Desk Review Assessing Food Security in Urban Areas

Transcription

1 Desk Review Assessing Food Security in Urban Areas 1. Introduction The Adapting to an Urban World overall objective is to strengthen the humanitarian response to food security crisis in urban and peri-urban settings. More specifically the project aims to develop tools, training and guidance to a) identify levels of food security vulnerability in urban and peri-urban areas; b) assess different types of urban food security vulnerability; c) organise appropriate responses to urban food security issues; d) establish an effective collaborative mechanism for food security responses in urban crises. The first phase of the project included a desk review whose results would serve as a basis to design pilot assessment tools to be tested in different urban settings. The review built on the findings of the 2010 WFP/Oxfam review and included an analysis of urban assessment guidance and tools produced and tested, mainly after The report highlights the achievements and gaps to be addressed in assessing food security needs in urban and peri-urban areas. 1.2 Objectives The specific objectives of the desk review include: a) Understand how food security is measured and how livelihood are defined in urban areas (tools, approaches, etc.) with a particular focus on: How to select and classify urban areas to be assessed - mapping and sampling Indicators used to classify HH food security Tools used - i.e. traditional surveys, new data collections tools like sms and android apps b) Understand targeting methodologies and in particular: How areas are prioritized in urban settings - geographical targeting How food insecure are targeted in urban areas - households or individual targeting

2 c) Assess how previously identified gaps in methodology and tools to measure food insecurity have been filled and which gaps are still present. 1.3 Structure and Methodology The collection and the analysis of urban work included tools, guidance, case studies and lessons learned exercises and has been structured categorizing the documents by themes: Assessment Needs Urban Livelihoods Response Analysis and Programming For each relevant document falling under the identified themes, a more detailed analysis has been conducted with the aim to capture: Tools and guidelines used that could inform the design of the pilot assessment with a specific focus of food security and nutrition Gaps identified in tools and mechanisms that will need to be addressed through the pilot assessments The findings of the report are being structured under four broad areas 1. Mapping and Sampling 2. Collecting market information 3. Food security indicators and classification of livelihoods 4. Nutrition analysis. 2. Main Findings 2.1 Urban mapping and sampling methodology The identification of neighbourhoods with similar characteristics and vulnerabilities can guide assessments to focus on the most vulnerable areas. The previous desk review (WFP/Oxfam, 2010) found a guidance gap for defining the criteria for vulnerable neighbourhoods and recommended participatory mapping and involvement of local authorities as a first step in a mapping exercise. The ACF report (2010): Identification of Vulnerable people on urban environments is a methodological guide for use by field practitioners describing the selection of relevant indicators to identify vulnerable neighbourhoods, including: Housing, Access to urban services, Social and human capital, Environment This information will be obtained mainly from key informants and secondary data. The chapter: Adaptations of HEA in the Practitioners Guide to HEA (Save the Children, 2008) provides recommendations and previous examples for zoning exercises: The zoning exercise has to be tailored according to local circumstances.

3 Previously, in Harare, existing zoning (based on density) was used and supplement with information from key informants on income levels and rent levels throughout the city. In Djibouti, a preliminary mapping exercise with assessment participants and key informant interviews was used to classify different quartiers of the city according to their overall level of wealth. The report: Guidance for Profiling Urban Displacement Situations Challenges and Solutions (Karen Jacobsen & Ivan Cardona, 2014) from Joint IDP profiling Service identified three challenges to take into consideration when designing an assessment targeting displaced people: The number of displaced people (refugees, asylum seekers, IDPs) as a proportion of the total urban population is usually low and the distribution patterns differ. Displaced people in urban settings might not be registered or have an outdated location of the household, resulting in an incomplete sampling frame. National census data and maps of the city are often outdated or inaccurate and do not include informal settlements. However, if a recent census (or inter-census survey update) has been conducted, this can provide useful tools (maps, data, and questionnaires). The study also provides useful specific guidance on how to define the sample in areas where IDPs are scattered and areas where they are clustered. Targeting in urban areas is a challenge that still remains in terms of defining the population to be assessed and capturing the most vulnerable individuals. Good guidance documents (see above) have been produced to facilitate the process through zoning or mapping exercises. Recommendations assessments to: 1. Conduct secondary data review in-country to identify previous zoning exercises and the current gaps in information regarding locations or population groups. 2. Carry out mapping exercise in the urban areas under study, with key informants, community members or other stakeholders with the purpose to identify the most vulnerable population and where they are residing. 2.2 Collecting market information Market information is a central component in urban food security assessments. The most obvious difference between rural and urban households is in the way they obtain access to food. Urban households rely almost exclusively on purchasing their food from the market. A number of different tools to collect market information exist, although many have a bias towards rural areas. Urban markets may be structured differently compared with rural markets and one of the previous recommendations is to get a better understanding of how the market is structured and how it operates and influences the food security situation of those who depend on the market. The Cash Learning Partnership provides a toolkit for practitioners (CaLP, 2011) to better implement cash and voucher programmes in challenging urban environments. The toolkit is providing a number of useful checklists and tools such as example questionnaires and timelines. Five tips for mapping urban markets quickly are: Focus on staple food commodities, shelter items, NFIs that are necessities for survival, and/ or livelihoods markets, where people buy/sell services. Find out how many urban markets exist and what commodities are available and where.

4 Find out how many wholesalers, transporters, market stall vendors, and other market actors are in the urban markets. Initially focus on the main urban market and the neighbourhood markets in your area of assessment. Collect and analyse price information on staple foods and non-food items weekly in the aftermath of a disaster for trends in price fluctuation. The report: Review of Urban Food Security Targeting Methodology and Emergency Triggers (Ian MacAuslan & Maham Farhat, 2013) specify some key information to collect: Price of main staple, Price of fuel, Level of rent. The lessons learned report from ALNAP (2012): Responding to urban disasters: learning from previous relief and recovery operations identifies key lessons from market assessments in urban responses: Find out how many urban markets exist and where and the availability of commodities, focusing on staple food, shelter items, and NFIs that are necessities for survival; as well as labour markets. Follow up initial assessments with regular (weekly) monitoring to identify price trends. Pay attention to urban specific needs such as purchased fuel and transport. Account for the prevalence of market-oriented livelihood strategies, where cash is used interchangeably to meet shelter, food, health and water and sanitation needs. Adaptations of HEA (Save the Children, 2008) recommends to collect information on: Cost of a basic expenditure basket of food and non-food items by monthly market price surveys. The WFP technical guidance sheet for Urban Food Security and Nutrition Assessments identifies the following key indicators to be included in urban assessments: Wage rates: wage rates for skilled/unskilled labour Labour markets: changes in the demand for skilled/unskilled wage labour Terms of trade: o Skilled/unskilled wage labour rates -to- staple food o Skilled/unskilled wage labour rates -to- cooking oil o Skilled/unskilled wage labour rate -to- rent Purchasing power : consumer price index (food and non-food basket) Formal and informal credit markets: o Availability of consumer credit o Changes in retailer/trader debt load (or debt ratio) Interest rates, presence of usury/predatory lending at exorbitant rates

5 Recommendations: 1. Consider the expertise available in-country to analyse the market information and collect market information that can be analysed using that expertise. 2. Triangulate information to validate results through secondary data, information from traders and household surveys. 3. Include market related information in household surveys to create a link between the poor and the markets. 2.3 Food security indicators and classification of livelihoods Food consumption A number of different indicators to measure food consumption exists. Challenges previously noted are that individual respondents may have challenges to recall the food consumption for the entire household. Another challenge noted is how to classify processed multi-ingredient food. Previous recommendations for food consumption indicators are: To acknowledge household members eating outside the home and to consider individual consumption or only including food consumed in the home; Refine the list of food items to include to be adapted to the urban context and consider the classification of street food or other processed food; Focus on what is the norm in the household and take out the exceptions to reduce the number of options. The Review of Urban Food Security Targeting Methodology and Emergency Triggers (Ian MacAuslan & Maham Farhat, 2013) list indicators that can be used for assessing food consumption: Household hunger scale and household dietary diversity recommended as measures food security. Mentioned specifically that there may be a need to look at individuals as some household members may eat out frequently. HEA and EMMA could be used to identify local food security indicators, e.g. consumption of street food or food availability. The research initiative from Concern Kenya Indicator development for the surveillance of urban emergencies (IDSUE) has developed a list of key indicators (questionnaire also available): Proportion of HHs classified as severely food insecure by Household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS); Dietary diversity (average number of food groups consumed in a 4-week recall period); Proportion of HHs classified as moderate and severely food insecure by household hunger scale (HHS); Food consumption score (FCS); Number of meals taken by children per day.

6 Recommendations: 1. Investigate the food consumption patterns in urban areas by using qualitative methods (key informants or focus group discussions) before the quantitative survey is carried out. 2. As a second step, the recommendations to consider individual consumption or classification of processed food can be considered depending on the food consumption patterns found Income Income is important to measure in urban areas considering the higher dependency on purchased food in urban areas. There is often a greater diversity of income sources in urban areas and one challenge previously identified is how to capture the diversity of earnings existing within the same type of activities without causing mushrooming of the number of sub-groups and making the analysis unmanageable. Components previously recommended to include are: Amount of income earned; Main source of income; Diversity of income sources; Stability of income (temporary, seasonal & stable). This information could be collected using multiple sources, such as: Qualitative method to understand to role of the sources of income on FS; Secondary data like national poverty survey as baseline; Proportional piling methods to gauge the contribution on each source of incomes. The Cash Learning Partnership toolkit for practitioners (CaLP, 2011) recommends to: Capture household expenditure in addition to household income and compare; Useful to use wealth groups to break down the urban populations for better understanding of the most vulnerable groups. The Concern Kenya initiative: Indicator development for the surveillance of urban emergencies (IDSUE) include: Median monthly household income Food expenditure as a percent of income Percent of HHs who depend on casual labour as a source of livelihood Percent of female bread winners Adaptations of HEA (Save the Children, 2008) gives recommendations on where to find secondary information: Formal sector employment and salaries by collecting information from National Employment Councils (NECs) for each industrial sector; Government gazettes, which are published periodically when new wage agreements are signed by NECs; Trade Unions for information on wage agreements and changes in numbers employed; The Ministry of Labour, which monitors retrenchments and wages;

7 The Registers of Companies and Financial Institutions, which monitor company openings and closures; Informal sector incomes through monthly survey of incomes/profits in informal businesses. An assessment from Oxfam: Nairobi Urban Social Protection Programme uses the following list of micro-enterprises: Retailing and food services including trading/hawking/kiosks and food preparation and sales; Small manufacturing/production, construction, and repair of goods; General services such as hairdressers, laundry, transport, medicine, photo studios; Entertainment services, including bars, brewing, and pool tables. In the Oxfam report: The Haiti Earth quake: An Urban Solution a combination of asset ownership and type and amount of income is used to define livelihood groups: Very Poor: street hawking, casual labour, petty trade, small businesses, and remittances. Typically no productive assets. Average monthly income of $ United States Dollars (USD); Poor: street hawking, casual labour, petty trade, small businesses, and remittances. Typically own either a bicycle or a wheelbarrow. Average monthly income of $ USD; Middle: casual labour, salaried employment, petty trade, small businesses and remittances. Typically own either a bicycle or a motorcycle. Average monthly income $ USD; Better Off: salaried employment, larger businesses and remittances. Average monthly income $621 plus. Recommendations: 1. Considering the complexity of income sources in urban areas it is recommended to use a mixed approach with both qualitative and quantitative methods to get an overview of the diversity of income sources. 2. If available, also use secondary data, e.g. national poverty surveys to obtain information on household income Expenditures The share of expenditure on different expenditure posts can be a strong food security indicator in urban areas. Previous desk review recommends that: The list of items to collect have to be revised carefully and suggests that proportional piling could be used to facilitate the data collection. The Review of Urban Food Security Targeting Methodology and Emergency Triggers (Ian MacAuslan & Maham Farhat, 2013) recommends to: Find out level of debt and credit access through HEA, surveys and key informants. Indicator specific to local areas (sometimes implies resilience, sometimes emergency). Changes in remittances, savings, loans, credit, rent arrears and debt should be captured.

8 Food security in a changing world. Evidence from the consolidated Household Economy Analysis database (FEG & Save the children, 2013) identified the following expenditure patterns in urban areas: Urban households spend more on non-staple food, even the poorer ones, suggest the possibility of a more varied diet, although not necessarily a more healthy diet. Urban households spend more money on both rent and transport, with transport taking an ever-increasing proportion of the budget as households move up the wealth spectrum. An assessment concerning Syrian refugees in urban Lebanon (CARE, 2013) included the indicators: Amount spent on food; Amount on rent; Balance between expenditures and incomes; Amount on debt. Recommendations: 1. Calculate the expenditure share on different items (including food, expenditures on heath and shelter). The share spent on food can be used as a measure of economic vulnerability. 2. Take recent changes into account. 3. Use participatory methods (e.g. proportional piling) in combination with quantitative surveys Coping strategies Previous recommendations regarding coping strategies include: Develop context specific lists; Distinguish between food consumption and livelihood related strategies; Provide guidance on typical urban coping strategies and how to measure them. The Cash Learning Partnership toolkit for practitioners (CaLP, 2011) suggests that: Urban specific coping strategies are needed, or the assessment will be misleading; Urban coping strategies may include incurring debt, pulling children from school to work or beg, sending family members to rural area, etc. The Review of Urban Food Security Targeting Methodology and Emergency Triggers (Ian MacAuslan & Maham Farhat, 2013) gives suggestions on how to identify appropriate coping strategies to use and gives example of strategies found in urban areas: HEA, surveys, key informants, focus group discussions and CSI can be used to capture the coping strategies used; Negative coping strategies should be defined locally (e.g. reducing consumption quantity or quality, prostitution, crime, dumpsite scavenging, selling productive assets, unseasonal migration). The Concern Kenya initiative: Indicator development for the surveillance of urban emergencies (IDSUE) include: Proportion who had to remove their children from school due to lack of school fees Debt/Credit

9 Adaptations of HEA (Save the Children, 2008) suggest some indicators of coping : Non-payment of electricity and water and percent being cut off (District Offices); Non-payment of school fees (Ministry of Education or directly from a sample of schools); Malnutrition at clinics (Ministry of Health, Food and Nutrition Centre, or directly from a sample of clinics); Movement into peri-urban areas (e.g. reports from the NGO Inter-country Peoples Aid). Recommendations: 1. Identify urban specific coping strategies through review of secondary data, key informants and focus group interviews 2. Differentiate between consumption coping strategies and livelihood coping strategies 3. Take changing situations into account caused by for example less work or increasing rent. 2.6 Nutrition analysis The previous desk review recommends to focus on the most vulnerable areas and make use of secondary information from health clinics and local doctors to highlight specific nutritional problems. Anthropometric measures of nutritional status follows standard methods such as the SMART methodology. The methodology applies to both urban and rural areas, although the sampling will be done slightly different in urban compared with rural areas. An important component of nutrition assessments in urban areas will be feeding practices, considering that previous studies have shown that working mothers in slums find it difficult to breastfeed exclusively when they are away from their homes for long periods during the day. Other factors that may influence the feeding practices in urban areas are: availability of artificial milk; advertising of bottles and artificial milk from industry; availability of industrial complementary foods and street foods Malnutrition rates Global Acute Malnutrition (GAM) and chronic malnutrition rates are usually collected through anthropometric surveys, based on the SMART methodology. There is no reason for developing a specific methodology, as the SMART method performs well in both rural and urban areas. The Concern Kenya initiative: Indicator development for the surveillance of urban emergencies (IDSUE) include: Percent of children (6-59 months) reporting Severe Acute Malnutrition (SAM) Percent of children (6-59 months) reporting Moderate Acute Malnutrition Percent of children (6-59 months) at risk of acute malnutrition

10 2.6.2 Feeding practices The Indicators for assessing infant and young child feeding practices 1 booklet, released in 2008 by WHO presents 15 indicators to assess the quality of the feeding practices among under 2 children. Breastfeeding initiation Exclusive breastfeeding Continued breastfeeding Introduction of complementary foods Diet diversity Meal frequency Summary infant and young child feeding indicator Consumption of iron-rich or iron-fortified foods Optional indicators: Children ever breastfed Continued breastfeeding at 2 years Age-appropriate breastfeeding Predominant breastfeeding under 6 months Duration of breastfeeding Bottle feeding Milk feeding frequency for non-breastfed children Wash information Access to water Quality of water Sanitation Utilisation of soap Recommendations: 1. Make sure the sampling enable comparison between groups within urban areas since average numbers may mask nutritional problems in sub groups of the population. 2. Investigate feeding practices in addition to malnutrition rates 1

11 3. Conclusion Since 2010 when the Oxfam/WFP desk review was carried out, a number of new guidelines and methodological recommendation for assessing food security in urban areas have been developed, updating the knowledge of best practices to assess urban food security. As part of the project Adapting to an Urban World the findings form this desk review together with the previous desk review give direction on how to conduct food security assessments in urban areas, in which guidelines to find more detailed information on methods to build on in the pilot assessment and which gaps still remain. The main gaps previously identified which are aimed to be filled by the pilot assessments are: Clear criteria for identification of vulnerable neighbourhoods; how to take differences in food consumption within the household into account and how to account for more complex food consumption patterns (including street food and other processed food); how to capture the diversity of earnings existing; and to identify coping strategies more typically used in urban areas. Further, the findings provides suggestions on specific food security indicators to use and best practices from previous assessments.

12 4. References ACF International (2010). Identification of Vulnerable People in Urban Environments. Assessment of Sustainable Livelihoods and Urban Vulnerabilities. ALNAP (2012). Responding to urban disasters: learning from previous relief and recovery operations CARE (2013). Syrian refugees in urban Lebanon. Baseline assessment of community-identified vulnerabilities among Syrian refugees living in Irbid, Madaba, Mufraq and Zarqa Concern Kenya (ongoing project). Indicator development for the surveillance of urban emergencies (IDSUE). FEG & Save the children (2013). Food security in a changing world. Evidence from the consolidated Household Economy Analysis database. Ian MacAuslan & Maham Farhat (2013). Review of Urban Food Security Targeting Methodology and Emergency Triggers. Oxfam GB, Concern Kenya and ACF. Karen Jacobsen & Ivan Cardona (2014). Guidance for Profiling Urban Displacement Situations Challenges and Solutions. Joint IDP Profiling Service, UNHCR, Feinstein International Center. Save the Children, Regional Hunger and Vulnerability Programme (RHVP) & FEG Consulting (2008). Practitioners Guide to HEA. Chapter 6: Adaptations of HEA. The Cash Learning Partnership (CaLP) (2011). Cash Transfer Programming in Urban Emergencies. A toolkit for practitioners. OXFAM. Nairobi Urban Social Protection Programme OXFAM. The Haiti Earth quake: An Urban Solution WFP & Oxfam GB (2010). Review of existing approaches, methods and tools used by humanitarian agencies to measure livelihoods, food insecurity and vulnerability in urban contexts.

13 5. Annex Suggestion: Matrix showing: Previous urban assessment indicators used adjustments to urban areas potential issues

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