Contents Colour Plates Foreword John Beddington Notes on Contributors xv xvii xix Chapter 1 Ecolabelling of Seafood: The Basic Concepts 1 Trevor J. Ward and Bruce Phillips 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Ecolabelling programmes 2 1.3 How ecolabelling works 7 1.4 Types of ecolabels 10 1.5 Ecolabelling governance 18 1.6 Sustainability standards 22 1.7 Ecolabelling in the marketplace 24 1.7.1 The Blue Angel 25 1.7.2 Uptake by business 26 1.7.3 Seafood ecolabelling in Asia 28 1.7.4 A chef s story 29 References 36 Chapter 2 The Economics of Ecolabelling 38 Cathy A. Roheim 2.1 Introduction 38 2.2 The economics of consumer demand for ecolabelled products 40 2.2.1 The theoretical foundation: economics of information 40 2.2.2 Demand for attributes 41 2.2.3 Empirical analysis of consumer demand for ecolabelled seafood 42 2.2.4 Consumer demand for dolphin-safe tuna 46 2.3 The economics of the market 46 2.4 The economics of certification of fisheries 52 2.5 Conclusions and need for future research 54 References 56 v
vi Contents Chapter 3 FAO Guidelines for Ecolabelling in Wild-Capture Fisheries 58 Rolf Willmann, Kevern Cochrane & William Emerson 3.1 The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and capture fisheries 58 3.2 The origins of the ecolabelling debate in FAO 59 3.3 The development of the FAO ecolabelling guidelines 62 3.3.1 Scope 63 3.3.2 Principles 64 3.3.3 General considerations 66 3.3.4 Terms and definitions 67 3.3.5 Minimum substantive requirements and criteria for ecolabels 70 3.3.6 Procedural and institutional aspects 74 3.4 Conclusions 79 References 79 Chapter 4 The Marine Stewardship Council Programme 81 Rupert Howes 4.1 Introduction 81 4.2 The MSC background and history 83 4.3 How the MSC programme works 84 4.3.1 The concepts 84 4.3.2 Implementing the programme 89 4.4 The MSC vision and mission 91 4.5 Progress to date 92 4.5.1 Europe 92 4.5.2 North America 93 4.5.3 Central and South America 93 4.5.4 Asia-Pacific region 93 4.5.5 Africa 94 4.6 The ecological case 94 4.7 Proof of concept 95 4.7.1 Retailers 95 4.7.2 Restaurants and foodservice 96 4.7.3 Consumer awareness 97 4.8 Strengthening the fishery assessment process 98 4.9 Traceability and assurance in the supply chain 99 4.10 Developing world programme 99 4.10.1 The GASSDD project 100 4.11 System of governance 101 4.12 The MSC s future 102 References 103
Contents vii Chapter 5 Aquaculture Certification 106 Daniel Lee 5.1 Introduction 106 5.2 Sustainable aquaculture 107 5.3 Environmental pressure 108 5.4 Economic pressure 112 5.5 Aquaculture certification schemes 113 5.6 Unintended consequences 115 5.7 The alliance 117 5.8 The GAA principles 119 5.9 The GAA vision 120 5.10 Codes of practice 121 5.11 Standards 123 5.12 The Aquaculture Certification Council, Inc. 126 5.13 GAA perspectives 128 5.13.1 Mangroves 128 5.13.2 Fishmeal 129 5.13.3 Antibiotic residues 130 5.13.4 Trade issues 130 5.14 Conclusions 131 References 131 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 GLOBALGAP Building Consumer Confidence in Aquaculture Sustainability 134 Aldin Hilbrands 6.1 Background 134 6.2 About GLOBALGAP 136 6.2.1 Governance 137 6.2.2 Process of standard development 138 6.2.3 Training and implementation 139 6.2.4 Auditing and certification 139 6.2.5 Accreditation of certification bodies 140 6.2.6 Benchmarking and approval of equivalent certification standards 141 6.3 The integrated aquaculture assurance standard 141 References 142 Advancing the Global Marketplace for Sustainable Seafood: The Seafood Choices Alliance 143 Michael Boots 7.1 Introduction 143 7.1.1 Conditioning the climate for sustainable seafood 143
viii Contents 7.1.2 The power of social marketing 144 7.1.3 Filling a unique niche 145 7.1.4 Shifting perceptions and attitudes 146 7.2 Building the Seafood Choices Movement 147 7.2.1 The early days of the movement 147 7.2.2 Structure of the movement: Five pillars of seafood choices 150 7.3 Seafood Choices Alliance: An international association for sustainable seafood 154 7.3.1 Philosophy and approach 154 7.3.2 The work of the alliance 155 7.4 Looking forward: The evolution of a more diverse and global alliance 158 7.5 Conclusions 159 References 160 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Developing an International Standard for the Trade in Live Reef Food Fish 161 Geoffrey Muldoon & Peter Scott 8.1 Introduction 161 8.2 The live reef food fish trade in Asia-Pacific 161 8.3 Certification within the LRFFT 167 8.4 Developing the international standard 168 8.4.1 Background 168 8.4.2 Collaborative management models 169 8.4.3 Determining key elements for inclusion in the LRFFT standard 170 8.4.4 The scope of the LRFFT standard 171 8.4.5 Defining a preliminary standard structure 171 8.4.6 Development, review and revision of the standard 173 8.5 Best-practice guidance and implementation 178 8.6 Implementing the standard 180 8.6.1 Compliance 180 8.6.2 Implementation frameworks 180 8.6.3 Assessing the feasibility of certification 182 8.7 Conclusions 182 References 184 Market-Based Mechanisms Improving Fisheries Management? 187 Duncan Leadbitter 9.1 Introduction 187 9.2 Trends in seafood trade 188 9.3 Impacts of trade on fish and fisheries 189
Contents ix 9.4 Illegal fishing a compelling issue 191 9.5 The private sector and demand control 192 9.5.1 Catch tracking and identification 193 9.5.2 Marketplace identification and the role of consumers 195 9.6 Issues associated with seafood ecolabelling 197 9.7 Sourcing policies retailers and the food trade 198 9.8 Species bans and advisory cards 200 9.9 Threats and opportunities 201 9.10 Summary and conclusions 202 References 203 Chapter 10 Measuring the Success of Seafood Ecolabelling 207 Trevor J. Ward 10.1 Introduction 207 10.2 Producing seafood sustainably 208 10.2.1 The issues of concern 209 10.3 Assessing ecological sustainability 211 10.4 The nature of success 214 10.4.1 The sustainability standard 216 10.4.2 Clear and unequivocal standard 217 10.4.3 Scope and focus 218 10.4.4 Outcomes and processes 221 10.4.5 A balanced standard 222 10.4.6 Technical clarity 225 10.4.7 Achievable 226 10.4.8 Fixed versus flexible standard? 227 10.4.9 Normative standard 228 10.5 Verification 230 10.5.1 Verification cost versus quality 231 10.5.2 Grading of performance 234 10.6 Determining success 235 10.6.1 What to measure? 235 10.6.2 The decision basis for determining success 237 10.6.3 Dealing with uncertainty and gaps in knowledge 239 10.6.4 Timescales for improvement 240 10.7 Conclusions 241 References 243 Chapter 11 Case Study 1: Toothfish An MSC-Certified Fishery 247 David Agnew 11.1 Introduction 247 11.2 Substantive issues 249
x Contents 11.3 The objection 251 11.4 Chain of custody 255 11.5 Current status of certification 256 11.6 Conclusions 257 References 258 Chapter 12 Case Study 2: The Baja California, Mexico, Lobster Fishery 259 Bruce Phillips, Luis Bourillón & Mario Ramade 12.1 Introduction 259 12.2 Management system 261 12.3 Status of the stock 262 12.4 Why MSC certification was sought 263 12.5 The MSC assessment 263 12.6 The fishery and the market for products since certification 264 12.7 Benefits to the community and the environment 266 12.8 Some reflections on the certification 266 References 267 Chapter 13 Case Study 3: MSC Certification of the Alaska Pollock Fishery 269 Jim Gilmore 13.1 Introduction 269 13.2 The At-sea Processors Association 270 13.3 The Alaska pollock fishery 272 13.4 The MSC assessment process January 2001 to February 2005 273 13.5 Issues encountered by APA in the assessment process 275 13.5.1 A 4-year long assessment process 275 13.5.2 Subjectivity in scoring 276 13.5.3 Retroactive application of new rules 278 13.6 Alaska pollock and the sustainable seafood marketplace 280 13.7 The MSC reform agenda 281 13.7.1 Private foundations and NGO attitudes 282 13.7.2 Clarifying, interpreting or changing the MSC sustainability standard 282 13.7.3 The environmental benefits project 283 13.7.4 Continuous improvement of participating fisheries 284 13.7.5 Improving the assessment process for participating fisheries 284 13.8 Conclusions 285 References 285
Contents xi Chapter 14 The Marine Stewardship Council and Developing Countries 287 Stefano Ponte 14.1 Introduction 287 14.2 The Marine Stewardship Council initiative 288 14.2.1 General features 288 14.2.2 Early criticism of MSC 289 14.2.3 New challenges 291 14.3 MSC and the South African hake industry 295 14.3.1 Main features of the South African hake industry 296 14.3.2 Motivations for the adoption of MSC certification 297 14.3.3 The certification process 299 14.3.4 Verification after certification 299 14.4 An evaluation of MSC certification in South Africa 301 14.5 Conclusions 301 References 304 Chapter 15 Benefits of Certification for Small-scale Fisheries 307 Meredith Lopuch 15.1 Introduction 307 15.2 The certification dilemmas 308 15.3 Benefits of the certification process 311 15.3.1 Filling knowledge gaps 312 15.3.2 Filling knowledge gaps in practice 313 15.3.3 Lobbying power 314 15.3.4 Creating lobbying power 315 15.3.5 Creating insurance 316 15.3.6 Using the process as insurance 316 15.3.7 Community organisation and empowerment 317 15.3.8 Creating community organisation and empowerment 318 15.3.9 Social and political benefits 318 15.3.10 Creating social and political benefits 319 15.4 Conclusions 320 References 321 Chapter 16 New England Aquarium: Supporting Environmentally Responsible Seafood Choices 322 Heather Tausig, Michael Tlusty, Lydia Bergen, Gregory Stone & Kathleen Szleper 16.1 The New England Aquarium 322
xii Contents 16.2 The Aquarium s programme 323 16.3 Encouraging increased fishery performance 324 16.4 The Aquarium s decision-ranking tool 326 16.4.1 Wild fisheries decision-ranking tool 329 16.4.2 Aquaculture decision-ranking tool 330 16.5 Applying the decision-ranking tool to business recommendations 332 16.6 Expectations for outcomes 333 16.6.1 Industry-related outcomes 334 16.6.2 Consumer-related outcomes 334 16.7 New directions 335 16.7.1 Increased focus on aquaculture 336 16.7.2 New corporate partners 336 16.7.3 Working with suppliers 337 16.7.4 Increased involvement in collaborative efforts 337 Acknowledgements 337 References 338 Chapter 17 Monterey Bay Aquarium s Seafood Watch Programme 340 Jennifer Dianto Kemmerly 17.1 Introduction 340 17.2 History of the Monterey Bay Aquarium and the Seafood Watch programme 340 17.3 Target audiences of the Seafood Watch programme 343 17.4 Partnerships: Moving from awareness to action 346 17.4.1 Reaching consumers through partnerships 347 17.4.2 Reaching consumers through the internet 348 17.4.3 Reaching restaurateurs 349 17.4.4 Sustainable seafood for big businesses 350 17.5 Distribution of seafood purchasing recommendations 352 17.6 Developing regional seafood recommendations 353 17.7 Seafood Watch methodology for evaluating seafood 355 17.7.1 Seafood Watch principles of sustainability and evaluation criteria 356 17.7.2 Other information accompanying our seafood recommendations 358 17.8 Seafood Watch s role in the seafood movement 359 17.8.1 Salience through context-setting activities 359 17.8.2 Increasing demand by bringing major buyers to the table 360
Contents xiii 17.8.3 Creating a viable supply of sustainable seafood to support the demand 360 17.9 What does success look like? 360 17.9.1 Seafood Watch evaluation 361 17.9.2 Implications for the future of Seafood Watch 364 17.10 Conclusions 365 References 366 Chapter 18 The New Zealand Best Fish Guide 367 Barry Weeber & Cath Wallace 18.1 Introduction 367 18.2 Description of the programme 369 18.3 Information sources, procedures and methodologies 370 18.3.1 Information sources 371 18.3.2 Precautionary management 371 18.3.3 Criteria 372 18.3.4 Weighting 379 18.3.5 Individual fish species 380 18.4 Expectations for outcomes 382 18.5 Influencing consumer choices 383 18.6 Programme marketing 383 18.7 Effectiveness in the marketplace 384 18.8 New directions 385 18.9 Conclusions 385 References 386 Chapter 19 Guiding Australian Consumers to Sustainable Seafood Choices 389 Craig Bohm 19.1 Introduction 389 19.2 Description of the Guide 390 19.2.1 Funding 392 19.2.2 Information sources 392 19.2.3 Target audiences 393 19.2.4 Measuring sticks 393 19.3 Species Assessments 394 19.3.1 Criteria wild fisheries 394 19.3.2 Criteria aquaculture 396 19.4 Guide impact 398 19.5 The challenges 399 19.5.1 Paucity of information 400 19.5.2 Resolving the complex nature of fishing 401 19.5.3 Inadequate seafood labelling 401
xiv Contents 19.6 New directions 401 References 402 Chapter 20 Towards Sustainable Seafood: The Evolution of a Conservation Movement 403 Michael Sutton & Laura Wimpee 20.1 Introduction 403 20.2 Early campaigns 404 20.3 From stick to carrot: The Marine Stewardship Council 406 20.4 Sustainable seafood goes mainstream 409 20.5 The future of sustainable seafood 411 20.6 The blue revolution 413 References 414 Chapter 21 Anecdotes and Lessons of a Decade 416 Trevor J. Ward & Bruce Phillips 21.1 Introduction 416 21.2 Design of ecolabelling programmes 417 21.3 The motivations for certification 419 21.3.1 Voluntary assessment systems 419 21.3.2 Government assessment systems 421 21.4 Quality of the standard 422 21.5 The business of certification 423 21.5.1 Business models 423 21.5.2 The price 424 21.5.3 Lobbying 424 21.5.4 Funding base 424 21.5.5 Future business models 425 21.6 The costs and benefits of pre-assessment 425 21.7 Assessment and certification the processes 426 21.7.1 Stakeholder engagement 426 21.7.2 Technical inputs 426 21.8 Environmental monitoring 427 21.9 Product recommendations and buying guides 428 21.10 The evolutionary path 430 21.11 Certification and ecolabelling systems of the future 432 Acknowledgements 434 References 434 Index 437 Colour Plates appear between pages 138 and 139 and pages 282 and 283.