Los Acuerdos de Asociación Económica de la UE como

Psibls cflicts étics tr ls prdigms citífic-tclógics dmits Th Chllgs f Txig th Big ISSN: 1576-0162 y l mjrdl bistr d l pblció lgus cmís mrgts 273 Ar EU s Ecmic Prtrship Agrmts Dvlpmtl? A Assssmt f th Suthr Afric Rgi Ls Acurds d Ascició Ecómic d l UE cm istrumt d dsrrll: álisis d cs d Áfric Austrl Edurd Bidurrtzg Aurr Uivrsity f th Bsqu Cutry (UPV/EHU) d Hg (Istitut fr th Study f Dvlpmt d Itrtil Cprti) Artur Clm Jé Autmus Uivrsity f Brcl d Schl f Oritl d Afric Studis El Mrtíz Tl Uivrsity f th Bsqu Cutry (UPV/EHU) d Hg (Istitut fr th Study f Dvlpmt d Itrtil Cprti) Rcibid: r d 2014 ; cptd: mrz d 2014 Abstrct This rticl ims t shw th chgs d pttil csqucs i th cmic rltis btw th EU d Suthr Afric, tht th Ecmic Prtrship Agrmts (EPAs) schm is prmtig. Th mi rgumts fr chgig th prvius mdl, d fr th dplymt f w discurs d prctic by th EU, clsh with th pprchs d prpsls f sm gvrmts i Suthr Afric, d ls with th viws f my schlrs. Thrfr, it is prtit t sk t wht xtt c EPAs b rlly dvlpmtl i Suthr Afric d chrt with th rhtric f prtrship d prmti f dvlpmt by th EU i this rgi d th whl ctit. Kywrds: Eurp Ui; Suthr Afric; Ecmic Prtrship Agrmts; Dvlpmt. Rvist d Ecmí Mudil 38, 2014, 273-298

Rsum Est rtícul quir mstrr ls cmbis prducids y ls cscucis ptcils ls rlcis cómics tr l UE y Áfric Austrl cm cscuci d ls Acurds d Ascició Ecómic (AAE). Ls pricipls rgumts pr l trsfrmció dl mdl trir, y l uv discurs y práctic d l UE, chc c ls fqus y prpusts d divrss gbirs d Áfric Austrl, sí cm d muchs cdémics d dtr y fur d l rgió. D st md, prc prtit prgutrs hst qué put ls AAE pud rlmt sr u istrumt d dsrrll Áfric Austrl, y chrts c l rtóric d l UE tr l prtrid y l prmció dl dsrrll l rgió y l cjut dl ctit fric. Plbrs clv: Uió Eurp; Áfric Austrl; Acurds d Ascició Ecómic; Dsrrll. JEL Clssificti: F15; 010; 019; 055.

1. Itrducti: th udrpiigs f EPAs Op rgilism is big trsfrmd it w strtgy fr th drgulti f wrld trd d ivstmt which is bth utwrd lkig d csistt with th currt stg f wrld librlizti. This strtgy is rsps t pl by th rich idustril cutris f th Nrth t cslidt thir itrtil psiti thrugh st f frml grmts with cutris f thir rspctiv rs f ifluc i th Suth. It is ls ttmpt by th cutris f th Nrth t xpd thir xprt mrkts d Frig Dirct Ivstmt (FDI) pprtuitis d imprv thir cmptitivss s gist thr cutris f th Ctr d thir rspctiv priphris. Th lgic f this strtgy icluds rstructurig th rltis btw th Eurp Ui (EU) d its frmr Afric clis kw s th ACP cutris (Afric, Cribb d Pcific). Th rltis f ths cutris with th EU wr prviusly rgizd withi th succssiv Lmé Cvtis (I IV). But i th yr 2000 th sigig f th Ctu Agrmt pd th wy t sris f chgs t th prvius structur, ldig t th sigig f Ecmic Prtrship Agrmts (EPAs). Ths wr suppsd t pv th wy fr th futur stblishmt f lrg fr trd zs btw th EU d vrius lrdy stblishd rgil grups i Sub-Shr Afric (SSA). Th drw-ut gtiti prcsss f th EPAs rflct its disgrmts but thir pttil ffcts. Th suthr rgi f th Afric ctit is rprsttiv f th ctrvrsis tht ths mvs r grtig, d f thir gtiv d psitiv ffcts cditis fr dvlpmt, bth fr idividul cutris d fr th rgi s mst imprtt itgrti prjct, SADC (th Suthr Afric Dvlpmt Cmmuity). Sic th gtitis d itrim grmts hv w g byd th pig dbts i fvur f r gist th prpsd w frmwrk, it is fittig mmt t ivstigt wht kid f EPAs, r rltis with th EU, th cutris f th rgi shuld pursu i rdr t cclrt thir dvlpmt. Rvist d Ecmí Mudil 35, 2013, 273-298

276 Edurd Bidurrtzg Aurr, Artur Clm Jé, El Mrtíz Tl 2. Afric rgil itgrti d th w rgilism 2.1. Rgilism i Afric Rgil iititivs i Afric rs s prt f th prcss f giig pliticl idpdc; thy wr supprtd by p Afric philsphy which dptd prgmtic pprch twrds th vrius rgil grupigs th udrwy, trtig thm s pics i ctit-wid jig-sw which wuld dy b cmpltd. Dcds f structurl djustmt, hwvr, s wll s th currt impss f th multiltrl trd gtitis i th Wrld Trd Orgizti (WTO), hv giv ris t w frm f rgilism. This w pprch itrprts rgil itgrti iititivs mr s buildig blcks r itrmdit phss f widr glbl librlizti gd, rthr th stumblig blcks r dfc mchisms tht prvts wrldwid drgulti. Thr is grwig supprt, thrfr, fr rgil itgrti, udrstd s syym fr cmic librlizti i dfid multi-stt r, s lg s it is t bstcl but stp th wy twrds vtul drgulti d cmplt pig up wrld scl th lis f th currt librl glblizti mdl (Pgriy, 1999; Bhgwti, t l., 1998; Bhll d Bhll, 1997). This w ti f p rgilism ms t th sm tim sptil xtsi f th ccpt f rgi t grupigs with ctitl r v itrctitl mmbrship, xmplifid i th iititivs twrds itgrti btw cutris with mjr diffrcs i thir sci-cmic lvls (Nrth Suth rgilism). This id hs giv ris t umbr f prjcts such s th Nrth Amric Fr Trd Agrmt, 1 th Ctrl Amric Fr Trd Agrmt, d th currtly prlysd Fr Trd Ar f th Amrics (t iclud th whl f th Amric ctit), s wll s similrly xtsiv prjcts i thr ctits, btw th cutris f ASEAN 2 d Chi fr istc, r btw cutris i th ACP grup d th EU fllwig th d f th Lmé r. Whil such iititivs hv ft b itrprtd s itrmdit stp twrds frr trd d ivstmt wrld scl, thir rl mig c ls b s frm thr viwpit. Thy c b itrprtd s prt f cmptig ttmpts by th cutris f th Ctr t miti d xtd thir trd d ivstmt ctivitis by ms f frml grmts with cutris thy rgrd s prt f thir Priphry r sphr f ifluc (Bidurrtzg & Clm, 2005; Bwls, 2002; Htt t l., 1999). I y vt, this w pttr f xtdd rgilism is prt f ccpt f itgrti which, th hd, pprs t rduc it mrly t trd 1 Th Nrth Amric Fr Trd Agrmt, i frc sic 1994, is cmpsd f th USA, Cd d Mxic. Th Ctrl Amric Fr Trd Agrmt cmpriss th Dmiic Rpublic, Cst Ric, El Slvdr, Gutml, Hdurs, d Nicrgu d th USA. It cm it frc i 2006. 2 Th Assciti f Suthst Asi Ntis, ASEAN, currtly icluds Idsi, Mlysi, th Philippis, Sigpr, Thild, Brui, Burm (Mymr), Cmbdi, Ls, d Vitm.

Ar Eu s Ecmic Prtrship Agrmts Dvlpmtl? A Assssmt f th Suthr Afric Rgi 277 issus, ivlvig vry limitd istitutilizti byd fr trd rs, but which, th thr hd, xtds th umbr f qustis csidrd t b trd-rltd (icludig issus such s itllctul prprty, librlizti f FDI, public prcurmt, cmptiti plicy d s frth). This kid f pttr hs cm t b kw s th WTO+ rms, giv tht its lmts iclud mr th th currt WTO grmts such issus. At th sm tim, vry littl ttti is giv t cmpstry mchisms which might hlp t rdistribut th csts d bfits f itgrti quitbl bsis btw cutris t vry diffrt lvls f dvlpmt. Ev wh quitbl msurs d xist thir lvl d xtt r vry limitd d isufficit t cmpst fr th djustmt csts (Gdis, 2009; Bidurrtzg & Mrí, 2006). 2.2. Chgig pprchs: frm Lmé t Ctu Th Lmé mdl, br i 1975 i th frm f Lmé I (th succssr t th Yudé I d II cvtis) ws th mi frmwrk withi which rltis btw Wstr Eurp d its frmr ACP clis wr mgd up t th xpiry f Lmé IV i 2000. Th cvti brught tgthr 48 Sub-Shr Afric cutris 3 f which thr qurtrs wr Lst Dvlpd Cutris (LDCs). Th Lmé Cvtis shpd th grl dvlpmt id plicy f th Eurp Ecmic Cmmuity, which prt frm th spcific filds f tchicl ssistc d ficil id (implmtd thrugh th Eurp Dvlpmt Fuds: EDF I VIII), hd s f th ctrl lmts f this plicy th prfrtil -rciprcl ccss t th Eurp mrkt fr prducts frm th ACP cutris. 4 O th hd, this ws itrprtd s big lmt f psitiv discrimiti i fvur f th SSA cutris, d s such frmd prt f pst-clil mvs twrds Nw Itrtil Ecmic Ordr tht culd pttilly ctribut t dvlpmtl utcms. O th thr hd, th systm ls hlpd Eurp cutris, by prvidig thm with privilgd ccss t Afric rw mtrils t tim wh thir prics wr risig wrld mrkts. Aftr th rviw f Lmé IV i 1995, dbt pd up but th rsults f th Cvtis d th d t chg th xistig pttr f rltis. 3 Th ly cutris rmiig utsid ths grmts r th fiv Nrth Afric cutris, which t prst hv thir w spcific frmwrk f rltis with th EU d th -Afric cutris f th Mditrr rgi. 4 Aprt frm th spcil ruls fr crti gds such s bs, bf, rum d sugr, th grmts bsiclly icludd mufcturd d griculturl prducts which did t cmpt with prducts icludd i th Eurp Cmm Agriculturl Plicy (CAP), i thr wrds grlly trpicl prducts. As wll s th rs such s humitri id r structurl djustmt ficig, fud i mst dvlpmt id prgrmms i prvius dcds, th Lmé Cvtis icludd i th trd fild sm mr uusul lmts, such s Stbx d Sysmi, which wr dsigd t stbilis xprt icms frm griculturl d miig prducts rspctivly. Rvist d Ecmí Mudil 38, 2014, 273-298

278 Edurd Bidurrtzg Aurr, Artur Clm Jé, El Mrtíz Tl Th first mjr itrvti i this discussi ws prvidd by th publicti f th s-clld Gr Ppr, i which fr th first tim th Eurp Cmmissi frmlly luchd its mi rgumts fr bsic r-xmiti f th xistig schm. I this dcumt th Cmmissi mphsisd its disstisfcti with th prvius mdl with rgrd t bth its mbitius grl ims (pvrty rducti d fstr cmic d scil dvlpmt) d ls its lssr d mr ccrt trgts (th shr f th ACP cutris xprts i Eurp mrkts). I fct, th prctg prticipti f EU imprts frm ACP cutris (d frm SSA) hd fll rthr th ris. Thr ws mjr ctrst hr with thr dvlpig cmis, spcilly i Asi, which hd icrsd thir shr f xprts t th Eurp mrkt v thugh thy hd rcivd prfrtil trtmt. 5 Figur 1 shws th imprts f th EU-27 frm vrius cutry grups, icludig th ACP cutris d th mmbr cutris f SADC, fr th yrs 1999 t 2011. Ulik sm thr rgis, d sm Asi cutris i prticulr, th prctg f ths tw grups i EU imprts ds t icrs lthugh fr bth grups th bslut vlum f imprts did grw sigifictly. 6 Durig th Lmé r, Asi d Lti Amric cutris grlly icrsd thir vlum f xprts t th Eurp mrkt mr th th ACP cutris. Nthlss, it is imprtt t t tht wh thr ws highr mrgi f prfrc cmprd with thr dvlpig cutris th icrs i xprts frm th ACP cutris ws substtilly grtr. I thr wrds, lthugh th vlum f xprts f ACP cutris t th EU grw ly 3.6 prct btw 1988 d 1997, th umbr f prducts rcivig prfrc f mr th 3% bv th GSP lvl grw by 61.9 prct (17 tims s fst). I th cs f SADC, this disggrgti f th dt shws v mr mrkd ctrst: durig th sm prid th vrll vlum f xprts fll by 5.4 prct, whrs th prducts rcivig mr th 3 prct prfrc bv th GSP lvl grw by 83.6 prct (Gdis & Stm, 2005; Dvis & Mbud, 2002; Gdis, 2000). I dditi, th rsults r bttr fr crti cutris which rcivd mr 5 T b prcis, btw 1976 d 1992 th ACPs shr f EU imprts fll frm 6.7 t 3.7 prct lthugh i vlum trms ACP xprts t th EU grw t 2 prct yr. This ws much slwr th th ul grwth f xprts t th EU frm Mditrr cutris (6 prct) r Asi cutris (12 prct) (Gdis & Stm, 2005). 6 I bslut trms, imprts frm ACP cutris rs by 164 prct btw 1999 d 2011 but thir imprtc s surcs f EU27 imprts icrsd frm 4.5 t 5.2 prct. EU27 imprts frm SADC rs by 122 prct i th sm prid; thir shr mvd slightly frm 2.2 prct i 1999 t 2.1 prct i 2011. Th s-clld dymic Asi cmis (DAE: Suth Kr, Hg Kg, Mlysi, Sigpr, Tiw, Thild) icrsd thir xprts t th EU27 by 41.8 prct i bslut vlu, which, giv th grl icrs i EU imprts, thir shr fll by 4.7 prctg pits. Th mst spctculr icrs, bth i ttl vlu d i prctg f th ttl, ws frm Chi (xcludig Hg Kg). Ttl Chis xprts t th EU rs by 457 prct btw 1999 d 2011 d Chi s shr f EU imprts icrsd frm 7.1 t 17.1prct i tht prid.

Ar Eu s Ecmic Prtrship Agrmts Dvlpmtl? A Assssmt f th Suthr Afric Rgi 279 trd dvtgs th ths ffrd by th bsic Lmé -rciprcl prfrc schm (i th frm f quts, fr istc). 7 Fr this rs sm schlrs hv qustid th bjctivity f th EU wh it dclrs th Lmé systm t hv b filur, giv tht th EU fils t mti thr prblms f structurl, supply-sid tur i SSA cutris, such s thir spcilisti i limitd rg f primry prducts which wr fcig vr-supply d fllig prics i th wrld mrkt. Athr usul clim bsd wk vidc t justify th substituti f th Lmé frmwrk, is th rsi f th prfrc gp du t th dvc f th GATT librlizti prgrmm. Ths pits suggst tht th vrdict th prvius prfrtil systm is gd dl mr cmplx th th EU hs dmittd (Hurt, 2009, 2003; Mld, 2007,b; Gdis & Stm, 2005). 350.000 Figur 1. Shrs f vrius grups f cutris i th imprts f th EU(27), 1999 2011 20,0 300.000 Milli Eurs d prctg f ttl EU imprts 18,0 350.000 20,0 16,0 250.000 s200.000 r u E ili M150.000 100.000 300.000 250.000 s200.000 r u E ili M150.000 100.000 18,0 16,0 14,0 P rc 12,0 t g f 10,0 t t l E U 8,0 im p rts 6,0 14,0 P rc 12,0 t g f 10,0 t t l E U 8,0 im p rts 6,0 4,0 50.000 50.000 4,0 2,0 2,0 0 1999 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 0,02011 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 SADC ttlsadc ttl ACP ttl ACP ttl Lt_Am Lt_Am ttl DAE DAE ttl ttl CN xcl. CN HK ttl xcl. HK ttl SADC % SADC % ACP % ACP % Lt_Am % DAE DAE % % CN xcl. CN HK % xcl. HK % 0,0 Surc: EUROSTAT Mrvr, if th prfrcs hd b such filur it wuld b hrd t udrstd why Afric gvrmts isist tht th ld mdl shuld b rti- 7 Cutris such s Btsw, Swzild, Nmibi, Muritius d Zimbbw hd sigifictly icrsd thir icm i th SADC thks t th dvtgs ffrd by spcil prtcls fr sugr d bf. Ths fcts, i ctrst t th grl pii but th ffctivss f th Lmé Agrmts, shw tht fr th fvurd tis prfrtil trd hs plyd imprtt rl i surig tht th SADC cutris r t mrgilisd frm itrtil trd flws (Gdis, 2000; Mtmbly, 1998). Rvist d Ecmí Mudil 38, 2014, 273-298

280 Edurd Bidurrtzg Aurr, Artur Clm Jé, El Mrtíz Tl d, s wll s th fct tht th EU itslf prpsd t ctiu -rciprcl prfrcs fr th wrst-ff cmis (th LDCs) rthr th submit thm t th rciprcl trd ruls f th EPAs (Fbr & Orbi, 2009). Th EU s rgumts highlight th icmptibility btw th Lmé mdl d th WTO pricipls i rlti t rciprcity d -discrimiti. 8 Als th imprtc f diffrtitig btw diffrt ACP cutris th bsis f thir lvl f dvlpmt, by givig mr fvurbl cditis t th LCDs, ld th Eurp Cmmissi t strss th d fr chgig th Lmé mdl. I spit f ths icmptibilitis, it hs b pssibl i rct yrs t ctiu t pply this mdl thks t th ccptc f tw rqusts by th EU fr tmprry xmptis frm th WTO multiltrl rms, th lst f ths xpirig th 31 Dcmbr 2007. Th pssibility tht EU culd ctiu t prss fr tmprry xmptis hs ls b pitd ut by svrl schlrs s vidc f th EU s lck f pliticl willigss t srch fr ltrtiv mdls mr i li with th itrsts f th ACP cutris (Fbr & Orbi, 2009; Mld, 2007,b; Hurt, 2003). Nthlss, t th d f 1998 th prcss f gtiti bg, which wuld giv birth t th Ctu Agrmt. I th gtitis th EU prssd strgly fr mjr rritti f prvius grmts twrds w bsd rciprcl librlizti f trd, s wy f imprvig th fficicy d cmptitivss f th prductiv systms f th x-clis d thir cpcity t prticipt i th wrld cmy. Prdxiclly, th stdpit f th rprsttivs f th ACP cutris ws vry diffrt. Thy lwys prssd fr xtdig th Lmé frmwrk s lg s pssibl d, if this ws t fsibl, thy supprtd flxibility th mst ssitiv issus i th w grmt. Thy ls climd fr lg prid f trsiti t b bl t implmt plicis i rdr t miimis th hrmful sid ffcts f th djustmt t th w rgim (Hurt, 2012, 2003; Lui & Bill, 2009; Bill & Rmp, 2006; Hrtzbrg, 2000; Gibb, 2000). Th ldig rl f th Eurp Cmmissi s DG Trd vr th DG Dvlpmt i th gtiti f EPAs, ls hlps t udrstd th bisd d rstrictiv pprch f th EU thrughut this prcss (Hurt, 2012, 2009; Mld, 2007,b). I this wy, ll sms t b rsultig i uwilligss t ccmmdt th itrsts d ccrs f ACP cutris, d SSA mr spcificlly, i th fil utcm f th gtitis fr th w mdl (Gdis, 2009). I Ju 2000, 18 mths ftr th strt f gtitis btw th tw sids, th Ctu Agrmt ws sigd. It ws dsigd s substitut fr th 8 Th xcpti t th pricipl f rciprcity, usig th ctrvrsil Articl XXIV rgil itgrti grmts, ws t pplicbl. Ad i rlti t th Mst Fvurd Nti clus, which sigifid th bsc f discrimiti, th Lmé -rciprcl prfrc systm ws uthrizd i th frm f xcpti usig th Hbilitti Clus. This prmittd Lmé, s lg s such dvtgs wr giv t ll dvlpig cmis d t mrly t sm f thm (Sligc- Lcmt, 2001; Gibb, 2000; McQu, 1998).

Ar Eu s Ecmic Prtrship Agrmts Dvlpmtl? A Assssmt f th Suthr Afric Rgi 281 80.000 70.000 rgultry frmwrk i frc durig th prvius 25 yrs. Th Agrmt xtdd th Lmé prfrcs tmprry bsis up t th d f th gtitis th EPAs, xpctd t b rchd by th d f 2007. Th bsic chg ws tht frm th ld trd rgim f uiltrl prfrcs t f rciprcl prfrcs, udr which trd librlizti wuld ccur i bth dirctis thrugh th sttig up f fr trd rs. This ws csistt with th pprch t p rgilism mtid t th bgiig f this ppr. Th w pprch ws s s wy f frmlly tyig Eurp with its histricl rs f ifluc, i ctxt i which Eurp cutris prciv thmslvs thrtd by th mrgig Asi cmis, prticulrly Chi. (Hurt, 2012, 2009; Uct & Bidurrtzg, 2008; Brj, 2007; Brgr, 2006). Figurs 2 d 3 illustrt th strg icrs i rct yrs i th trd flws btw SSA d Chi, cicidig with th rducti f th rltiv imprtc f Afric s trd with th EU dspit its bslut icrs i th lst dcd. 18,0 16,0 60.000 50.000 ) s ili 40.000 m ($ 30.000 20.000 10.000 Figur 2. Imprtc f Chi i Sub-Shr Afric s trd, 1995 2011 80.000 70.000 60.000 50.000 ) s ili 40.000 m ($ 30.000 20.000 10.000 18,0 16,0 (S 14,0 h r f C 12,0 h i i th 10,0 tr d 8,0 f S u ḇ S 6,0 h r A 4,0 fric ) 2,0 (S 14,0 h r f C 12,0 h i i th 10,0 tr d 8,0 f S u ḇ S 6,0 h r A 4,0 fric ) 2,0 0 0 0,0 1995 1996 1997 1995 1998 1996 1997 199919982000 1999 2001 2000 2001 2002 2002 2003 2003 2004 2005 20052006 2006 2007 2008 2007 20092008 2010 2009 2011 2010 2011 0,0 Imprts frm Chi Exprts t Chi Imprts frm Chi (% f ttl) Exprts t Chi (% f ttl) Imprts frm Chi Exprts t Chi Imprts frm Chi (% f ttl) Exprts t Chi (% f ttl) Surc: UNCTADSTAT, dtbs Rvist d Ecmí Mudil 38, 2014, 273-298

120.000 40,0 100.000 80.000 ) s ili 60.000 m ($ 40.000 20.000 282 Edurd Bidurrtzg Aurr, Artur Clm Jé, El Mrtíz Tl Figur 3. Imprtc f th EU i Sub-Shr Afric s trd, 1995 2011 120.000 100.000 80.000 ) s ili 60.000 m ($ 40.000 20.000 40,0 35,0 (S h 30,0 r f th E 25,0 U i th 20,0 tr d f S u 15,0 ḇ S h r 10,0 A fric ) 5,0 35,0 (S h 30,0 r f th E 25,0 U i th 20,0 tr d f S u 15,0 ḇ S h r 10,0 A fric ) 5,0 0 0 0,0 1995 1996 1997 1995 1998 1996 1997 19991998 2000 1999 2000 2001 2001 2002 2002 2003 2004 2005 2005 2006 2006 2007 2008 200720092008 2010 2009 2011 2010 2011 0,0 Imprts frm th EU Exprts t th EU Imprts frm th EU (% f ttl) Exprts t th EU (% f ttl) Imprts frm th EU Exprts t th EU Imprts frm th EU (% f ttl) Exprts t th EU (% f ttl) Surc: UNCTADSTAT, dtbs Althugh it fllws similr lgic t tht f its Amric cutrprts i tryig t frmlly ti th cmic rltis with rspctiv rs f ifluc, th Eurp p rgilism mdl is diffrt frm thm i umbr f rspcts. 9 First, ulik th FTAs prmtd by th US, th xprssi fr trd 10 ds t ppr i thir titls, v thugh it is xplicit bjctiv f th EPAs. Athr diffrc is tht th EU mdl is pckg, csistig t ly f th rciprcl trd rgim but ls tchicl ssistc d ficil ssistc (withi th frmwrk f th Eurp Dvlpmt Fuds), s wll s th biltrl id prgrmms f th EU mmbrs. Filly, thr pculirity, prducd by th prviusly mtid d fr psitiv discrimiti, is th spcil trtmt ccdd t th LDCs by rtiig prts f th prvius -rciprcl rgim d xtdig ths t ll LDCs i th rst f th wrld, rgrdlss f th mmbrship f th ACP grup. This lst ftur rsults frm th Evrythig But Arms (EBA) 11 iititiv luchd by th EU i 2001 (Bidurrtzg & Mrí, 2006). 9 Nvrthlss, sm schlrs clim tht dspit th diffrcs, th EU is prgrssivly mvig twrds icrsigly rstrictiv, mrctilist d busiss/mrkt ritd systm (Hurt, 2012; Mld & Pg, 2007). 10 Bfr th EPA prpsl ws md, th Eurp Cmmissi i 1995 publishd Fr Trd Ars: pprisl, i which thy st ut vry clrly th EU prspctiv i trms f th bfits fr Eurp f prmtig w frmwrk f mcr fr trd rs i Eurp s r f ifluc by ms f prgrssiv limiti f triffs (Gdis & Stm, 2005). 11 Th Evrythig But Arms iititiv, s its m implis, llws LDCs triff- d qut-fr ccss t th Eurp mrkt fr ll prducts xcpt fr rms. I dditi t this xplicitly mtid xprt, th iititiv ls ctid trsitry xclusi fr sm griculturl prducts such s bs, ric d sugr (Mrí, 2008; Gdis & Stm, 2005; Pg & Hwitt, 2002).

Ar Eu s Ecmic Prtrship Agrmts Dvlpmtl? A Assssmt f th Suthr Afric Rgi 283 3. EPAs i prctic: my gtitis, fw grmts Th Ctu Agrmt did t spcify th full ctts f ch f th diffrt EPAs which wr t b gtitd. It limitd itslf t syig tht thy shuld prfrbly b st up with lrdy stblishd rgil grupigs, d tht thy shuld strt t th bgiig f 2008 with prcss f trd librlisti which wuld llw th full grmt t b prtiv by 2020 t th ltst. Hc, ftr yr f jit gtitis, th sprt gtitis btw th EU d sm f th Afric rgil grupigs bg i Sptmbr 2003. Fur gtitig frmwrks wr st up crrspdig t th EPAs i SSA. O f ths ws with th Ecmic Cmmuity f Wst Afric Stts (ECOWAS), which icludd its 15 mmbrs plus Muriti. A scd ws with th six mmbrs f th Ctrl Afric Ecmic d Mtry Cmmuity (CEMAC) with th dditi f Sã Tmé d Prícip d th Dmcrtic Rpublic f th Cg. A third ws with th 15 mmbrs f th Suthr Afric Dvlpmt Cmmuity (SADC), sm mmbrs f which ls gtitd i thr grups. Th lst f th fur ws th s-clld Estr d Suthr Afric (ESA) grup, csistig f cutris frm bth st d suth f th ctit, md up priciplly f mmbrs f th Cmm Mrkt fr Est d Suthr Afric (COMESA), rgil grup withi which ws ls t b fud th Est Afric Cmmuity (EAC) d sm thr SADC cutris. Frm th bgiig th Eurp Cmmissi s timtbl ws t gt th EPAs gig by Jury 2008. Thir mi rgumt fr this ws bsd th xpiry f th WTO wivr fr th Lmé -rciprcl prfrcs, which wr icmptibl with its trd ruls. Thus, th Eurp Cmmissi wishd t mk it clr tht thr ws ltrtiv but t ffr EBA trtmt fr LDCs d substtilly wrs trtmt, such s th Grlizd Systm f Prfrcs (GSP), fr th thrs. I ppsiti t this, mst Afric gvrmts d th twrk f scil mvmts d Eurp d Afric dvlpmt NGOs 12 ctiud t isist th d t mk th timtbl mr flxibl d cut dw th umbr f issus discussd i th gtitis, dvctig srch fr ltrtiv t EPAs, which th Ctu Agrmt itslf rcmmds shuld ccur wh thr is grmt btw th prtis. Spcificlly, ths prpsls icludd, mg thr thigs, rstrictig grmts t qustis rltd t trd ( light EPAs ), rqust furthr xtsi f th WTO xmpti f th Lmé ruls, d prpsig tht th EU ccd GSP+ r bttr. 13 Th bsc f ltrtivs pplid t th EU s pliticl will rthr th t th pssibility f fidig thr ptis mr fvurbl t th SSA cutris (Mrí, 2008; Mld, 2007,b; Bill d Rmp, 2006). 12 S th Stp EPAs cmpig luchd by th Afric Scil Frum i 2004. 13 Vi wht ws clld th GPS+, th EU grtd grtr triff prfrcs t dvlpig cutris with th wkst cmis, s lg s thy ccptd sris f itrtil grmts ( hum rights, sustibility d gvrc, mg thrs thigs). Rvist d Ecmí Mudil 38, 2014, 273-298

284 Edurd Bidurrtzg Aurr, Artur Clm Jé, El Mrtíz Tl At th xpiry f th EU s gtitig ddli i Dcmbr 2007 thr xistd just full EPA with th cutris f th Cribb. Mwhil, mst f th thr ACP cutris tht culd t bfit frm LDC sttus, ly sigd prtil d itrim EPAs, ithr s idividul cutris r cutry grups. Th ly xcptis t this r th css f Nigri, Gb, Cg d Suth Afric. Th lttr cutry lrdy hd idividul trd grmt with th EU (th Trd Dvlpmt d Cprti Agrmt, TCDA) d th thr thr r xprtig udr th stdrd GSP grmt sic 1 Jury 2008 14 (EC, 2013; ECDPM, 2011). O f th Cmmissi s mi rgumts fr trsfrmig th Lmé mdl ws tht it cflicts with th WTO s rul big -rciprcl trd ccssis. Hwvr, this issu ws lrdy rslvd by th itrim grmts. Othr kids f ssitiv d ctrvrsil issus f grt itrst t th EU, hwvr, such s trd i srvics, itllctul prprty rights, librlizti f ivstmt, public ctrcts d cmptiti plicy, wr t icludd i th itrim EPAs. Tht is why th s-clld rdz vus clus ws icludd i th prtil grmts; i this th EU clrifid tht th gtitig prcss ws t cmplt d tht th SSA cutris hd t ctiu t gtit th issus mtid. All this rusd gd dl f cflict btw th prtis s tht, whil th Afric gvrmts dmstrtd thir ppsiti t icludig th missig issus, th EU ctiud t isist vigrusly th grt bfits which full EPAs wuld brig by prmittig widr isrti f th SSA cutris it th wrld cmy (Hurt, 2009; Mrí, 2008; Bidurrtzg, 2008). It is still th cs tht Afric rgi hs sigd full EPA. I Wst Afric rgil lvl grmt hs b rchd with ECOWAS, r with CEMAC i Ctrl Afric 15. I th ESA rgi th mmbr cutris f th EAC 16 dcidd i Nvmbr 2007 t frm sprt EPA dspit th fct tht, sid frm Ky, thks t th EBA iititiv, ll f thm, s LDCs, wuld b ligibl t ctiu udr th ld mdl. Aftr svrl ups d dws i th gtiti prcss, EU-EAC grmt hs b sigd yt. At th d f 2007 six ESA cutris hd iitilld itrim grmt, which ws sigd ly by fur 17 i 2009. It shuld b td tht th itrim grmts which hv b iitilld iclud bth LDCs d -LDCs. 18 Th prctg f gds icludd i th librlizti prcss, s wll s th spd f th gtitis, 14 Nigri d Gb skd t b icludd it th list f bficiris f bficiris f th GSP+ schm, but bth rqusts wr rjctd by th EC. 15 I Wst d Ctrl Afric th currt stt f th EPA gtitis is fllig shrt f xpcttis, s thr r yt rgil itrim grmts d ly fw idividul s with -LDCs. 16 Est Afric Cmmuity mmbrs r th fllwig: Ky, Tzi, Ugd, Burudi d Rud. 17 Sychlls, Muritius, Mdgscr d Zimbbw sigd th grmt, but Cmrs d Zmbi did t. 18 Djibuti, Eritr, Ethipi, Mlwi d Sud hv t iitilld th itrim grmt du t thir psiti s LDCs, which sic 2008 hs llwd thm t xprt udr th EBA iititiv. Nthlss, Zmbi, which is ls LDC, hs iitilld itrim grmt s prticipt i th ESA iititiv fr th st d suth f th ctit.

Ar Eu s Ecmic Prtrship Agrmts Dvlpmtl? A Assssmt f th Suthr Afric Rgi 285 vry btw diffrt cutris lthugh ll f thm r fllwig timtbl which wuld rsult i EPA by 2022. All cutris hv issud list f ssitiv prducts t b xcludd frm th dismtlig f thir custms triffs, whs ift prducrs rquir triff prtcti. Filly, rgrdig th SADC rgi, ly 8 ut f th 15 mmbr bg gtitis d 5 f ths 19, iitilld itrim grmt, which ws sigd i 2009 by ll f thm xcpt Nmibi. Nmibi s filur t sig th itrim grmt is svrly dlyig its strt f prtis, d th Eurp Cmmissi is puttig th Nmibi gvrmt udr lt f prssur t sig it. Th mi bstcl risd by th Nmibi rprsttivs ccrs th thrt tht EPA will rprst fr rgil itgrti, rfrrig spcificlly t SACU. 20 This pii is shrd by th Suth Afric gvrmt. O th thr hd, Agl rtis its prvius rgim du t it big LDC, d Tzi is gtitig i th EAC, whil Suth Afric xprts t th EU udr its w Trd, Dvlpmt d Cprti Agrmt (TDCA) 21 sigd i 1999 (EC, 2013; ECDPM, 2012-13, 2011). Withi th lbyrithi cmplxity f this mp f grmts i th vrius rgis mtid, th mst trublsm cs is tht f th rgil grup SADC, chrctrisd by th fct tht its mmbrs r prticiptig i diffrt gtitig grups withi th Ctrl, Estr d Suthr rgis f th ctit. 4. EPAs d dvlpmt i Suthr Afric As gist th Eurp Cmmissi s pr-epa rgumts, which w lt t clssicl Ricrdi rgumts i fvur f fr trd, lrg rg f criticl psitis hv b put frwrd by Afric gvrmts, cdmics d civil scity. 22 Thy pit t th lss f custms rvus, th vulrbility f spcific sctrs t Eurp cmptiti, th EU s dubl stdrds, gtitig wksss th Afric sid, distrtis f th Afric rgil itgrti prcsss d th iclusi i th gtitis f spcilly ctrvrsil d difficult tpics (such s th trtmt f srvics, itllctul prprty rights, ivstmt, public prcurmt d s ). 19 W rfr t Btsw, Swzild, Nmibi, Lsth d Mzmbiqu, big th lst tw LDCs. 20 Th Suthr Afric Custms Ui (SACU) is cmpsd f Btsw, Lsth, Swzild, Nmibi d Suth Afric. I rct yrs, bcus f th sigig f th itrim EPAs with th EU by th first 3 f th mtid SACU mmbrs, th thr tw hv clld fr jit gtitis by th whl custms ui s its ruls dmd. 21 T prvt ichrc i th triffs btw SACU mmbrs, mr th 50 TCDA triff ctgris hv hd t b chgd t mk csistt with ths gtitd by th UE with Btsw, Lsth d Swzild. 22 Sm studis, rudly ppsd by th Eurp Cmmissi, dpt clr psiti tht ths grmts r hrmful t th ACP cutris. Th study EUROSTEP (2004): Nw ACP-EU Trd Arrgmts: Nw Brrirs t Erdictig Pvrty?, fr istc, rgus tht th fr trd rs prpsd by th EU will wrs umplymt, fd iscurity, ccss t ficig d t scil srvics s wll s th vulrbility f wm. Rvist d Ecmí Mudil 38, 2014, 273-298

286 Edurd Bidurrtzg Aurr, Artur Clm Jé, El Mrtíz Tl 4.1. Trd issus Sic Eurp mrkts fr Afric prducts r lrdy, with th xcpti f gricultur, lrgly librlizd, th mi ffct f EPAs will b t icrs EU xprts t SSA. It is t vry clr, hwvr, tht th w EPA mdl will cus icrs i th rgi s xprts t th EU. Ths wh will jy bfits frm th w ccrds will b csumrs i Suthr Afric d prducrs i th EU, t th dtrimt f th prductiv structur f th Afric cutris which th burd f djustmt will fll (Hurt, 2012, 2009; Gdis & Stm, 2005). As w c s i Figur 3, util th rct cmic rcssi th trd blc f th EU durig th lst dcd hs b mily gtiv with SSA. Th trd blc btw th EU d SADC fllws similr pttr. S, th pig f th mrkts f ths Afric cutris t EU xprts will hlp miti th currt trd surplus i fvur f th EU, gist th ppsit trd durig mst f th prvius dcd. It culd ls b hlpful fr th EU i rdr t slw dw th grwth f th xprts frm Asi cutris, spcilly frm Chi, whs mi trdig prtrs i th rgi r Suth Afric d Agl (Hurt, 2012, 2009, Nidu t l., 2009). Amg th qustis which mst wrry gvrmts i th rgi r th lss f fiscl rvus 23 d th rsultig rducti f rsurcs i thir rspctiv public sctrs, s wll s th fr f cfrtig mr cmptitiv Eurp prducrs i vrius sctrs, v thugh th spd f librlizti my b slwr fr gds rgrdd s mr ssitiv. I this rspct, th shrp diffrcs i cmptitivss d prductiv divrsity btw th EU d SADC r ctrl thm. Th figurs blw shw clrly th lrg iqulitis f this kid btw mst cutris i th tw rgil grups, which is wrig f pttil symmtry i th shrig f csts d bfits f mrkt librlizti fr th tw sids. Frm Figur 4, which illustrts cmprtiv cmptitivss, 24 w s tht mst f th Eurp cmis r i th lwr lft qudrt, th bst 23 A usful xmpl is th cs f th mmbrs f th SACU custms ui, kw s BLNS plus Suth Afric. Ths cutris hd t dpt thir triffs s rsult f th TDCA grmt btw th EU d Suth Afric. Vrius studis stimtd t th tim tht th lss f fiscl icm fr ths cutris wuld b: Btsw 5.3 prct, Nmibi 8.6 prct, Lsth 12.9 prct d Swzild 13.9 prct. Th srch fr ltrtiv gvrmt rvus i such circumstcs is t lwys sy, prticulrly i th ctxt f cutris i which ifrml cmy is sigifict. Th risk tht it will wk th stt s bility t supply bsic srvics shuld b tk it ccut (Gdis & Stm, 2005). 24 Th Wrld Cmptitivss Idx is cmpsd f th wightd ms f th fllwig 12 idictrs: istitutis, ifrstructur, mcrcmic frmwrk, hlth d primry ducti, highr ducti d triig, fficit mrkts, fficit lbur mrkt, dvlpmt f th ficil mrkt, tchlgicl dispsiti, mrkt siz, crprt sphisticti d ivti. Th first fur (cmptitivss 1) r grupd udr th titl f bsic rquirmts, th fllwig six (cmptitivss 2) udr fficicy hcrs d th lst tw udr ivti d sphisticti fctrs. Fr mr ifrmti th rk d vlu f th idx fr EU d SADC cutris s Ax 1 (WEF, 2012-13).

Ar Eu s Ecmic Prtrship Agrmts Dvlpmtl? A Assssmt f th Suthr Afric Rgi 287 psitis f th tw rkigs big fr Fild, Swd, th Nthrlds d Grmy. O th thr hd, mst f th SADC cutris r i th uppr right hd qudrt, which ms lw scr fr bth idictrs, th wrst cutris big Mzmbiqu d Lsth 25. I th lwr right-hd qudrt r fw cmis with highr scr fr fficicy hcrs th fr bsic rquirmts. Hr Suth Afric is xcptil, ccupyig 37th plc fr fficicy hcrs d 84 th plc fr bsic rquirmts. I th uppr lft qudrt is Sychlls, which, lthugh it is wll situtd bsic rquirmts (46 th ), is s lw s 91 st i fficicy hcrs. Filly, twrthy SADC cutry is Muritius, which hs ccptbl scr bth idictrs. Figur 4: cmptitivss: EU27 d SADC cmprd, 2012-13 140 Swzild 120 Mlwi Tzi Zmbi Nmibi rs) 100 c h Sychlls E Btsw c y i 80 fic (E 2 Grc s Muritius 60 Rmi Slvi Bulgri Hugry titiv p Ltvi Slvki Prtugl m Lithui C 40 Cyprus Mlt Itly Suth Afric Czch Rpublic Luxmburg Esti Spi Irld Austri 20 Frc Pld Fild Blgium Dmrk Grmy Swd Nthrlds U. K. 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Cmptitivss 1 (Bsic Rquirmts) Surc: Prducd by th uthrs bsd dt i WEF, 2012-13. Zimbbw Lsth Mzmbiqu Rgrdig th idx f xprt cctrti 26 thr r vry mrkd diffrcs t i bth rgil grups s c b s i Figur 5. Hr, t xtrm w fid th mjrity f th SADC cutris, with Agl th mst xtrm, fllwd by Btsw d Zmbi, mst ll f thm shwig highr lvls f cctrti th th mjrity f EU27 cutris, with th xcpti 25 It shuld b tk it ccut tht thr is vilbl dt fr Agl d D.R. f Cg, big bth vry likly t rk i th lwst psitis wh it cms t th cmptitivss idictrs big usd hr. 26 Th vlu f th cctrti idx is btw 0 d 1 (rspctivly idictig th lwst d highst lvl f cctrti, r th highst d lwst lvl f divrsity). Rvist d Ecmí Mudil 38, 2014, 273-298

288 Edurd Bidurrtzg Aurr, Artur Clm Jé, El Mrtíz Tl f Mlt, Irld d Grc, mg thrs. Amg SADC mmbrs, cutris such s Suth Afric, Tzi, Zimbbw 27, Nmibi, Swzild d Muritius std ut, s hvig grtr vrity f xprts th thir ighburs. Figur 5. Idx f xprt cctrti (UE27 d SADC), 2011 1 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0 ly It stri u A d l P l g rtu P rk c m F r D i i tv m L R y rm G i s d m S p iu rl lg th B N m d lic d b S w g u p i K R d c h it z C U ry ri g u lg u H B rg u b m x L u d l F i i st E k i. i v Ṛ fric S l A v, U w i i s d s b ib ru c d th S l i b u m y p C zil ritiu l th u u S z im L ith N u r s iq Z S w G Ir L b m M z T M lt M i g w s l l i b C. M p y c h m Z. R S m D tsw B l g A Surc: UNCTADSTAT dtbs Udr ths circumstcs, th pig up t th EU cmptiti culd b vry hrmful fr th xistig lcl mufcturig d fd prcssig idustris i th rgi, d mk vry difficult th cssry divrsificti f thir cmis d th dvlpmt f sct idustris (Hurt, 2012). Th lw scr f mst Suthr Afric cutris i th wid vrity f th cmptitivss idictrs icludd giv vidc f thm t big wll quippd fr trd librlizti with th EU (Buss, 2010) Bsids, th EU s trd plicy i griculturl prducts c b dscribd s ichrt. Dspit th Cmmissi s ffr f duty fr qut fr ccss t Eurp mrkts if EPAs wr pprvd, dmstic subsidis t th griculturl sctr r still vry sigifict. 28 I dditi, th EU s priritis hygi 27 Th srius cmic, scil d pliticl crisis i Zimbbw i rct yrs, hwvr, hs put it mg th lwst plcs i th rgi with rgrd t cmptitivss. 28 I dditi t th whl Cmm Agriculturl Plicy (CAP) pckg, rsrvtis wr ls xprssd by Itly, Grc, Frc, Spi d Prtugl s rsult f disputs but th dmiti f sm Suth Afric wis d liqurs, but th mrkt fr fruit d drivtivs d but cut flwrs. Abut 26 prct f th Suth Afric griculturl prducts xprtd t Eurp mrkts wr xcludd frm th fr trd cditis ffrd by th trty t this cutry (Gdis, 2000).

Ar Eu s Ecmic Prtrship Agrmts Dvlpmtl? A Assssmt f th Suthr Afric Rgi 289 d hlth rgultis fr fd prducts hs sic th 1990s ld t th pplicti f grwig umbr f miimum rquirmts, which d up bcmig thr typ f trd brrir gist SADC cutris. This bv ll ffcts fish d griculturl prducts d thir mufcturs, imprtt prt f th xprts f Mlwi, Tzi, Nmibi, Zimbbw d Swzild, mg thrs (Gdis & Stm, 2005). Aprt frm trd i gds, th Eurp Cmmissi hs shw grt itrst i icludig srvics i th gtitis. Tht hs ls prducd ctrvrsy giv tht it is s s futur thrt t lcl firms, prst d pttil, i sctrs such s tlcmmuictis r bkig whr Eurp firms r vry cmptitiv. This viw is spcilly prst i Suth Afric du t its psiti s th mi supplir f srvics i th rgi, spcilly t th BLSN cutris (Btsw, Lsth, Swzild d Nmibi) (V dr Hlst, 2009; Gdis, 2009). I rdr t cmpst fr ths uqul structurs, th EU hs st up Aid fr Trd prgrmm tht ims t imprv th cpcity t trd by th cutris i th rgi. 29 Dspit its thrticl pttil, th smll mut f rsurcs ssigd t this prgrmm up t w, d th lck f prticipti i th dsig d plig f th schm by Afric prducrs, rvl c mr th ichrc f th EU s plicis: Eurp prducrs rciv grus public id d prgrmms t imprv th cmptitivss f gricultur d fd idustris, whil prducrs sscitis prticipt i th dsig f plicis t cp with chgs i trd d prducti (Gdis, 2009). 4.2. Othr rltd issus Ivstmt, itllctul prprty rights, public prcurmt d cmptiti plicis ls frm prt f th gtitig pckg f th EPAs. If th cpitl mrkt is librlisd i th futur it is pssibl t imgi lrgr mut f FDI gig t th SADC cutris. This rifrcs th d t stblish prfrmc rquirmts fr ivstrs. Yt, just s i th cs f th Lti Amric Fr Trd Agrmts, th tdcy hr sms t b th ppsit, i th ss tht th fild iititiv t st up Multiltrl Agrmt Ivstmt (MAI) is w rturig thrugh th bck dr i th frm f rgil MAI. Prdxiclly, mpiricl vidc sms t shw tht rcipit cutris my ly bfit frm FDI flws if pprprit gvrmt rgultis d istitutis r i plc (Buss, 2010). I this ctxt, th itti f th EU is t priritis th itrsts f th Eurp ivstrs gist ths f gvr- 29 Th ccpt f Aid fr Trd is t limitd t hlpig with cr trd ctivitis such s supprt fr imprvig prts r custms fcilitis r strgthig prtrs trd gtiti cpcity, (th sclld Trd-rltd Assistc ), but ls t widr qustis such s th dvlpmt f trsprt d tlcmmuictis ifrstructur rltd t trd r ssistc t prticulr prductiv sctrs. Rvist d Ecmí Mudil 38, 2014, 273-298

290 Edurd Bidurrtzg Aurr, Artur Clm Jé, El Mrtíz Tl mts i th rgi which, s rsult, ls thir rm fr muvr t luch pr-dvlpmt plicis t tim wh Eurp trstil cmpis r mvig it thir cutris (Fbr & Orbi, 2009; Itrmó-Oxfm, 2008; Bidurrtzg, 2008). As i th cs f trd, th mi rss fr th EU t put ths trd rltd issus but th librlisti f FDI th gtitig gd r th fllwig: th prvius mv by its mi cmptitr, th USA, i th sm dircti thrugh its Fr Trd Agrmts (FTAs) with Lti Amric cutris; d th icrsig try f cpitl it th rgi frm thr -trditil prtrs such s Chi, Idi, Mlysi, Brzil, th Arb cutris, Suth Kr d Tiw (UNCTAD, 2012). S th EU s prpsls try t g byd th Ctu Agrmt r th WTO ruls, ddig up t wht hs b clld WTO+ grmts. This frmwrk ims t mk prgrss t th rgil lvl th gtiti f issus which r t prst t stdstill t th multiltrl lvl f th WTO (Itrmó-Oxfm, 2008; Bidurrtzg, 2008; Kt, 2007). I mst css th cutris f Suthr Afric hv ithr th cpcity r th d t gtit such qustis which thy hv cutrd bfr i th WTO d which r t ffctd by th xpiry f th wivr tht th EU usd s rgumt fr chgig its prvius mdl (Gdis, 2009; My, 2008; Itrmó-Oxfm, 2008; Mrí, 2008; Kt, 2007). Th fct tht th EU, th mi trdig prtr d dr i th rgi, hs mgd t mk ths issus, which th dvlpig cutris hv lwys rfusd t gtit i th WTO, prt f th futur gtitis th cmplti f th EPAs shws th xtt f symmtry btw th tw prtis gtitig strgths. Ufrtutly, thir iclusi i full EPA fr th SADC rgi wuld hv srius dtrimtl ffct ths cutris i trms f rducti f plicy spc (Hurt, 2012; 2009). Mti shuld ls b md f wht r kw s th cttius issus : th trsiti prids, th itrprtti f th phrs substtilly ll trd, th pricipl f til trtmt, rgil prfrc, sfgurd cluss d ift idustry prvisis, th mst fvurd ti pricipl d ruls f rigi. Th dgr f flxibility ths tchicl qustis will dtrmi whthr thir ffcts will b mr r lss fvurbl t th dvlpmt f th cutris i th rgi (Lui & Bill, 2009). 4.3. Additil cfusi: rgil vrlppig i Suthr Afric Filly, s t th ffct f th EPAs th supprt d strgthig f th pr-xistig rgil grups i SSA, th rsults up t w r limitd, d Suthr Afric is i this ss prdigmtic. I th cs f SADC ly 8 f th 15 mmbrs f th grup r prticiptig i th currt gtitig prcss d, f ths, Tzi hs trd itrim grmt with th EAC. Of th rst, ly 4 (Btsw, Lsth, Swzild d Mzmbiqu) hv sigd

Ar Eu s Ecmic Prtrship Agrmts Dvlpmtl? A Assssmt f th Suthr Afric Rgi 291 itrim grmt crrspdig t disfigurd SADC-mius. Th first 3 f ths, plus Nmibi d Suth Afric, 30 frm th SACU, th ldst custms ui th ctit. Agl will rti its prvius sttus i its cditi f LDC, d th Dmcrtic Rpublic f th Cg hs fr w trd gtitis with th Ctrl Afric. As fr th 6 rmiig cutris (Mdgscr, Muritius, Sychlls, Mlwi, Zmbi d Zimbbw), thy ls blg t th ESA grup, which is t prprly spkig, rgil grupig but rthr ggrphicl z i which 16 mmbrs f COMESA prticipt s EPA gtitig prtr, but thr COMESA mmbrs d t. Burudi, Ky, Rwd d Ugd (ls COMESA mmbrs) hv gtitd sprt grmt with th EAC custms ui lg with Tzi, mmbr f SADC, s lrdy mtid (EC, 2013; ECDPM, 2012-13, 2011). S, tkig th SADC rgi s rfrc pit, w fid vrius frgmtd gtiti prcsss i which ll its mmbrs, prt frm Agl, th Dmcrtic Rpublic f th Cg d Suth Afric, hv dd up iitillig itrim grmts with th EU with diffrt timtbls d ctt i thr diffrt frmwrks: th SADC, th ESA grup d th EAC, icludd i th frmr. If th gtitig cpcity f th ACP cutris ws lrdy limitd, this divisi i diffrt rgil grups, which i tur mk disggrgtd pprchs t w sub-grups, must limit it v furthr (Kt, 2007; Gdis d Stm, 2005). I ctrst t thr rgis f th ctit, i Suthr Afric mst f th LDCs f SADC hv sigd itrim grmts ccptig rciprcity i thir mrchdis trd whil thrticlly cutig th pssibility f ctiuig with th prvius rgim f -rciprcl prfrcs. This culd b udrstd by th fct tht fr th LDCs t sigig EPA, this situti turs prblmtic i th vt f jiig custms ui i which y f th prtrs i it hs grd rciprcl trd ruls with th EU. Tht will m ithr tht it is hrd t gurt tht such cutris c ctiu t jy th bfits f th prvius rgim, r tht it will b cssry t stblish strict mchisms t ctrl ruls f rigi, d this will crt difficultis fr th prmti f itr-rgil trd (Mrí, 2008; Thms, 2004; Hurt, 2003; Sligc-Lcmt, 2001). Giv ll this cfusi, th xtrl ifluc f th EU thrugh th EPAs is rshpig rgil itgrti iititivs i SSA i grl, d i Suthr Afric i prticulr, twrds librl frms f rgilism, but mkig thm mr difficult fr its mmbr cutris t th sm tim. As rsult f th sig- 30 Th gvrmt f Suth Afric is prticulrly disstisfid with th iclusi f Mst Fvurd Nti clus i th itrim EPA f th SADC grup i which th mjrity f its SACU ighburs r prticiptig. This clus, which ws t icludd i th prvius grmt (TDCA) with th EU, limits Suth Afric s trd gtitis with thr cutris such s Brzil d Chi (Hurt, 2012, 2009; V dr Hlst, 2009). Th disgrmt isid SACU, whrby Nmibi d Suth Afric pps sigig itrim SADC EPA, clrly shws th distrtis d frgmtti wrkd by th EPA frmwrk th pr-xistig ttmpts t itgrti i Suthr Afric (Gdis, 2009). Rvist d Ecmí Mudil 38, 2014, 273-298

292 Edurd Bidurrtzg Aurr, Artur Clm Jé, El Mrtíz Tl ig f grmts rchd thrugh gtitis with idividul cutris r with grups f cutris which d t crrspd t pr-xistig rgil grupigs, iititivs twrds Afric itgrti will b wkd d distrtd 31 (Buzdug, 2013; Vickrs, 2011; Mrí, 2008; Thms, 2004; Mtmbly, 2000). Thrfr, th chrc f rgil itgrti i th SADC rgi is currtly sriusly dmgd, giv tht mst f its mmbr stts r ivlvd i thr EPA gtitis. Bsids, th s ivlvd i th EPA-SADC, xcpt fr Mzmbiqu, r mr ccrd but its ffcts th futur f SACU th f SADC (Hurt, 2012, 2009). If this is t b vidd th fllwig will b cssry: flxibl librlisti f custms triffs d mr flxibility th prviusly mtid cttius issus; rifrcig th prductiv cpcitis f ift idustris d f fd prcssig prducti; bstig th buildig f ifrstructur which rifrcs itgrti; crfully chsig cmic plicis; d, bv ll, prir cslidti f itgrti iititivs such s SADC. All this is dsigd t prvt prmtur utwrd-ritd itgrti with th EU prducig distrtig ffcts d dig up s iwrd-lkig disitgrti f th rgi s cmis (Hurt, 2012; 2009; Hrtzbrg, 2011; Buss, 2010; Kt, 2007; L, 2004). 5. Cclusis Chgs i th wrld cmy vr rct dcds hv ld t rrwig th tpic f rgil itgrti t simplr plicy f frig trd d thr cmic trsctis, d xtsi f this pprch t grupigs f cutris f th Nrth d Suth tgthr. This is ft itrprtd s itrmdit stp twrds th glbl librlizti f crti mrkts d s prrquisit fr pprprit isrti f th SSA cmis i th wrld cmy. Evidtly, ths tdcis hv littl t d with rlir pprchs rltd t p-africism r itgrti s istrumt f cllctiv slfrlic d dgus dvlpmt. Dspit its pliticlly crrct rhtric d its suppsd ccr t prmt dvlpmt i SSA, th EU is ttmptig t hdlg spd t imps ths cutris cmic grmts which gurt privilgd rltis with its r f ifluc udr th w frmul f p rgilism. But ths i thir tur rus mjr dubts but thir csqucs fr dvlpmt d but thir ffct imprvig th cditis f lif f th prst ppl i th rgi. Th EU s isistc sigig withut dly sm kid f EPA (itrim if full EPA is t pssibl) sms t hv bcm mr urgt s rsult f th cmic rltis dvlpig btw SSA d -trditil prtrs, i prticulr Chi, th grt mrgig wrld cmic pwr. Tht, lg with 31 It is ugh t sk if it is ccivbl tht mmbr cutris f th EU, idividully r i smll subgrups, culd gtit grmts lik EPAs with cslidtd rgil grups i thr ctits withut prvkig mjr pliticl crisis isid th EU itslf.

Ar Eu s Ecmic Prtrship Agrmts Dvlpmtl? A Assssmt f th Suthr Afric Rgi 293 th EU s cmptiti fr crti mirl d rgy rsurcs, hs imprvd th plicy spc f my Afric gvrmts i diffrt biltrl d multiltrl gtitig frmwrks d hs llwd thm t divrsify thir xtrl rltis. This situti shuld b usd by SSA gvrmts t strgth thir rgumts d bttr dfd thir itrsts; thy shuld dmd ltrtivs t th EPAs prpsd by th EU, mr flxibility but timtbls, d but th issus t b icludd i th gtiti, s wll s spcific trtmt fr sctrs vulrbl t Eurp cmptiti d mr id fuds t cmpst fr th csts f itgrti btw uqul prtrs. Afric d Eurp scil mvmts, dvlpmt NGOs d cdmics ls hv imprtt fucti t fulfil i this dbt, by ctiuig thir wrk f clrifyig th mig f th disputs d th pttil implictis f th prpsd grmts. Th prticulr cs f Suthr Afric hs s fr giv fw gruds fr ptimism rgrdig th futur ffcts f EPAs rgil dvlpmt. Th symmtricl gtitig frmwrk csists f, sid, vrius SADC cutris, disggrgtd it diffrt grups d with ithr crditi r jit strtgy d, th thr sid, th EU, which cts s sigl subjct, d gtits with sigl vic. Thr is dubt tht th rgi is cmpsd f mlgm f cutris with mjr diffrcs btw thm d brd iqulity withi. Thir rd t dvlpmt dpds wid mtrix f vribls, sm f thm mtid i this ppr. Th psiti f th wkst cmis d th prst ppl withi thm will b dtrmid prtly by th tur f rgulti d drgulti which gvrs trd, ivstmt, itllctul prprty rights d flws f migrts d prtly by cmpsti mchisms, id flws d thr ms f icrsig quitbl utcms. I this ss, if th Eurp Cmmissi rlly wishs t prmt w gd f itrtil cprti ccrdig t th pricipls f th ltst High Lvl Fr Aid Effctivss (Prís (2005), Accr (2008) d Bus (2011)) d th chivmt f th Millium Dvlpmt Gls, it must giv mr ttti t th chrc f its w plicis d isist lss its iflxibl d slf-itrstd prpsl f p rgilism i th frm f EPAs. Its isistc trd rciprcity d th iclusi th gd f ctrvrsil issus which g byd th WTO grmts ly rstrict th gvrmts f th rgi frm pursuig wht thy csidr t b th bst plicis. As hs ly t frqutly b shw by Afric gvrmts, schlrs d Eurp d Afric scil mvmts durig th gtitis ths grmts, thy suffr frm srius limittis d drwbcks i prmtig dvlpmt i SSA i grl d i th Suthr Afric rgi i prticulr. I rdr t chiv bttr dvlpmt utcms i th rgi, it wuld crtily hlp t pply highr dgr f flxibility, bth f schdul d issus t dl with, s wll s grtr cmpsti fr th cst f djustmt d fr strgthig rgil itgrti. Rvist d Ecmí Mudil 38, 2014, 273-298

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298 Edurd Bidurrtzg Aurr, Artur Clm Jé, El Mrtíz Tl Ax. Tbl 1. Glbl Cmptitivss Idx Glbl Cmptitivss Idx (GCI) 2012-2013 Cutry Rk Pits Cutry Rk Pits Cutry Rk Pits Btsw 79 4.06 Austri 16 5.22 Ltvi 55 4.35 Lsth 137 3.19 Blgium 17 5.21 Lithui 45 4.41 Sychlls 76 4.1 Bulgri 62 4.27 Luxmburg 22 5.09 Mlwi 129 3.38 Cyprus 58 4.32 Mlt 47 4.41 Muritius 54 4.35 Czch Rpublic 39 4.51 Nthrlds 5 5.5 Mzmbiqu 138 3.17 Dmrk 12 5.29 Pld 41 4.46 Nmibi 92 3.88 Esti 34 4.64 Prtugl 49 4.4 Suth Afric 52 4.37 Fild 3 5.55 Rmi 78 4.07 Swzild 135 3.28 Frc 21 5.11 Slvki 71 4.14 Tzi 120 3.6 Grmy 6 5.48 Slvi 56 4.34 Zmbi 102 3.8 Grc 96 3.86 Spi 36 4.6 Zimbbw 132 3.34 Hugry 60 4.3 Swd 4 5.53 Agl - - Irld 27 4.91 Uitd Kigdm 8 5.45 Dm.Rp. Cg - - Itly 42 4.46 Surc: WEF, Th Glbl Cmptitivss Rprt 2012-2013