ENCYCLOPAEDIA HYDROCARBONS

Transcription

1 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS ISTITUTO DELLA ENCICLOPEDIA ITALIANA FONDATA DA GIOVANNI TRECCANI

2 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Copyright by ISTITUTO DELLA ENCICLOPEDIA ITALIANA FONDATA DA GIOVANNI TRECCANI S.p.A Printed in Italy Photolith and printing by MARCHESI GRAFICHE EDITORIALI S.p.A. Via Bomarzo, Roma

3 CHAIRMAN Roberto Poli CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER Paolo Scaroni DIRECTORS Alberto Clô, Renzo Costi, Dario Fruscio, Marco Pinto, Marco Reboa, Mario Resca, Pierluigi Scibetta

4 ISTITUTO DELLA ENCICLOPEDIA ITALIANA PRESIDENT Francesco Paolo Casavola BOARD OF DIRECTORS VICE PRESIDENT Cesare Geronzi Roberto Artoni, Marcello De Cecco, Giuseppe de Vergottini, Giovanni Fiori, Ademaro Lanzara, Federico Pepe, Riccardo Perissich, Vincenzo Pontolillo, Giovanni Puglisi, Giuseppe Vacca MANAGING DIRECTOR Francesco Tatò SCIENTIFIC COUNCIL Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, Francesco Cossiga, Oscar Luigi Scalfaro, Giovanni Conso, Rita Levi-Montalcini; Mario Agrimi, Adriano Alippi, Girolamo Arnaldi, Baccio Baccetti, Giuseppe Franco Bassani, Mario Beccari, Giuseppe Bedeschi, Giampio Bracchi, Pietro Calissano, Luciano Canfora, Mario Caravale, Sergio Carrà, Enrico Castelnuovo, Francesco Clementi, Piero Coda, Umberto Colombo, Adele Benedetta Craveri, Francesco D Agostino, Giuseppe Dalla Torre, Nino Dazzi, Antonio Fazio, Domenico Fisichella, Giuseppe Galasso, Paolo Galluzzi, Emma Giammattei, Antonio Giuliano, Gherardo Gnoli, Augusto Graziani, Tullio Gregory, Maurizio Iaccarino, Carlo Jean, Fiorella Kostoris Padoa Schioppa, Luigi Labruna, Lucio Lanfranchi, Carlo Maria Ossola, Giorgio Parisi, Sandro Petruccioli, Giovanni Pugliese Carratelli, Gian Tommaso Scarascia Mugnozza, Pietro Scoppola, Salvatore Settis, Francesco Sicilia, Fulvio Tessitore, Edoardo Vesentini, Vera Zamagni BOARD OF AUDITORS Gianfranco Graziadei, Chairman; Mario Perrone, Saverio Signori Luciano Pagliaro, Delegate of the State Auditor s Department

5 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS PROJECT DIRECTORS Mario Beccari, Ugo Romano SCIENTIFIC CO-ORDINATING COMMITTEE Pier Federico Barnaba, Piero Bernardini, Giovanni Brighenti, Sergio Carrà, Alberto Clô, Carlo Giavarini, Renzo Mazzei, Ferruccio Trifirò EDITORIAL DEPARTMENT Chief Editor: Carlo Amadei Technical-Scientific Area. Supervisors: Fabio Sebastiani; Maria Teresa Amoroso. Chemistry: Andrea Ciccioli, Alessandro Di Menno Di Bucchianico, Antonio Di Meo - Physics: Maria Grazia Ianniello - Engineering: Lucilla Monteleone, Roberto Steindler - Biological, Geological and Natural Sciences: Francesca Beolchini, Francesca Ricci, Paola Vinesi Legal, Economics and Historical-Geographical Area. Supervisor: Giandomenico Patrizi. Law: Fabiana Di Porto, Stefano Petitti - Economics: Chiara d Auria, Giuseppe Smargiassi - Geography: Arianna Ballabene - History: Silvia Dionisi Italian language edition. Pino Bongiorno, Ilenia Romana Cassetta, Fabio Catino, Claudio Censori, Marina Chiarioni, Katia Furia, Patrizia Greganti, Tomáš Kubíček (illustrations), Simona Martullo, Michela Mastroddi, Enza Milanesi, Simona Nucciarelli, Enrico Piccioni, Tiziana Provvidera English language edition. Co-ordination: Cosima Campagnolo. Hannah Chapman, Johanna Erhardt, Francesca Fava, Patrick O Keeffe, Mary Anne Tafuri. Consultant: Peter Joseph Glendening. Translators: Luigi Attardi, Fabrizio Balsamo, Paul David Blackmore, Alberta Crescenzi, Paolo Del Giudice, Peter Joseph Glendening, Rachel Golder, H.J. Michael Harris, Erika Louisa Milburn, Patrick O Keeffe, Valentina Palombi, Lenore Rosenberg, Stefano Salpietro, Centro Lingue Tradint S.r.L. Secretaries: Pasqualina Leone, Giancarla Palumbo, Maurizia Scapin

6 ART DEPARTMENT Art Director: Gerardo Casale Graphics: Giuseppe De Gregori Illustration sourcing: Daniele Piselli; Claudio Cigognetti; Alessandro Albanese, Anna Maria Ciai, Gilberto De Angelis Drawings: Marina Paradisi; Giuseppina Elia, Massimo Montelli, Anna Olivieri, Francesca Ottaviano, Giuseppe Polegri, Paola Salvatori (cartography) Graphics and layout: Giuseppe De Gregori; Giulia Romana Faggiani, Francesca Ottaviano Quality control: Anna Rita De Nardis Secretaries: Aurora Corvesi, Carla Proietti Checchi LIBRARY Gabriella Miggiano; Marina Battaglini, Massimo Menna, Giuliana Scudder Secretary: Gabriella Michetti PUBLISHING DEPARTMENT Publishing administration: Luisa Fusé; Cecilia Rucci, Mirella Aiello Planning: Luisa Cinquina; Tiziana Picconi Quality control: Rosalba Lanza; Simonetta Paoluzzi Industrial production: Maria Devrushian; Loreta Lucchetti Secretary: Eliana Naddeo PUBLISHING DIRECTOR Massimo Bray

7 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS volume i EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT SCIENTIFIC CO-ORDINATION Pier Federico Barnaba, Giovanni Brighenti, Renzo Mazzei

8 INDEX OF VOLUME I EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT Roberto Prato OIL EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION 3 1 GEOSCIENCES Erling Halfdan Stenby, Wey Yan 1.1 COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDROCARBONS Introduction Composition of petroleum fluids Physical properties of hydrocarbons Heavy petroleum fraction Reservoir fluids Formation water 58 Detlev Leythaeuser 1.2 ORIGIN, MIGRATION AND ACCUMULATION OF PETROLEUM Origin of petroleum Migration of petroleum Accumulation of petroleum Alteration of petroleum 81 Raffaele Casnedi 1.3 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS Reservoir rocks Cap rocks Hydrocarbon traps RELATIONS BETWEEN SEDIMENTARY BASINS AND PETROLEUM PROVINCES 117 Carlo Doglioni Plate tectonics 117 Albert Bally Sedimentary basins 136 Alain-Yves Huc Source rocks: formation and distribution 149 XXVII

9 2 PETROLEUM EXPLORATION Roberto Prato 2.1 PROGRAMMING EXPLORATION ACTIVITY Definition of exploration Examining and defining available technical data Selecting areas Acquiring mineral rights Programming direct and indirect surveys Analysing petroleum potential Economic aspects of petroleum exploration GEOLOGICAL PROSPECTING 185 Nigel Press, Mattia Sella Photointerpretation, remote sensing, digital cartography, integrated mapping 185 Raffaele Casnedi, Mattia Sella Geological surveying Petrography Principles of stratigraphy and sedimentology Tectonics and structural geology 206 Jean-Claude Dereuder Subsurface geology 209 Daniel M. Jarvie et al Applied geochemistry GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING 239 Rinaldo Nicolich Gravimetric surveys Magnetometric surveys Magnetotelluric surveys Seismic surveys: reflection and refraction 251 Mauro Gonfalini Electric, acoustic and radioactive recording in the well EVALUATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXPLORATION 277 Giovanni Bertotti, Paolo Ruffo Integrated interpretation, geological modelling 277 Frédéric Schneider Basin modelling for petroleum exploration 287 Mauro Gonfalini Planning of exploratory wells and connected activities DRILLING AND COMPLETION OF WELLS Paolo Macini 3.1 DRILLING RIGS AND TECHNOLOGIES Introduction Rotary drilling rigs Hoisting system Rotation system Circulation system Power generation and distribution system The drill string 315 XXVIII

10 3.1.8 Bits Casing Cementing Drilling fluids The wellhead Safety equipment Well control Drilling problems 334 Diego Giacca 3.2 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING Introduction Characteristics, configurations and planning of a directional or horizontal well Methods for assessing and surveying the deviation Conclusions 353 Ezio Mesini 3.3 MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS IN THE WELL Introduction Control of drilling parameters and geological monitoring: mud logging Conventional core sampling Types of log and methods of measurement Borehole seismic Fluid sampling and pressure measuring Production tests 369 Paolo Macini 3.4 OFFSHORE DRILLING Introduction Rigs standing on the seabed Floating rigs Drilling from floating offshore rigs 379 Claudio Alimonti 3.5 WELL COMPLETION Introduction Types of completion Completion equipment Equipment Completion fluids Casing perforation Filters and drains for solid transport control Artificial lift systems 399 Adriano Pirocchi 3.6 DRILLING ENGINEERING General Drawing up of drilling programme Shutdown of well 423 Marco Marangoni 3.7 COMPLETION ENGINEERING Introduction Completion layout 427 XXIX

11 3.7.3 Fluids present in the well Impact of safety on the completion scheme Selection of materials Determining the size of the tubing Choosing packer type, setting method and tubing-packer connection Tubing hanger selection Subsea completions Notes on artificial lift Final design Workovers OIL FIELD CHARACTERISTICS AND RELEVANT STUDIES Paolo Macini, Ezio Mesini 4.1 THE PETROPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR ROCK Introduction Porosity Permeability Fluid saturation Wettability Capillary pressure Compressibility of rocks 481 Véronique Ruffier-Meray 4.2 PETROLEUM FLUID PROPERTIES Introduction Phase behaviour Fluid classification Lateral and vertical distribution of hydrocarbons in reservoir Sampling PVT analyses (laboratory procedures and parameters measured) Equations of state Empirical PVT correlations Reservoir water 504 Francesca Verga 4.3 DRIVE MECHANISMS AND DISPLACEMENT PROCESSES Pressure gradients Drive mechanisms Material balance Displacement processes 518 Francesca Verga 4.4 WELL TESTING Introduction Test procedures and typologies Test interpretations Evaluation of well productivity 550 Luca Cosentino 4.5 STATIC RESERVOIR STUDY Introduction Structural model 553 XXX

12 4.5.3 Stratigraphic model Lithological model Petrophysical model Integrated geological model Calculation of hydrocarbons in place 570 Khalid Aziz, Hamdi A. Tchelepi 4.6 DYNAMIC RESERVOIR STUDY Oil recovery processes Reservoir flow simulation Simulation workflow Practical considerations Prediction uncertainty Development plans Development schemes Injection schemes DEVELOPMENT PHASE OF HYDROCARBON FIELDS Doriano Vannini 5.1 DEVELOPMENT OF ONSHORE FIELDS Introduction Feasibility study Construction design of the structures Areas for field structures Well locations (clusters or single locations) Equipment installed in wellhead area Hydrocarbons processing plants Treatment plants for secondary recovery projects 606 Fabio Pallavicini 5.2 DEVELOPMENT OF OFFSHORE FIELDS Introduction Development in shallow waters Development of marginal fields Development in very deep waters 628 Romano Bianco 5.3 TREATMENT PLANTS FOR OIL PRODUCTION Introduction Characterization of oils Separations Treatments Process equipment Secondary recovery systems 675 Romano Bianco 5.4 TREATMENT PLANTS FOR GAS PRODUCTION Introduction Sales gas specifications Gas/liquid separation Dehydration and condensate removal Other treatments 695 XXXI

13 5.4.6 Process equipment and special units Liquefaction of natural gas FIELD PRODUCTION PHASE Michael J. Economides, Luigi Saputelli 6.1 WELL MONITORING Introduction Field monitoring and analysis of well performance Production logging and well monitoring techniques Pressure measurement technology Temperature measurement technology Multiphase flow measurement technology Assessment technologies for fluid saturation distribution Instrumented well and future trends 721 Michael J. Economides, Luigi Saputelli 6.2 PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION Introduction Workovers to eliminate undesired water and/or gas production Reservoir stimulation: matrix acidizing and hydraulic fracturing Sand control Perforating Production optimization by artificial lift Asphaltenes and paraffin control Workovers in case of casing and tubing collapse or in case of lack of cement Well architecture for production optimization Operation and maintenance of petroleum production systems 756 Gianfranco Altieri 6.3 THE DECISION TO ABANDON A FIELD Introduction Economic reasons Technical reasons Actions to prolong the life of a field Abandoning a field HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE Roberto Bruschi 7.1 TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE General observations on the hydrocarbon transport Routes across the environments Transport fluid dynamics Materials Mechanical resistance Construction Inspection, maintenance and repair 822 XXXII

14 Claudio Alimonti 7.2 TRANSPORT OF CRUDE BY SEA Introduction Resource distribution and trading Port structures Typology of vessels used Renewal of tanker fleet Environmental aspects of transport by sea The case of the Mediterranean 849 Claudio Alimonti 7.3 TRANSPORTING NATURAL GAS BY SEA The geographical distribution of gas and commercial activities Transport technologies The transport of LNG The transport of CNG The transport of NGH with GTS technology Technologies of natural gas commercial exploitation The transport of LPG UNDERGROUND STORAGE OF NATURAL GAS 879 Franco Falzolgher Storage systems: principles, techniques and development 879 Gianfranco Altieri Underground structures for natural gas storage 901 XXXIII

15 NOTES UNITS OF MEASUREMENT The units of measurement generally adopted are those of the Système International (SI), with corresponding multiples and submultiples. Only in particular contexts, typically connected with the petroleum industry, certain non- SI units of current use have been maintained. Main units of measurement adopted ampere A angstrom Å atomic mass unit u bar bar barrel bbl becquerel Bq British thermal unit Btu calorie cal candela cd coulomb C darcy D day d decibel db degree Celsius C degree Fahrenheit F degree (sexagesimal) electron volt ev farad F foot ' (ft) gram g gray Gy hectare ha henry H hertz Hz horse-power hp hour h inch '' (in) joule J kelvin K kilogram kg kilowatt-hour kwh litre l lumen lm lux lx metre m square metre m 2 cubic metre m 3 minute (angle) minute (time) min mole mol newton N nit nt ohm Ω parts per million ppm pascal Pa poise P pound lb pounds per square inch psi radian rad second (angle) second (time) s siemens S sievert Sv standard cubic foot scf or SCF or sft 3 steradian sr stock tank barrel stb stokes St tesla T tonne t tonnes of oil equivalent toe volt V watt W weber Wb yard yd year yr TERMINOLOGY AND SPELLING In the sectors of petroleum engineering and chemistry, of the petrochemical industry and of the earth sciences, specific terms, acronyms and expressions are frequently used. The criterion adopted in this work is based on their frequency of use, i.e. given two possible terms, the more common one has been used. British spelling, according to the most authoritative reference works, has been adopted. XXXV

16 CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE In the nomenclature of simple compounds, the rules of IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) have been adopted as far as possible, traditional names being limited to the cases admitted by IUPAC. When there are two or more names admitted, the commonest one is adopted. Two principal exceptions to the above rule have been applied in this work: For organic compounds used in the petrochemical industry, the name adopted is that listed in: Wells G.M. (1999) Handbook of petrochemicals and processes, Aldershot, Ashgate; Brookfield (VT), Gower. The British English spelling of sulphur and sulphur containing compounds is adopted. TRANSLITERATIONS In writing names belonging to other languages with an alphabet other than the Latin alphabet, the Romanization Tables compiled by the Library of Congress of Washington have been applied, introducing however certain modifications intended to reduce to a minimum the number of diacritical marks, and in particular in the case of Arabic and Persian adopting a number of transliterations by now accepted in local and international usage. Opposite page: Kazakhstan, the Caspian Sea, artificial island for the perforation and production in Kashagan, the world s biggest reservoir discovered in the last thirty years. The activity is carried out in a joint venture, where Eni partecipates acting as the sole operator. The reservoir is situated in the north of the Caspian Sea, 80 km from Atyrau. Its development represents one of the biggest challenges in the world petroleum industry. XXXVI