuals beliefs are likely to result in changes in ethical beliefs [40]. An examination of Chinese populations throughout the world provides a lens through which to assess this phenomenon. Finally, assessments that include other nations would be useful, particularly emerging economies. The Western influence on organizations in emerging nations enjoys some support in the literature, but additional research is needed on the process by which this process occurs. References [[[[ Fouad, N. A. (1995). Career behavior of Hispanics: Assessment and intervention. In F.T.L. Leong (Ed.), Career development and vocational behavior of racial and ethnic minorities (pp ). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. [[[[ Super, D.E., & Sverko, B. (eds.). (1995). Life Roles, Values And Careers: International Findings Of The Work Importance Study. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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